Editor-in-Chief

Dr. Kaveh Ostad-Ali-Askari Isfahan University of Technology, Iran

Associate Editor
Müslüm Arıcı Kocaeli University, Turkey

Editorial Board Members

Yonggao Yin,China Alper Aldemir,Turkey
Mehdi Shahrestani,UK Yushi Liu,China
Andrzej Łączak,Poland Amin Jabbari,Iran
Reda Hassanien Emam Hassanien,Egypt Rawaz M. S. Kurda,Portugal
Mario D’Aniello,Napoli Nasir Shafiq,Malaysia
Mohammed Ali Khan,India Ahmed Elyamani Ali,Spain.
Humphrey Danso,Ghana Mohammed Jassam Altaee,Iraq
Alireza Joshaghani,USA Nadezda Stevulova,Slovakia
Mohamadreza Shafieifar,USA Yuekuan Zhou,China
Mohamed El-Amine Slimani,Algeria Rabah Djedjig,France
Vincent SY Cheng,Hong Kong Biao Shu,China
Dario De Domenico,Italy Mª Dolores Álvarez Elipe,Spain
Amos Darko,Hong Kong Marco Di Ludovico,Italy
Guillermo Escrivá-Escrivá,Spain Ge Wang,China
Selim Altun,Turkey Alper Bideci,Iran
Mehmet Cetin,Turkey Pezhman Taherei Ghazvinei,Iran
Ahmed Mohamed El shenawy,Canada Uneb Gazder,Bahrain
Antonio Formisano,Italy Hassanali Mosalman Yazdi,Iran
Chiara Tonelli,Italy Yeong Huei Lee,Malaysia
António José Figueiredo,Portugal Zenonas Turskis,Lithuania
Shuang Dong,China Seongkyun Cho ,Korea
Amirpasha Peyvandi,USA Wen-Chieh Cheng,China
Ali Tighnavard Balasbaneh,Malaysia Marco Breccolotti,Italy
Latefa Sail,Algeria Mahmoud Bayat,USA
Suman Saha,India Manish Pandey,China
Amjad Khabaz,Syria Fadzli Mohamed Nazri,Malaysia
Jingfeng Tang,China Vail Karakale,Turkey
Mohammad Ahmed Alghoul,Saudi Arabia Daryoush Yousefikebria,Iran
Jian-yong Han,China Ana-Maria Dabija,Romania
Huaping Wang,China Li Ying hua,China
Banu Manav,Turkey You Dong,China
Giovanni Rinaldin,Italy
 Volume 5 Issue 4 · October 2022 · ISSN 2630-5232(Online)

Journal of Architectural
Environment &Structural
Engineering Research

Editor-in-Chief
Dr. Kaveh Ostad-Ali-Askari
 Volume 5 ｜ Issue 4 ｜ October 2022 ｜ Page1-33
Journal of Architectural Environment &
Structural Engineering Research

Contents
Editorial
30 Construction Technology of Pipe Jacking Method through Underground Obstacles
Jianyong Han Dongfeng Jia Fushun Yan Yue Zhao Dong Liu Qinghai Wang

Articles
1 Failure Evaluation of Reinforced Concrete Beams Using Damage Mechanics and Classical Laminate
Theory
José Mário Feitosa Lima Geraldo José Belmonte dos Santos Paulo Roberto Lopes Lima
18 Effect of Substitution of Cement by Mineral Powders on the Physico-mechanical Properties and Micro-
structure of Sand Concretes
Belkacem Belhadj Justin Houessou Nicolas Montrelay Michèle Quéneudec

Review
10 Dynamic Reliability Assessment of Heavy Vehicle Crossing a Prototype Bridge Deck by Using Simulation
Technology and Health Monitoring Data
Yinghua Li Junyong He Xiaoqing Zeng Yanxing Tang

33 JAESER 2022 Reviewer Recognition and Thanks

 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 05 | Issue 04 | October 2022

Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research

https://ojs.bilpublishing.com/index.php/jaeser

ARTICLE
Failure Evaluation of Reinforced Concrete Beams Using Damage
Mechanics and Classical Laminate Theory
José Mário Feitosa Lima Geraldo José Belmonte dos Santos Paulo Roberto Lopes
*
Lima
State University of Feira de Santana, Technology Department, Feira de Santana, Bahia, 44030-900, Brazil

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Article history The prediction of the behavior of reinforced concrete beams under bending
Received: 30 August 2022 is essential for the perfect design of these elements. Usually, the classical
models do not incorporate the physical nonlinear behavior of concrete under
Revised: 16 September 2022 tension and compression, which can underestimate the deformations in the
Accepted: 20 October 2022 structural element under short and long-term loads. In the present work, a
Published Online: 26 October 2022 variational formulation based on the Finite Element Method is presented
to predict the flexural behavior of reinforced concrete beams. The physical
Keywords: nonlinearity due cracking of concrete is considered by utilization of damage
concept in the definition of constitutive models, and the lamination theory it
Reinforced concrete is used in discretization of section cross of beams. In the layered approach,
Damage mechanics the reinforced concrete element is formulated as a laminated composite that
Finite element method consists of thin layers, of concrete or steel that has been modeled as elastic-
perfectly plastic material. The comparison of numerical load-displacement
Laminate theory
results with experimental results found in the literature demonstrates a good
approximation of the model and validates the application of the damage
model in the Classical Laminate Theory to predict mechanical failure of
reinforced concrete beam. The results obtained by the numerical model
indicated a variation in the stress–strain behavior of each beam, while for
under-reinforced beams, the compressive stresses did not reach the peak
stress but the stress–strain behavior was observed in the nonlinear regime
at failure, for the other beams, the concrete had reached its ultimate strain,
and the beam’s neutral axis was close to the centroid of the cross-section.

1. Introduction
[1]
as well as the mechanism and process of failure . The
incorporation of nonlinear stress–strain models under ten-
The nonlinear numerical analysis of reinforced con-
[2-4]
crete structures has been implemented to predict both the sion and/or compression has changed the constitutive
reduction in stiffness with the increase in deformations, equations of concrete.

*Corresponding Author:
Paulo Roberto Lopes Lima,
State University of Feira de Santana, Technology Department, Feira de Santana, Bahia, 44030-900, Brazil;
Email: [email protected]

DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jaeser.v5i4.5028
Copyright © 2022 by the author(s). Published by Bilingual Publishing Co. This is an open access article under the Creative Commons
Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/).

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strain0 �and
stresses.
based 
represents
, exceeds
0 on, corresponding
is givenIn
such the
this by:elongation
a theories model,and
threshold to the tensile
thethedamage
value, streng
0 , coi
principl
and concrete
d by scalar variable D, whose crushing or steel
evolution 2.1occurs ,yielding.
Materials onlyThe aMathematical
Modelling
when �an equivalent strain
represented
exceeds
�equivalent
work. by
strain threshold
model represents
Subsequently,
scalar variable
value,the
equivalent
proposed by 0
local
D, it strain,state
elongation
Mazars
equivalent
was
whose �measure,
corresponding[13] local state
represents
and
applied
evolution is
is based
strain given toonthe
� represents
using by:
occurs
theand
the
tensile
elongation
experimental isthe given
equivalent
finite
only
strength
elongation
when
by:
elementlocal
evidence
anstrain
of observed
state
local thestate
method
equivalent
� and concrete.
represents is(FEM)
and ingiven
is
strain
The
thegiven
the by:
and�by:
elonga
measure =th
s a thresholdmodeling
value, of the
, nonlinear inelastic
corresponding equivalent
to thebehavior
The
behavior strain
tensile
modelof of � concrete,
represents
strength

proposed
concrete by
under of the the
Mazars
uniaxialelongation
concrete.
[13]
is
tension basedlocal The
and on state
2 and
experimental
compression, is given 2 by:
evidence
wherein the observed
2 material in the
degrades
0
without considering creep, is� ,typically exceeds results
based were
a distributed
threshold
on compared
plasticity value, with the <
�, =corresponding experimental
compression,
1 > + to results
<stresses.
2 the >tensile
2wherein +reported< strength>2in+ ,the
3material ofliterature.
the 2 concrete. Th
strain � represents the elongation localbehavior state owing andofisconcreteto
given by: undermicrocracking
uniaxial � =0 tension <caused1and >2+by <+2 �>=
+ tensile + +< <�+=In >
3 where
>
the
this
< 22 (1)
+ ,+ 1model,
><
< ++ ><the
>
degrades
22isdamage
+>the <is>
+<+positive
 32>, 2+(1) , o
part
equivalent 
� = < 
2.strain represents or the elongation +local state +and is3this given by: the damage
theory, continuous damage theory, fracture mechanics,  +
owingrepresented to Problem
distributed by�scalar Formulation
microcracking
variable � D, =caused
whose < and by>2+tensile
1evolution Numerical
< occurs2stresses.
>2+ only Modeling
<Inwhen
1
>2+anmodel,
+
, equivalent
2 +
strain measure, is 3 +
(1)
a combination of these [5-12]
. represented
where
where <  
>+a is
<by scalar
> + is the
the positive
positive
D, where
part wherepart
of
of
the< elongation
the elongation
>+ is the
 occurs the positive
to inpositive
thetensile
in
principal
the
partpart principal
ofof the the
directionelongation direction
elongation
thei concrete.
and inisthe ini and
principal
defined
The as <
is define
direc
2 �2, exceeds 2variable
threshold
where
value,whose
<part  0>
evolution
, corresponding
is elongation
the2positive
only the
part
when
of where
an equivalent
strength
the elongation <2  >+i is
ofstrain
inthe
measure,
the principal
positive part directi
of th 
= < Mazar
The �isotropic 1 >+ damage
+ <�, 2where >equivalent
model
exceeds ++ <2.1
<
[13] Materials
allows
athreshold
>3strain> is
+ ,
thethe

�
Modelling
positive
con-
value,
represents  the
,
the of +the
principal
corresponding
elongation direction
local to(1) the
state in i the
and
tensile
and 2 principal
is is defined
strength
given 
by: direction
, as

of 
the > 0and
concrete. is defined
The as
< 3 1>++=. 2  +.  =,   > 0(2). (1
,
+ 0�= < < 1>> + 1 <  > + , <   >> 0 
1   ,    > 0
<  >+local = +state
1 +=
 +  2+=+
2andis[13]
  =
tinuous representation of theequivalent structuralstrain model even model
The after proposed by 1 2 Mazars is based 0,≤ on00 +  ≤ In0the=pre-cracking
experimental  evidence
<(2)≤obser
� represents the elongation given by: 0,    phase 0
 >+ is the positive part of the elongation in the principal direction i and <  is > defined= 2 as +  2=<  >+=
 ,
0,   >
2  2 .(2)  .>+ (
concrete cracking has generated where good results + is in the mod- � = of<the 1uniaxial
> + < tension > +the <and phase ,in
>compression, i and is0,  
(1) ≤ 0
thethe positive part elongation ),2the+inconcrete principal direction defined as et
 + 
< behavior
 >In of concrete
pre-cracking under
phase In
(02 + the
≤ 0pre-cracking 0, 3 +≤ (0≤the
exhibits post-cracking
),linear wherein
the concrete elastic phase,
the
exhibits  materia
behavior. when
linear
eling of reinforced concrete structures ,In[14,15]
 the . pre-cracking
> 0 model
This � = phase < in (> 2≤+ <),2the >2+concrete + <phase, 3 >exhibits2
, linear0 elastic behavior. (1) Whereas W
1
In the the post-cracking
pre-cracking when concrete
the strain
In 0the exhibits
is greater
pre-cracking nonlinear
than the
phase elastic
elastic
(> s
owing to distributed microcracking causedinphase by (≤ tensile ),), > the
stresses. concrete In exhibits
this 0linear
>model,
theela
≤
1 + + linear
<  >+ = 2  +  in in = thethe
where In<post-cracking
the
 >pre-cracking
post-cracking + is the . phase, phase,
positive phase
whenpart when
In(of the
the≤the the
pre-cracking
strain
0 ),1the
elongation strain
is(2)
concrete
greater isphase
the greater
exhibits
than
principal ,thethan elastic
direction
0 the elastic
concrete
elastic
strain
i and strain
behavior.
islimit exhib-
defined limit
(  Whereas
as ( the
), 0
uses theories based on the mechanics 0,of  
continuous ≤ 0 dam- <  >
concrete = exhibits  + 
nonlinear = elastic
ininitial the damaged.
behavior . when the initial elastic mod (2
wherein the
< post-cracking
concrete
concrete  represented

+ isexhibits
>exhibits innonlinear
phase,
by
nonlinear
the positive the post-cracking
partwhen
scalar ofits
elastic the the
variable
elastic
linear +strain
behavior
elongation
damaged. D,1 2 whose
behavior
elastic phase,
isin greater
when the when
behavior. when
 than
evolution
the
principal initial the
the the
Whereas
0, occurs
 ,  direction
strain
elastic
> 0inpost-cracking
elastic isstrain
0 greater
only
≤ielastic
the
modulus
and iswhen limit0than
modulus
post-cracking
defined an(phase, the
 equivalent
isas > 0
progressivelywhen
elastic
0 ),isthe progresthe
straistrs
age that define the constitutive laws
concrete of concrete.
exhibits Only
nonlinear
linearaconcrete one elastic < 
exhibits >
behavior = 
nonlinear when+  the = initial concrete
elastic . modulus exhibits nonlinear
is progressively elastic
(2) beha
elastic  behavior when the initial elastic modu
the pre-cracking phase ( ≤ 0 ), the concrete damaged.
damaged. exhibits
, exceeds elastic
threshold behavior.
phase, when Whereas
2 the , strain is0,greater than thetensileThus, 
elastic 0 the strain uniaxial of stress–st
(value, corresponding
 +   0 ≤ to the strength the con
In�this  ,   >
0
internal variable is required todamaged.
apply the pre-cracking
model and
damaged.its< phase
limit
> 1≤+
+ =((2 > Thus,),0
),), the =concrete
the uniaxial exhibits
damaged.
stress–strain. linearbehavior elastic behavior.
of concrete (2) canWherea be estab
t-cracking phase, when the strain is greater than the
equivalent elastic strainstrain limit
represents the
0
  the
elongation the concrete
of0,concrete exhibits
 ≤ 0state
 exhibits
local nonlinear
and is given elastic by: be-
Thus, thethe
InThus, uniaxial
pre-cracking and�stress–strain
phase (the behavior
), the isconcrete can thebe
linear established
elastic behavior. by: Whereas
0
evolution lawbehavior
is easily obtained in the byinitialpost-cracking
performing the
tensile uniaxial
phase, when stress–strain
 ≤ strain 0 behavior greater of thanconcrete can
elastic ,0 isbeprogressively
established
strain limit by:
 > 0),=th
 ≤(stress–strain
xhibits nonlinear elastic when the inInthethe Thus, elastic
post-crackingthe
pre-cracking
modulus
uniaxial phase,
phaseelastic
 havior
stress–strain
when
(Thus,
0 is progressively
the when
the
), behavior
strain
the the
uniaxial
concreteis initial
of
greater exhibits elastic
concretethan
stress–strain the
linearmodulus
can  be
elastic
= behavior
elastic EThus,
established
strain
behavior.
the
limit
of by: uniaxial
(
concrete  >
Whereas 0can ), the0
be. establi
compression tests on the material. concrete exhibits nonlinear ≤ 0behavior
  ,  , when the  initial
≤   elastic
≤  1 − modulus
  ,  0 is > progressivel

in the concrete
post-cracking exhibits phase,nonlinear when damaged.
elastic
the = strain
behavior
, is whenthan
greater the initial the elastic
elastic
0
. modulus
strain 0limit(0 is  progressively
), the 0
(3)  
In terms of discrete representation damaged. of reinforced con-  =Thus,  1=−�  = < ,1 >,+ +>< 
2 ≤  0  > +
.02,>behavior
damage
2 . < In >
3Equation
>+0 2
, ≤ 0
varies (3), the
 (3)
= damag
concrete damaged.exhibits nonlinear elastic behavior the
when In 1 −
uniaxial
Equation
the 
initial stress–strain
(3),elastic
 = the modulus + parameter
 is of D
concrete
progressively between
. 0 (wh
hus, the uniaxial stress–strain behavior of concrete canfor established by: 1 −  ,
benumerical > 0
the
0 0
material
1−
crete structures, the most common damaged.model Thus, InThus, the
Equation uniaxial
the (3), the
uniaxial stress–strain
damage
can
stress–strain thebe material behavior
parameter
established
behavior is completely
of by: of
Dconcrete concrete
varies between
can 1be
damaged), −
can  0as
be
established , by:
expressed
established
(when  is≤ completely
0>
by by: ) and
(see [14,15] damaged
0 1 ): (when
analysis has been  , the use of the ≤where
In In
Equation Equation
< method,
 > (3),+ is (3),
thethe the
damagepositivedamage parameter parameter
part of Dthevaries D
elongation varies
between [14,15]in0the between (whenInprincipal 0 (when
 ≤ 0direction
Equation )(3), 
andthe ≤ 
1 (when i and is 1pa
)
damage and de
thefinitematerial
Thus,
0element
the isuniaxial
completely damaged),
stress–strain In Equation
behavior as expressed
of (3),concrete the by damage
can(see be ): [14,15]
parameter
established  = by:  D  varies+  between
 ,
0
0 (when
 =
wherein the concrete and the the material
material . is is completely
completely damaged), damaged),  as

,,
expressed as (3)
expressed by 
(see ≤ 
 by ≤
[14,15]
0 (see

the ): material ): 
is 
completely  
damaged), as
 , reinforcement  > 0 bars are mod-  = 1 −   ,
1−   = 1 >  (3) . 0
.  ,  by  > 0 [14,15]): (3)
the material  , withis 1completely
− =< >, + damaged),
≤0
= ,+ 0> as expressed
0, with =  (see . (4) (3
eled separately using two different types of elements. An =   =   = + +
  2  +
. ,   0,   ≤ 0 (3) (4)  =
Equation (3), the damage parameter D varies with with between In Equation 0 (when (3), the  ≤damage 10−In)Equation
and ,1 (when
parameter (3),
D varies >the0damagebetween  
 = parameter
0 (when    ≤D
+ < 0
varies) +and be-
, 10 (when

 >
additional approach has been with used In the adoption
Equation (3), of damage
the parameter D varies between = 0 (when  ≤
 , ) and 1 (whe

al is completely damaged), as expressed by (see with
the material ): Inis completely  =
(3),the pre-cracking
[14,15] damaged),
tween as
0phase expressed
(when (< ≤ betweenby (see
0 )),and the10concrete
[14,15]
):with the
(when  exhibits
material + linearis > elastic behavio
com-
lamination, wherein the structural the material In Equation
element isiscompletely
divided theinto damage
damaged), parameter as D varies
expressed  >+ by (see
(when
[14,15]
): ≤  <0  > ) +and  <
1 (when +
in the post-cracking with phase,
as expressed
pletely = when
 damaged),

the strain[14,15] is , greater by (seethan ): [14,15]
the elastic strain (4) limit (5)( 
 on+the material
 , is laminate + as < expressed
completely damaged), = < by (see
+>+
<>,,>):+
several layers[2,16]=. Based the classical theory,   = <  <
= >+(4)  +
,  (5) =
with concrete exhibits nonlinear 
 =   + <
elastic
=  >+ +behavior
  <
(4)+  >+ when
, + + <
>   >+, the initial <  + >elastic modulus (4)  0 is pro
 (4
this model associates a specific type of material with each = 
,
damaged. 
 < >+ +  < >+
layer of the beam and considers with
with the perfect adhesion be- with = < > +  < > ,
< >+
(5)
< >
tween the layers.
= By
 +
monitoring
 the, stresses andThus, strainsthe in uniaxial stress–strain   +
 < >+  < (5)

 >+
behavior
 + of concrete can be established by:
 = = > + < > , ,(5) (5) (5
 < >+ +  <of in the concrete    <
>+
each layer, the commencement  cracking  + < > +
  + + ,  < >+  ≤ 0
and the yielding of the reinforcement can be identified, = .  < >+
< 1 − > +
 ,  = > 0 <  < >+
 
>+ ,
thus resulting in a more realistic evaluation of the behav-  =  <
 <   >
 >+ +
, ,(6)  =
 = <<> > <  ++  < > ,++, (6
 == <
 
,
< >> + D varies between
> + < >
 ≤ (6)
ior of the structural elements of reinforced concrete. In Equation (3), the damage 
 <
 < 
 >>+++parameter
> + <
  ++     ++
< >     

+ +
+
1−
0 (when
<  >
  +
 0 ) an
The objective of this study is to assess thethe material
effectiveness is completely damaged), 0 1− as expressed  
by  (see ==11[14,15] − 0 ):1−
0 1− −

 

, a
,
  ,= −− 0    −−(7)
01− 1−  1 and exp  (7) −0 , and
===111− −− 0   −−

− exp    −
 −
,
, ,
and
and
and exp exp  −0 0 (7
 −
of damage mechanics and classical lamination theory in  = exp exp
+  
 0−
00  , 0 (1− ) 
,)],
 ( )))= ==111−− 0 (1−
(1−  ) ) −  
the failure prediction of reinforced concrete beams. For  ( ) = 1 − 00(1−(1−
(1−) − ))   
  (( , − 0
− − −,0
(8)
with ( ())=
 = 11 − − 0

−−  [ ((− −0 , ,
)](8)    [ [[
 (− (
( 0 )]
− 0 )] (8
this purpose, a variational formulation model was devel-  0
 [ 
[ (− )]
 0 )]

oped based on such theories and the

where
where principle
 +  of
= virtual
1 ,  where
and
+  = 1 ,  and where
where
where 
are +


the 
+
+ 
= =1
=
components ,
11
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where +   = 1 ,  and  positive
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work. Subsequently, it was applied using the
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,  a
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parameters
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parameters obtained from parameters
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tests. from the material tests.
2
parameters obtained from the material tests.
Forthe
thereinforcing
reinforcingsteel
steelbars,
bars, For
For
the the
the reinforcing
reinforcing
linear steel
elastic behavior
behavior bars,
steelbars,bars, the
betweenthelinear
linear elastic
the stresselastic
stress andbehavior
strain betw
behavior b
For Forthe thelinear
reinforcing
elastic steel betweenthe linear
the elastic
and behavior
strain
For
before the
yield reinforcing
deformation steel
is before
assumedbars,
before toyield
the
yield
be  deformation
linear
=  elastic
deformation
, se  is
is
< assumed
behavior
assumed
 , where toto
be
between
be 
is 
 =
the =the,
elastic

 ,se
stress

se <
modulus
 <  , where
and , strai
where
of 
before yield deformation is assumed
before yield = , se is<assumed
to bedeformation , wheretobe  isthe =elastic
 , semodulus
 <  of, whe
beforetheyield
steel.deformation isassumed the steel.
tostressAfter
be After
isis= yielding
 , setoto
 ≥ ,, the stress
where
≥constant,
< isis assumed
the to
elastic bemodulus
isconstant, o
the steel. Afteryielding
After yielding ,the
≥≥the the
the ,steel.
stress
steel.
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assumed
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assumed
yielding  ≥be
be constant,
 
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where
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   1−
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isotropic materials,
materials,
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the
materials, followingrelationship
relationshipbetween
betweenstresses
stressesand
andstrains
strainsinin
[16] (7)the following relationship between stresses and strains in
  = 1 −< 0
− , and laminate laminate is valid
isisvalid .[16]
laminate isvalid ..
<>>++ 1− exp  − [16]
 = = <  =1−
  0
,, −  0
, and  < >+ laminate (6)
(6)
, (7) .
valid [16]
 < >+  < > +<> > ++ < < > >  exp   
−  = k kk(6) kkk
 = <> = ,   , 
++
0(1−)
  ++ 

0
(6)  < >+(6) +  < >+
σxσσxσx QQ11 Q k QQ12 Q1212
k 000 εεxε
 + +  <  <
 > +>+ +  < >+
 () = 1 , (8) Q Q 0
0− 1− 0 (1−−
 1−  )  x 1111
11 12 εxxx
   = = 11 −− ( 0
) = 1 − − −  −
 [ , , and
and
( −  )] = , 1 −
0 1−
− (7)
(7) 
(8)
, and σ σ
y σ σ = = = Q
k kk
Q k(7)Q Q
kkk
k 0 0 εεεyεyy ,, ,
0 1−  0 1−    exp exp − −0  [

(  −
0
)] y y y = Q Q
12 12 QQ2222
22 22 00 y ,
  =1−   = 1 − Journal −of Architectural
, and , Environment
and 0  &0(7) Structural Engineering (7) exp Research
−0 | Volume 05τ| xy τIssue
12
τxyxy 04 | October 2022 kkkk γγγγ
τxy 12
xy
xy xy
exp    −0 exp  −0 xy
+  = +
where 1 ,= 1and ,( )and
( ) == are1 
1 − − the
0
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are components
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(8)
(8)  by by the the 000 000 QQQQ 66
6666
0(1−)  0(1−

)

   [ [( −0)])]  () = 1 −
(− 
−
 [ (−0 )]
, (8) 66

nd  (negative
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, , and 
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where the
where the quantities
the quantities
quantities
the quantities  
11 
11,
1111
, , ,
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tests.
parameters , of of=the the , principal
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strains
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determined
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byby(6) the
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obtained from   the material< > + tests.
< > < 
> the
engineering damage
engineering
engineering that
properties
properties
properties occurs
properties of ofofof
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1and ,  are
and and
the components
negative
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parts, respectively.
components
respectively.of the  + principal
TheThe
positive
 of  +
values the
values and strains
principal
,,
negative =determined
,, strains
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parts,and

and determined
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
respectively. the are, the
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The the
experimental
values Equations are the (6) experimental
 ,  , , (4)–(8). and 0When
 
For the alreinforcing
tests.  <
 < steel
 >> ++
bars, the linear

 < >
elastic + +  <
behavior
0  >+
between the by
stress and strain the klayer is steel,EEEEthekkkkstress–
or
ers
ers the
spectively.
ve obtained
parts,
obtained 
reinforcing
respectively.
The
from
from = =
 values
the
the steel
The
−
material
material >,>

bars,
values
 1−
, <
tests.
tests. , the
parameters ,
,+,and
linear
, 

obtained
,  elastic
are
 and thefrom behavior
experimental
the are the between
>>experimental (6)(6)
thestrain stressrelationship
and strain incorporates QQ
kQQk11
k
=
==
QQ22Q
Qk kkk ==
22== 1−ν ,,,, the
and material
 + + tests. (7) =plastic
0  
For= 1the
 <
 < ++
reinforcing < > >−
+
steel 0
bars, 0 the , 0
linear  <
< 
elastic behav-
, , is the elastic (6)(6) 11 1111 2222 strain 22 2after
2

,= 1−ν
+
before yield deformation   <
is assumed
+  >  +  
to be
exp  =
 −
= = 1 se
−

<0 < 1−
>++ ,+where−  
, and modulus of (7)
1−ν
1−ν
material
dldfrom the
tests.material
 = tests. , se (6)
Fordeformation iorisbetweenassumed to be and =  ,  < between  , where  is
stress −the elastic modulus of
  <  >
 + < < > >
+ +
≥the ,stress strain before yield deformation k
For
he steel.the
the reinforcing
reinforcing
After steel
steel
< bars,
=11 −−0 bars,
>0+1− +
0the
1− the
< linear
>linear
−+)stress
 elastic
For elastic
 the behavior
behavior
reinforcing  
between
steel  
bars, the
the

exp stress
the = and
linear and
0 yield
strainlimit.
strain
,elastic behavior
 is thebetween the stress kkkand = strain
νE kk
νEνEνE 2 k , ,, and
 yielding=( ) = 1 −
(1− the
− −
is assumed
 , , and

and to0
= , be
01−
 <constant,
1−  >+
,  (7)
(7) where
(8) (6) Q QkQQ =
12 == 1−ν 2 2 , and
and
and
After
eel
nforcing
ield bars,
eld deformation
yielding stress
yielding
deformationthe
steel linear
bars,
 elastic
the
isisisassumed
≥
assumed
assumed  0, 1−
linear the
behavior
to
 to be

be
be stress
elastic
before
  =
expexp
 yield
= is
between
behavior

  ,
,

[assumed
 se

−se
−
if
 0
  the
deformation
0
(
 <<
−between
  =stress
=
,
)] ,
1to
where
where
where
1 − − be
is

< andthe
assumed
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>constant,

E strain
stress
+ is
is

) the
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to
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< − and
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elastic
elastic
be
elastic
 strain



=
= 
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modulus
,,, ,sewhere
The
and of

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, where
classical
   is the is
laminate
  the elastic
(7)theory
(7) 12 1212
modulus
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typically
1−ν1−ν
1−ν developed
 of= the1 steel
− and exhibits
− linearly (elastic–perfectly
), = and
0 1 − 0     plastic
+ s   − exp
  expbehavior.
+ 

 − 00 ,
(7)
− (8) k
mation
sumed
. After
After is
to assumed
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yielding
yielding modulusto
 be
, se
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the =< the
the
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stress , )se
, )steel.
where
isis assumed
<
assumed
steel. After
After is
,where
the
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toto elastic
bebe
yielding ismodulus
constant,
constant, the elastic
, the
the ofmodulus
stress
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stress, where
where (is
is of0
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is the
the
tofor be constant,
laminates formed , where
by k is the
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EEor kisotropic
= GGGG kkma-
 ≥≥  0 (1−
(1− exp − ≥   = =  −   =  k
tress
= 1 , of the steel
(( ))== and

11−−
  exhibits
0  linearly
−−  [
  elastic–perfectly
0 
,, = 1 −strains  1− plastic
   behavior.
 (8)
 (8), the
   Qk
QkQ6666
k =
= 22E 1+ν == k,
,, ,
66=
In and
this 
study, are the the cross components
 section of of the (the
−
 
beams
 (principal
(
)] ) )= = was
1 1− −
0
discretized
0 0 (1−
(1−  )determined

)−
− − in NC layersby , ,and
of thickness hk behavior. (7)
(8)(8) Q = 1+ν
=
lding
, theof
stress
stress stress
of≥the
the ,where
isthe
steel
steel assumed
assumed stress
and
and exhibits
exhibits
+ is
toto
 assumed
(1−be

be= constant,
constant,
yielding
linearly
linearly
1 ) , 
to [be 
stress constant,
(
elastic–perfectly
elastic–perfectly
and 
 
−
= of
0
 
0
)]the
are
 , the
where
steel  =
plasticand
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components  , iswhere
exhibits
behavior.the
behavior. 
yielding
linearly
exp
of  is
the  the
− elastic–perfectly
0 terials
principal
[16]
strains . plastic
However,
determined this by theory
the 66 can 2be 2
1+ν
1+ν
considered as an
gative
k=1,..., parts,
NC),  ( ) =
respectively.
as shown 1  − in
0

The
Figure

−
values
1. 


,  
,  , ,  and 
 
are the
  [ [ ( ((8)
−
experimental
  −0 )]
0 )]
he this study, the
 stress
cross of section 
theelastic–perfectly
steel of 
and

the
[ (beams
exhibits −

)] was
linearly discretizedelastic–perfectly in NC layers of thickness h
nexhibits
,steel and
linearly
exhibits elastic–perfectly
linearly plastic behavior. plastic ) behavior.
and are the components     0
1In 1, this
 study,
and the
positive are theand components ofofInthe 
the principal
principal
0
strains
strains  determined
0 determined
(1− )
,by
by
 the
, the
extension of the theinclassical
k theory to address hk problems in-
 negative parts, respectively.
this study, the Thecross valuessection −of , [the  beams , andwas 0 are
strains
kkdiscretized experimental
NC layers by(8) of thickness

this study, thethe cross
cross
where
where section
section
 ++ of
of the
the
==11, ,
beams
beams and andwas
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(
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principal
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NC), ,
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and
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in
Figure
the
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Figure
tests.
behavior.
components
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1.
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values (k=1,...,  of
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in  Figure areare
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1.
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experimental

by  (−0 )]
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dy,
s section the cross
 of the parameters
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  beams of was
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positive the obtained
and and beams
discretized
negative
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where  +  = 1 ,  and  are the components ,  ,
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ed
ive
ure reinforcing
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Theobtained  linear
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 cross
elastic
from ,  , the  section
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 and tests.
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0 are the experimental
was
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For theand obtained
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ormation
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 = of separts,
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values
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elastic  , modulus
 , ,   and ofInternal0 are Stress
experimental in the Laminated
einforcing
inforcing steel steel
before bars,
bars, yield the
the
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linear
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elastic
reinforcing
reinforcing is
from behavior
behavior
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between
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tests.
the the = the
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elastic and
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strain
,
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behavior where Section 
between
between is the thethe elastic
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stress modulus
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strain of
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before the
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After linear
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steel toto
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be isis
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f
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elding ≥≥yielding exhibits
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se  <  , where plastic
 is behavior.
the elastic modulus of The model used in the study, which The appears modelin used the Eul- in the study, w
elding , , the
the
the stress
stress
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steel.
steel. is
 is
After
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After  yielding
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linearly
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where is theplastic
 thickness er–Bernoulli BeamThe theory modelinused single
a single stress
in the stressstudy,component
component 
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hetudy,
he steel
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yieldingthe linearly
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ofthe the was
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exhibits
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in
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linearly layers
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to
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Equation

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appears
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 is the h
thickness
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k one
 non-zero
in
of Equation
beams,
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(9)
believed
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used
in a for thean,a
he steel and exhibits linearly elastic–perfectly
shown in Figure 1.yielding stress of the steel and exhibits linearly elastic–perfectly plastic behavior. plastic behavior. 
dy,dy,the thecross cross(k=1,...,
sectionNC),
section ofofIn thethe asthis
Inthis shown
beams
beams study,
study, wasin
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the discretized
discretized
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of NC
of The
The
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appears
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h h Euler–Bernoulli
Euler–Bernoulli BeamBeam theory
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one non-zerostrain
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k k
beams, component
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dy,
ownthe
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Figure section
1.1. (k=1,...,
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inFigure
the Figure
cross single
1. 1.in NC
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oflayers
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(9)used
layers used
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h analysis ofofbeams,beams,isisbelieved believedtotohave have
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below. below. k

1. one one non-zeronon-zero strain straincomponent , ,as asgiven givenbelow.
own in Figure 1. (k=1,..., NC), as shown in Figure only 
component below.
The internal 
stresses
 =  inin
11  . gene
the
Figure 1. Discretization of the Thelaminated model used beamin the study, which 
 = 11.== . . appears
(13)  
in the Euler–Bernoulli Beam theory
(13) (13) a
single stress The Figure model
component 1. used 
Discretization in inthe study,
Equation
of the which
(9)
laminated used
 The
appears
beam for
1111 internalin
the
 the the
analysis following
stresses
Euler–Bernoulli
of in
beams, the equations.
generic
Beam
is believed cross-section
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a
have of
ClassicalFigure Figure
laminate 1. 1.Discretization
Discretization
theory establishes ofofthe thelaminated
laminated
that the laminae beam
beam that form  the laminate are in a
The
only single internal
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non-zero The component
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internal in the 
component
stresses in
generic Equation
in the The
cross-section
 ,the
as
generic internal
(9) used
following
given
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for
of
below. thethe in
laminate
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ofthe generic
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are believed
related
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by have
plane
re
Classical
Classical stress
1. Discretization
Figure state.
laminate
laminate Intheory
this
1. Discretization
of
theory thecontext,laminated
establishes
establishes ofand the based
beam Classical
laminated
that
that the
the on laminae
the beam
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laminate that
that
Thetheory
The form
form
internal
Hooke’s
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the
the
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used law
laminate
laminate

infor that
the
in
are
are
thelaminae
homogeneous
the
study,
inaa, aswhich
in
cross-section
and
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Euler–Bernoulli a ofareaBeam
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relatedbyby
theory inaa =  
Figure 1. Discretization the following only
of the
thethe one
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followingnon-zero
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following The
The model strain
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equations.
model used
used component
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in the study,
laminate
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which
of area below.
appears
appearsA are in
related
in the Euler–Bernoulli
by the following
Euler–Bernoulli Beam
Beam theory
theory in
equations. in a ℎ 2
sotropic materials, the following plane relationship
stress state. between
Insinglethis stresses
context,
stress and and
component strains
based on
 in in
the each
generalized
Equation layer
and (9) of
(9)Hooke’s the
used 
forlaw
.the for
the analysis homogeneous
analysis of of beams,
beams, and is believed
believed to have (13)  ,
ess
essstate.
state.In In this
thiscontext,
context, and
andbased basedon onthe thegeneralized
generalized single
single
Hooke’s
Hooke’s stresslaw
stress
lawcomponent
component
for
forhomogeneous
homogeneous in Equation
in
and
Equation  =used
(9)
11
used for
for the analysis of beams, = is
is  to
believed to =have
have −ℎ
eory
aminate
aminate establishes
theory
is valid establishes
that. the laminae
[16] thatisotropic
the that laminae
form materials, the
thatlaminate
onlyform
the one the
following are laminate
non-zero in a
relationship
strainare in between
component a stresses
, 
as ℎ =
given2 and
strains
below.  ℎℎ2
. 2 in each layer of the  (13) 2
classical
materials,
materials, the
the
laminate following
following theory relationship
relationship
establishes between
between that stresses
stresses
the only and
one
laminae and strains
strains
non-zero in
in
thatstresses each
straineach
form
 layer
layer
component
=component the   of
of =
laminatethe
==
generic 
the 
,as
 −ℎ
given
are2 =
 = in 
below.

11 −ℎ a−ℎ
 
, 22   ,  ,(14) (14)  (14)
(14) =  
n
xt, this
and context,
based
[16] on and the based
generalized on the generalized
Hooke’s
laminate is lawvalidHooke’s
for only
homogeneous
[16]
. law
The onefor non-zero
internal homogeneous
and strain and
in
 the given
cross-section below. of the laminate of area A are related by
eisisvalidvalid .. [16] k k ℎ 2
ss
wing
, the state. In thisrelationship
relationship
following context,stresses
between and between σbased
x andstresses on
Q11the
strains the Q generalized
and
in 12each
followingstrains 0layer
The ininternalHooke’s
εxeach
of
equations. thelayer stresses law
kof the
for
in k the
homogeneous
genericcross-section =2 11 and
 ℎ..ℎ22 of the laminate
 of=area Aare =
related  by
(13)
(13) 2 
Figure 1. Discretization
kk kk k of the laminated σ beam  Q11 = Q12   == 0=  
x
ε
ℎ
== =  11  . ,2  where   , ,(15) N denotes the normal 
(15) force;
(13)(15) −ℎ
(15) M d
materials,
]
. the following σσxx relationship
QQ σ y = 12 QQ between
00
Q12 Q22 εεxx 0 The the kfollowing stresses ε equations.
y , x and strains  in each layer −ℎ of2 11 the
 −ℎ
(9) ℎ 2 of the laminate of area A are related by
−ℎ 2
11
11 12
γxyinternal stresses in the generic cross-section
,=Ndenotes section; and hareadenotes
area M
its height.
where
ofthe normal bforce; denotes the bending
The internal
σ stresses
k k cross-section
εy cross-section the laminate of A
A are related by
τxy b(9)
The y =
internal Qstresses in =thewhere generic , moment; (14)
s valid [16] .k Classical
k σkσyy = = laminate
kQ Q
kk
where QQ
kk
theory N 00 whereεthe
where
establishes
denotes the εyy following
,the
, kN N
following
denotes
denotes
that
normal the
equations.
equations.
the
the
laminae
force; normal
normal
12 M
Q 22 force;
force;
denotes
0
(9)
(9) M M the
 denotes
 N
denotes denotes
bending thethe
ℎ 2
−ℎ
bending
thebending
moment;
2 of
normal  the laminate
b force;
moment;denotes M of denotes
denotes
denotes
the widthare
therelated
the
the width
bend-
width
of the byofthe
of the
σx Q11σx Q12 Q110 Q12 ε 12 0 22
12 220 ε 0 the Qfollowing τ equations.  = section;
 γ = and
 h denotes
  , its height. (14)
Figure 1. ττxyxy the laminate
Discretization x
of the x
laminated section;
γ γxyxybeam
section;
66 and
and hh denotes
xy
denotes 0its
its height.
height.0 Q k  xy
−ℎ 2  For a laminated cross section, as
σy = Q k σy Q=k Q k0 that form  Qε k00 section; Figureare
k00 εy QQk  and
in k 1.
k ah denotes
plane
Discretization stress its height.
state.
of the In this
laminated ing
beam moment;
66 b denotes ℎ
ℎℎ 22 2 the width of the section; and h de-
where the quantities σ , y ,Q
, 011 
and QFigure
Figure
Figure ,66
66 0
1.1.Discretization
Discretization
are the ε mechanical (9)
ofofthe thelaminated
laminated(9)
constants beam
 section,
= beam as
=related to =
=the in−ℎ ℎℎ 22    ,, , evaluation
resultants is performed by (14)
adding
(14) (15) the1,c
τlaminate Figure
Figure 12
1.
τxycontext,
1. 22  12
Discretization
Discretization and based
x 22
of 
the
of the on the
laminated
laminated 12 
generalized beam1.
beam For
Discretization
, Hooke’s
For x a laminated
across of
laminated lawandfor
the cross
laminated
cross notes

 section,
=beam=  its as shown
height.

 shown = For

=  1, −ℎ
in −ℎaFigurelaminated
2 2

Figure
2 
  1,
evaluation,
 the cross
, evaluation
1, arelated
the section,
the of
of these as shown
internal
these internal (14)in
stressFigure
(15)
stress
 k γxy γtheory
11 12 22 66   
al theory establishes that
where the
the laminae
quantities
For abeam that
laminated 11form
ε the , thelaminate
section, are as in
areform
shown athe inmechanical
Figure −ℎconstants
the  in oftothese internal stress
,, Classical laminate establishes that laminae 66that the laminate
xy  kk xy  −ℎ 22are
engineering
hehe quantities Figure
quantities 1.
0properties
11 0
Discretization
of
0 ,66 σy2222
the
,Classical
QClassical layer
0 and of
and
and the
Q
=engineering laminated
material,
laminate
laminate
Q 66 Q are
areas k defined
theory
theory the
theresultants
mechanical
mechanicalbelow.
establishes
establishes
0 is 12 performed
constants
constants
,for
that
that 22
thelaminae
the by
related
related
laminae adding to
to For
that
that thethe
the contribution
resultants
form
form thethelaminatelaminate isbending
(9) from
ℎℎperformed
2arearesection,
inin materials
each aa lamina; by addingare in considered.
thisthe process,
contribution With
different the
from deveea
e.aminate
In this context, homogeneous
11
and 1212
based on
Classical the isotropic
66 66
generalized
laminate
resultants wherematerials,
properties
theory
isand Hooke’sN
resultants
performed denotes
of
establishes the
the law is by the
performed
following
ylayer
that normal
material,
homogeneous
addingthe rela- by
as
laminaethe force;
adding
defined 
that and
contribution= M the
below.
form denotes
a
 contribution
laminated
the the
laminate
from eachcross 2
arefrom in 
a moment;
each ,, lamina;
as shown b denotes
in in this
Figure the
process,width
1, the (15)
(15) of
different the
plane stress state. In In this context, based on the generalized Hooke’s law  for  = 
homogeneous 22 lamina;
 and inwhichthis process, different
12 22 ℎ 2
laminate
ring
ing properties
properties theory
theory of establishes
ofplane
theestablishes
the
plane layer
layerstress
stress τ
material,that
material, that
state.
state. the
the
as
Inas laminae
laminae
defined
defined
this
this context,
context, below.that
where
below. that
materials
andand form
Nform
based
based denotes
γ the
onthe
are on laminate
the laminate
the the
considered. normal
generalized
generalized areare in
With in
force; aathe
Hooke’s
Hooke’s = M lawdenotes
development

law for
for = the 
homogeneous
homogeneous bending
of
−ℎ the
−ℎ 
and moment;
addition,
and(17),
, we b denotes
obtainare the
Equations
compact width (16) of
expressions
(15) the
and of th
aminate theory establishes
tionship xythat
between the laminae
stresses section;
kand that materials
strains Eform and k hfor
the
instrains are
denotes considered.
laminate itsof height.
are inWith aof the materials
development
 are of considered.
theof  addition, With the
we obtainisEquations development (16) andof the add
, each layer the
plane stress state. kInfollowing xy evaluation of(10) these internal stress resultants performed
=this context, and based on the generalized Hooke’s k law for homogeneous and
       −ℎ 2
Inals,
nes
12this, the

this ,following
context,
context,andisotropic
,and
and relationship
22based
basedmaterials,
are
and the
on 66
on the
the between
the
mechanical
arematerials
generalized
Q the
0the
generalized Q stresses
mechanical
constants are
0Hooke’s
= Hooke’s
section;
(17),Q and
relationship krelated
considered. constants
law
andlaw between
to
hdenotes
fordenotes in
With
the
related
homogeneous
homogeneouseach itsthe layer
stresses
to development
height.the andandand the strains ofinin theeach addition,
layer wethe obtain Equations (16) and
11 22 12 isotropic
isotropic
66 materials,
materials, the following
following where
where 2 which
relationship
relationship NN are
denotes betweencompact
between k the
the kexpressions
stresses
stresses
normal
normal Eand
and
force; M of
strains
strains the
denotes resultants.
in each
each the layerlayer
bending
bending of of the the
moment;
moment; bb denotes
denotes the
the width
width ofof thethe
,n the
dayer this
[16] context,
.material, asand
laminate isotropic
based ison materials,
the
kkvalid
11
[16]generalized
[16]
k .below.
22
the EEfollowing Hooke’s
k k (17),
where
1−ν 66 which
relationship
lawNfor denotes are Q
homogeneouscompact
between
11the = Q
normal expressions
stresses=and and
force;
by2resultants.M(17),
adding of the
, denotes
strains in which
the resultants.
each thelayer
contribution are of
bending compact themoment; expressions (10)
b denotes of
in the
the width resultants.
of the
ties
s, theof the layer
following
following laminatematerial,
defined
relationship is valid
relationship
laminate Qbelow.
Q as
is defined
=between
=
valid . k[16]
between
QQ[16] (17),
= which
.=. stresses
stresses are
,and
, and compact
section;
section; strains
For
strains aand inin
laminatedhexpressions
heacheach
denotes layercross
layer 22 of
its of the
the
section,
height. (10)
(10) as shown in Figure 1, from the evaluationeach lamina; of these this pro-
internal stress = 1
Forand h denotes its
itsofheight.
1−ν
, .the following laminate  laminate
relationship is
11 11valid
is valid
between 2222.[16] stresses
1−ν22  and
1−ν k section; strains ainlaminated
and each denotes layercross the
height. section, as shown 0 in Figure 2 0 1, the evaluation of these internal stress 
6]
16] quantities
.  ,  ,k  Q kk and= νE
resultants are
, and the is mechanical
performed by constants
adding k cess, 
the related
= different

contribution  to
(11)
0− the
materials
 from  2
,
are
0each
, the considered.
lamina; With
in this the develop-
process,  (16)
different 20
(16)
0 =contribution
shown 0− in 
k k k k νE 11 11
. Q k = Q k Q=11 E 12 kQ 22
E 12 kk 0 66
Q resultants is kkperformed k
000bycross adding the 2
from each lamina; in this process, 0
different ,
2
6]
σ
k
= Q =, , 1−ν2σ ε QQ Q For
kFor QQ a aQ(10)
Qlaminated
laminated
kk k = cross
ε (10) section,
, and as 11  Figure
Figure
11  21, 1, the evaluation
evaluation (11) ofof these =
these internal
internal stress
−
stress
With =εxxxthe − the 2 , of from (16)
ng properties 22 of 11thex
1−νlayer
k 11
k
material,
12
νEνE σ
x σ 11 Q11For a
12 Q laminated 0 1−ν cross
ε ε section, as shown  in Figure  1, the evaluation of these internal
11 stress 11
k 00 as defined
materialsx xσxx below. are considered. x 11ment development the addition, we obtain obtain Equations (16)and and
theofcontribution addition, weaddition,obtain Equations this(16) and  (17),
12 2
2
11 2 22QkQ ==1−ν kk 2 22 ,, andand resultants
resultants
11 11 is
1212
kperformed
12 by (11)
(11) 11  each lamina; inin this process, different
materials karek kk is performed
considered. by
With adding the development contribution of from from
the each lamina; we process,
Equations different
(16)
k12
QQ11 (17)2 1
 =
12kQ
σσxxσy = k11 Q Q12k12 1−ν
Q 1−ν
0 ε ε σ ε y σ
y σ σ=
k ,
resultants
(9)
y == Q is
Q performed
kk 0 ε
byεyεε adding
,
yy ,, k, of (9) the
=
0
k11resultants. 0− 11
2 2 0 each
,0(9) (9)(9)
(9) ofwelamina; in this process, different
22k0 = ε (17), ywhich are
GQ12 compact
Q 22 k =0expressions
00 E With =the
 
k
=k=Q ,Q22
Q11 12Q x E y y
νEσ k
σQσxyykτxy νE k12 Q
kkk2εxε
x
τ (17),
γ materials
materials
which 12 Q are
12
12 are
kare Q considered.
considered.
compact
22
Q
22 expressions
γ which
the
=  ofG are
development
the ,
compact 2  − of
(12)
resultants.
 11 expressions
the
the2addition,
2 ,
addition, we theobtain
resultants.
obtain
(12) Equations
Equations (16)0 and
(16) and(17)
k
= Q
kk
Q
kk 66
0 , τ τ τ materials are considered.
(11) γ γWith
γ
(11) (9) the
 development 11 of the addition, we obtain  Equations
=  (16) and
11 (17) 11 2 ,
−  0
Q12 = 1−νσ 2 12
y = Q1−ν
=, and Q12 k12QQ266
k
0 k
Q Q =Q=k,
k22=
22 and0
EE
Q
0
k
0Q = εγy= y
=
1+ν
y G
,
xy
G
xyE
, (17),
xy xy
k k(17),
xy
, , which
which
0, 0 00 are
are
0 0 0
66
compact
compact
Q Q Q
k k k
k xy
=xy(9)
xy xy
2 expressions
1+ν (9)
expressions 11 
0
(12)
(12) − of the11

resultants.
0
, 2
2 (10)

where
ττxy 66 1122 22 1+ν 1+νk22 γ 66 where
(17),
2 which are compact 6666 66
66 expressions of the  resultants.
0  2 0
τxyxy k 00
12 k γ xyxy1−νwhere  = = 11
0 −   0 ,(16)
222 , (16)
(16)
00k QQ66 0− 11 
11 
k  k k xy        where
11   200
ntities Q66 =  11 ,2 1+ν  E k
where wherewhere
where
Q1266 , = 22the

where 0
the
=2 1+νthe E k0
the
quantities quantities
quantities
Gandk , 66
quantities
the 
quantities where
Q
= 66 66
Gare
  ,
 ,the
, , ,
,   ,
k 12mechanical
, ,, ,
   and
and and
andand constants
   (12) are areare the
are
are the
the me-
the
related
the mechanical
mechanical
(12) tothe
mechanical
mechanical  == 
constants
constants
constants

 11  00 −

constants −
  related
related
related
related
 220to ,to
,−to
tothethe the , (16)
(16) (18)
11νE 111111 12 1212 222222 22 6666 66
11  =
11 =  
 11
11 =1 

  −  11
11
1111 +1 
 2 ,
0 −  ,
 (16) 11 = 
(18)
es  11
perties
ties

of, , the
12 
chanical
engineering 
engineering
engineering
,engineering
layer, 22 and
material, constants
and properties
12 as
=
Qproperties
properties
properties related
are
defined of1−ν
are of
the of
the2of
thethe
below. to
the
layer ,the
layer
layer
mechanical
mechanical and
layer engineering
material,material,
material,
material, asasas
constants
constants defined properties
defined
asdefined below.
below.
below.
relatedbelow.
related oftothe
to the  

00 (11)
11  22+1


2
22 0 , (17) −
ies 11   = 11 − 
=1   (17)
200,(17)
12  66
66  = − 
,  , 22 and  are the mechanical constants related  to= the
  
= 11
11 

 0
0 −
0 − 

11 2
11 2 ,
20 ,,−
2 2  11 =  =1 (17) 
(18) (17) +1 
 =  − 11  2, , (19)
11the layer 12 material, 22 66 +1
ties of thematerial,
layer material, as defined asbelow.
defined
below. below. 11  =11 11 11 11  11

rties ofthe thelayerlayer asasdefined
defined E kk k
k =1
 11 =  
 −
  11 +1
22, (17) 11 =
(19)
ties of material, E Ek
below. k kk =kQk kk = EE E 11 =2211  −
k Q =1 
k k k
where Q
kQQ
=11= Q=QQ = = = 1−ν 22 , , ,, (10) =1 11 
2
+1 (10)
(10)(10)
(10)  2
Q11 = QQ = , where k 22
11 =(10)where (12)
11
G 22 , 1−ν 22  
kk 2266 E= =
k2 11 11
where 22 1−ν1−ν 2 2   2  2 ,   2 2
kk E 1−ν k1+ν
E 2 k2 (10)
where
where 11  =113  +1− 3 3 −  3.
3 11 = (19)
 +1 −  
Q11
QQ11
k =
11 ==QQ
Q22 k = = 1−ν ,, kk 2(10) =1
 = 
 11 +1 − . 2 =1 11 (20) (20)
22 = k 2 , Qk 12
k
k =νE νE νE
νE k k (10) 11 = == 3=1  =1

 11 −(11)
− ,, 11 = 3
(18)
(18)
k 22 νE 1−ν2
1−ν
Q12 QkQ12 ===1−ν 22 , ,and ,,andand
and  11 

11
11 = 

=1
11  +1 +1 +1 −− (11) (11)
 ,,

 ,(18)
(11) (18)
(18)
Q =νE 1−νk2k , and 12
The
1−ν
22
1−ν
quantities , (11)
,11
and= =1 =13are  11
associated
+1
3+1 − with the term [1, 1] of  
the matrices(18)
 of 3
. (20) − 3
1−ν   11
kk 12
TheE quantities  11 11=
11
,3(11)
1111 11
, and  11
=1
=1 +1 −
11
are associated
+1
 with the term  [1, =
11 1] 3of the 
matrices ofand
QQ12 k = νEνE2 k , ,, and and k
(11) (11) =1 11  =1 11 +1
= and extensional k stiffness k k [A], bending
11 === 

stiffness 11
 [B], 22 and − 2
coupling
−(12) 2 2
,,, [D], The quantities
respectively, 
as ,
they  are ,
(19)
(19) 1
Gkk ,k(11)  ,,(19) 11(19)
Q1212 = 1−ν , andk k 11 
= 2 =1  2 − 2
Qk 66 =GGG
k = E EE k
== , ,,bending 11
1−ν 1−ν 2

11  11  − (19)
k
2
E extensional
QkQ66
k Qreferred = == 2 221+ν 1+ν stiffness = [A],  11 = 22stiffness
=1=1 11
=1 11 [B], +1
2
+1
+1
+1 and − coupling
2
(12)
(12)
(12) [D], respectively, as they
(19) are
Q = E2 1+νkk = G The quantities
, 66 66 to 
1+ν in
11 ,the  , and
classical  are
laminate
11(12) 
11 associated
22 theory
=1
The
11 with
[16]+1
. the
However,
quantities term
extensional [1,
mote
11 1] of
that
, 11that the
stiffness
, and matrices
Equations [A], ofbending
(18)–(20)
11 are(18)–(20) associated wi stiff
k 66
kk = EE k
== GGG kkk(12) referred2 1+ν
incorporate to the in the11 classical (12) laminate
b11  
=[B],  theory  33

[16]
33 . However, 33
33 . present mote Equations
QQQ66 = = 221+ν extensional
= , , , stiffness [A], width bending of sectionstiffness
(12) 11
(12)
 

11 ==of = the beam,
extensional
  and 
 
 11 which
coupling 3 stiffness
+1 −
−−
−is not [D],
3 referred
...
(20)
. [A], intotheinequations
respectively,
bending as
the they
stiffness of are
classical classical
(20)
[B],
(20)
(20) laminate
(20)
(20)
and coup
6666 1+ν incorporate the width of section11b of  11 = 33 33the
3 =1
=1=1
=1 beam,  11 which
11
1111 +1 isnot
+1
+1
+1 − 
  present in the equations of classical
2 1+ν
referred to laminate in
laminate the theory.
classical
theory.
The quantities
laminate ,
theory
, andand
[16]
referred
=1
. are
However, to
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with incorporatethat
classical
the term
Equations
[1, the
laminate
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[16]
. of the
where E and Gincorporate represent the the The
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longitudinal The quantities
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quantities section
quantitiesand  ,11

b[A], ,11
of
trans-
11 ,,the 11
,11
11 ,beam,
and
,, and
and The  11 are
11are
quantities
which
11 are associated
areassociated
associated
is
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not ,with
Bcoupling
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and inthe
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term
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1]
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extensional
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system problem willvirtual virtual
beisindetermining (and
equilibrium, infinitesimal)
external the if thevirtualdisplacement,
forces.
displacement,
totalwork virtual donethe
the work initial
initial
by of thethe internal
 integration by parts.  ∂0
 where p(x) and q(x) represen
This result
∂2 0 ∂0=in0 the
 ∂system
 of
0 0 +  ∂ 0 differential
2 
0 
∂2+  equations
0 +  0 − associated
 , 
with =the (23)
 0 +   0 
model:
transverse ∂0z axis,
  =


∂0
−  This
This result
result
 
in
in
− the
the
 system
system
−  of
of differential
differential
 0
 . equations
equations(22) associated
associated
∂ with the0 model: respectivel(2
0 11 ∂This result
11 ∂ 2
in∂the system11 ∂ of differential

11 ∂
 2 = 0 ∂ equations
 2  0 +   associated
 0  +  with
0 the
0 +  model:
 0 −  ,
2 3 x = L), respectively;
∂
0 and  re
The virtual work donewhere by thep(x) and q(x) represent the distributed loads of 0 the domain where p(x)toand  q(x) axialrepresent
x axis andthe distributed loa
external forces, where assuming p(x) 
 2  that
 and
22the
q(x)
0
00 −loads
− − 
3  are

represent
33 applied
the00 =− 
=−=− 
distributed  according
directly
 loads or
or
or of the
the
domain =−
=−  
according  , Bytoapplying
= 0, and
(24
(24
to the axis of the structure to produce bending, is given by: transverse z axis, respectively; 
 11
110
11
 and
− 
 
 112
2 
2 

represent 11
11 0
11 =−  3
3the
3  forces
 applied
or transverse at the =− beam
z axis,

  ends
 , (x
respectively; the
 and
axial
(24) xrepres
the axisequa
x = L), respectively; and transverse 11 z2 axis,
 represents the 3 moments
respectively;
external  and appliedrepresent at 
the thesame forces
ends. applied
that at the beam ends (x = 0a
Journal of ArchitecturalEnvironment & Structural
  x = L), respectively; andis,   = 
represents the , the
extern
x = Engineering 3330Research |4 Volume 05 |externalIssue 04moments
| October
44  2  2022
L), respectively;
 3    0 −and 4 0represents
 000 =  the  or 2  22applied
=  at
 the
. same ends. of disp (25
1111−
 0
−  ∂
4 = = by  the or (23) or By
or  making the variations (25
 = 0   0 +  By   applying
0  + 
the 
11 0 +
 equilibrium  
110 03

−
 3−

3condition
11 the ∂11
110
11= 0
,
imposed
 44  principle of virtual
2 =applying =work
222the



 the (PTV),
.integration .equilibrium(25)
ofby
condition
parts.work (PTV
that is,   =  , the By 3applying
differential 4 equilibrium
equations of the condition problem that canimposed
is,
be
by
instituted,= 
principle
previously , the
virtual
differential equati
width of section where p(x) b ofand theq(x) beam, represent which the
making Because
isdistributed
notBecause
the present
Because loadsin
variations ofof
of of
that the
the
the
the
of the application
is,domain boundary
 according
application

application
displacements =  inPTV, of
conditions
of
the PTV,
of,todomainPTV,
the
PTV, thedifferential
axial the
the
the are
portions following
extracted
x following
axis inand
following
equations
Equations boundary
at ofx(22)
boundary
boundary the= 0problem
and and conditions
conditions
(23) x can
 = L,bein-
through are extracted
are extracted
instituted, previou aa
transverse z axis, respectively; Because
and of the
represent theapplication
forces applied of at 
the beam the ends following (x = 0 and boundary
making the conditions
variations of are Thisextracted
displacements result inat inthe
the sysdo
 = 0 and   = , inherent
making the to the
variations model: of displacements in the domain portions in Equations (22) and (23) throu
equations of classical laminate theory. and inherent toto
herent themodel: tomodel:the model:
integration
0=and =00and by parts.
=inherent
=,,inherent the
= external
 
x = L), respectively; and =represents the , moments
integrationto the appliedmodel:
by parts. at the same ends. integration by parts.
This result in the system of differential equations associated with the model:=  (26) 11
the equilibrium condition imposed0by= 00result
 0 0=
== and 00in
 0 
and
and
and of= 

 000 =
= =of 
 000 (PTV),orequations
or
or This = result
 ,==in the ,, system
,with of differential
(26) (26
(26 e
2.3 Principle ofBy Virtual
applyingWorks This the
2
 0
principle 3
 0
the0 virtual
system 0 work differential

associated
 the model:
that is,   =  , the differential equations of the 11problem
 2 = −  can
11 and be instituted,
=−  
2= previously
or
0 30or or =−   , = ,,(27)
, (24) 0(27
making FEM the variations of displacements in thelaminateddomain portions 0 =  00=
00in
= and 
Equations
 000
and
and 3
=

 00 = = 0 
− 011 =−   = 
or , =

or
= 
 =−11
2
 0
,2 − (27)
 (27
3
11 3(27
11
=−(2
In this study, was used to model the 0 (22) 110 and2
0 (23) through 3 2
 
 3  4  
integration by parts.  0
−  

0 4and
0
=   
 or 0 =   . Because
(25) of the appl
0(28
 0  0  0 
beam, and the principle of virtual work was used to write110 = =
3 0 =
0
0=11 
0
and
and

03= 0 0 =
 =
0 0 4020
or  or or , =
 ==  
2,
, = .30 − (28)4(28 (28
This result in the system of differential equations associated 
  and with
 the model: 
11  3− 11

4 
=
  = or  =2,(28) 0 and 11 = 11 4 =
3 , inherent to(2
equilibrium equations and transform 2the continuous Because of prob- the application of PTV, the following boundary conditions are extracted at
where
where Q Q is is the
the shear
shear force
force in
in the
wherethe section
section
Qobtained
is obtained
obtained from the equilibrium
equilibrium of
of the
the differential
differential elemen
elemen
 ,the shear
0Q offorce inthethe section obtained from element
11where isshear
the 0 ,shear forceforce inmodel:the section obtained from the equilibrium ofof thethe differential elemen
Q Because  of the application PTV, following of boundary conditions are
of extracted
lem into a discrete problem. where
0 is the
and inherent intoor the
the section from the equilibrium Because the differential application PTV, th0
  3
= =
(24)
2 − 11 3 =−   =−
of the of
ofofthe
the
beam. beam.
thebeam. beam.  = 0 and  =, inherent to the model:
0 = 0 andthe equilibrium 0 = 0 of the differential
or  = 0 and
element
=  ,  = of, inherent
the beam. to
(26) the model:
Given that the structural system will 3  be in4equilibrium,  2
0
11 30 − 11 40 =   or 2 =  
  . 02= 0222and 00  30 =
(25) 33 00 or =  ,=  and  = (2 
 =  and
  =  or  = 
0.  , (27)
(29) (29
if the total virtual work of the applied forces is zero, for 0  =   (29
= = == 0211
0  0 0 0 
 
= =  0 =
11  0
11−  0 − 0
.(29)
0= 2 − 311
330. (29
11
 11   2211
and  =  or  = ,=  and (2

Because of the application of PTV, the following 0boundary 0 conditions  0  are 0 extracted  0 at   = 
any compatible virtual (and infinitesimal) displacement, =  and   =  0

or  = ,  0
(28) 0 0
 = 0 and  = , inherent 2.4 2.42.4
toDiscretization
the
2.4virtual Discretization
Discretization
model:
Discretization by the byby the
the
Finite  Finite Finite
Element Element
Element Method Method
0Method where Q is the shear force in
work doneby bythe Finite ElementMethod and   =   or  =  (2
0 0 0
the initial problem is determining the = ,0 0
where Q  is the shear force in the 2.4 Discretization from by the(26) FiniteofElement Method
of the beam. =  and  0
0 = 2.4.10 and Determination0 = 0 of the or section
Stiffness =obtained
 , Matrix the equilibrium the differential element 
the internal forces and the virtual 2.4.12.4.1 2.4.1
of theDetermination
Determination
work done
beam.by external
Determination ofwhere the ofStiffness
of Qthe
the is the Stiffness
Stiffness shear Matrix force Matrix
Matrix in the section obtained from the equilibrium of the differential eleme
0 = 0 and 0 = 0 of the beam. or  =  , 2 (27) where Q is the shear force in the section obtaine
forces. Herein, Herein,
Herein, the thetheclassical
classical classical beam 2.4.1 beam
beam Determination
element element
element  was was3chosen
was
chosen of
chosen
 0 for the Stiffness
the treatment
for
treatment
offor beam.using Matrix using
using
FEM FEM FEM
FEM
for for
for formulation
formulation formulatio
0 Herein, 0 the classical  =beam element was 2  treatment using for formulation
  0
0 0 =  11 −  11 . (29)
The virtual work done by developed thedeveloped
internal
developed
=  in and forces
the in in thethe
previous for = 
previous the
previous subsections subsections
or
subsections [17] = 
. ,
This  . This element
[17] 2
[17] . element
[17]
This 
 3
element is (28)
delimited is

is delimited
delimited
0
by 30by two nodes at its ends, with
two by
. nodestwo
2.4 nodes
at its
Discretization at
ends, its ends,
with
by thewith wit
Fi
developed in the previous subsections  
Herein,Method the .classical This element
 = =
 beam
 11 iselement
delimited
2 −  11 3 by two nodes at its
was chosen for = ends, (2
2
problem is where givenQby: 2.4 Discretization by the Finite Element ∂0 ∂ ∂
∂ 00 = 11 
three degrees ofofstudy, freedom ateach each of these nodes: , 0,, andand 0 .interpolation
. The interpolation
in functions
a usedof used
is the shear force in
threethree the
degreessection obtained from the equilibrium of the differential  element Method
degreesinofthe freedom freedom2.4at each of
attreatment
each these of nodes:
these nodes: 0Element , 00,00,,and and . The The interpolation functions
2.4.1 Determination functions the
useS

of the beam. The model 2.4.1
three used degrees
Determination of freedom Discretization
of thewhich at
Stiffness appears of
Matrix
bythese the in
using Finite
nodes: the
FEM 
Euler–Bernoulli
for  00, ∂
formulation ∂ . The
∂
∂
Beam
developed interpolation
theory in the functions used
  =  single ,(21) (21) 2.4 Discretization by the Finite Element Meth
stress component totorepresent
 represent
 in
 the
Equation
 displacements
, (9) used alongthefor thethefinite finite
analysis (21) element ofof of length
beams, length isdelimited
believedwere cubictoHerein,havepolynomials
the forclassical fo
 =  [17]
to represent  the
 Herein,
displacements
the 2.4.1 Determination
 displacements
2the0 classical
along
previous
30beam element was chosen
along finite
subsections
of thethe element
Stiffness
finite .Matrix
element
element
for This
treatment lengthelement
of
of  FEM
length
using iswere  werecubic
were polynomials
by
cubic
cubic two polynomials
polynomials fofo
 for formulation
developed in the previous su
only one non-zero  = component
strain = 11; and − is  , as .nodes
given below.
at
[17]its ends, with three (29) 2.4.1
degrees Determination
of freedom ∂ ofeach
at the
∂ 0 Stiffness
of Matrix
where  is;the andvariation inthe= 0strain 0component andlinear linear  ; polynomials 0for
∂
... Finally,
Finally, the rotation was
was obtained by by
where is the variation in the strain component the volume of the beam.
ion in the strain component 0=  and =000= = .00Finally,
∂. 0This
  is the volume of
developed the
 beam.
0and in the linear2 
previous 11 subsections
polynomials 3Herein, the for  . This
classical element beam is delimited
element was by two
chosen
the rotation nodes for at its
treatment ends,
0
was with
using
∂0 obtained FEM for formulati
0=   
polynomials for = Finally, the rotation
the rotation 0
was obtained b
and V is the 2.4 volume
Discretization
  =  0 
of the beam.
by the shown Finite
0 , 0
Element Method developed inofthe previous (21) subsections0 0 [17] element Herein, is delimited the ∂
three
classical
∂
bydegrees
two
∂ beam
∂ nodes of obtained
freedom
at its ends,
element atby
was we
ted section shown in Figure 1, we obtain the following. For the laminated section
deriving three in
deriving degrees
Figure
from
1,
from
 ofwe
 freedom
 obtain
.  . at
the each these
following. nodes:
these  nodes: u , 0w ,  , 0 and
, and .
. The
The interpolation
interpolation functions functions used
where  isthe variation
, the in theDetermination
strainsection component  ;deriving
and 0 isMatrixfrom
the 0 0 
volume
0
0 three ∂of
. the 
degrees
beam.
∂used
=of tofreedom . at eachthe
represent
0 0
ofof
∂
these nodes:
displacements developed 0 , along 0 , and the
∂
in the previous 0
.toThe interpolation
represent (13)
subsections [17]
. Thisuse
functions
the displacemen
∂ finite for ele-
(21)  211
   =    For laminated
2.4.1   =∂ 0 shown of ∂ the in
0  Stiffness
to Figure
∂represent ∂1,0 the wedisplacements
obtain along ∂the 0 finite element
(22) length  were cubic polynomials
 2 2
0 0
2− 11 ∂22 − 11 ∂ − 11 ∂2  ∂2 .
 ∂0 ∂2 0 ∂0  0   =∂∂ 0  
11
The  FEM
The The
, FEMFEM
application application
application
togeneric
represent
(22) generates
ment the generates
generates a
displacements
of length system a system
aL0system
system(21)
ofalong
were nodal of
of
the
cubic nodal
equilibrium
nodal
finite three equilibrium
degrees
equilibrium
element equations
of0 of equations
freedom
length equations of
=were type
at0each of
ofby
cubic type
of polynomials
type these
linearnodes:
thepolynomials for
∂ ∂
= 0 11 −the  section−shown The internal 0stresses
0
in the
.following. cross-section of .the oflaminate
nodal of
equilibrium area ∂
A are 0related
equations of and
type poly
11following. of11 the−   by
For∂the laminated in Figure 1,
2 we 
obtain the and linear polynomials forusing Finally, rotation was obtained
component  ; and ∂ is2 the volume
∂ Herein, the∂ beam. classical
11 ∂ beam =∂element
20 was chosen for treatment 0 =FEM el for formulation ∂
The virtualinwork done by the external [17] forces, assuming that the loads are applied directly to represent the displacements
∂0
along the finite
where  is the variation developed
 in the ∂0 strain
the
following previous
∂component
subsections
equations. ; and . This
is the element
∂ volume

0 . 0 ∂ 0 of
= is  and
delimited
0 the beam. and linear by lineartwo polynomials
nodes
polynomials at its for
ends,
for with
 =   . Finally,
Finally, the
the rotation
rotation
deriving from was
∂ 0  .
obtained
deriving is
∂0 from 
2 0 ∂0 2 2 0 0
orkindone by 1,the to =
external thethe axis
forces, of the structure
assuming to produce
2 that  the −bending,
loads are −given
11 0by:
applied
wn Figure we  obtain
  =  0three
following.
 11degrees ∂ ,
− 11 
of ∂ freedom  ∂at =each  11these
of 
∂   
nodes: , ∂2 0directly
(21)
,

(22)
0 ,∂and
deriving 2 0 .
∂
from . The
was  (22)=
interpolation
 .
obtained   by 
 (21)
functions
deriving  
used from
 , = 0  .and linear polynomials for 0 (21 =
ture ∂2 to For
∂0 thebending,
produce laminated is section
given
∂2 0 by: shown in Figure 1,we  The FEM
obtain theapplication
following. generates
∂ ∂ 0 a ℎsystem 2 of nodal equilibrium equations of type 0 The FEM application
in ∂the
0
 The
strain    
virtual
− 
∂0
work − done
 to by
representthe  =
∂ 2 0 
external
the .  forces,
displacements 0 +  assuming (22)
along 0 the+ that 
finite 
the 0= +loads
element    0−
are
of  
length  FEM
applied=
The 
0
 FEM,
directly
were 
application
cubic  ,
polynomials(23) generates for a system of nodal equi- (14)
where
11
to the
2
axis
is component
∂of thestructure
the
variation
11 ∂ 
to
 ; in
11 and
∂ the strain
produce
2  is∂the volume
2
∂0 bending,
0
component
∂2where
is0 given
of
∂0∂
theis
by:
beam.
0 ;the and ∂  is the
variation ∂2 volume
 in The
the∂2strain 0of the
∂  application
0 component
−ℎ beam. 2
∂0
 generates a systemderiving
; and  is the volume of nodal
from equilibrium
 0  . equations
of the beam. of type
   +  
   0=
where 
p(x) + =
0 and 
q(x) −
+and 
0 represent
 linear
 the distributed
2−polynomials
  − loads for
, 11 ∂ of
0
0 = −0domain
the  ∂ . (23)
0
Finally, librium
according the
2 to 
rotationequations

the . ℎaxial 2 = x was(22)
axisof  type
obtained
and   by
, The FEM application generates (21) a system
section shownassuming The virtual work 11
done theby
11
the external ∂ forces,  assuming 11
thein Figure 1, we obtain following.
0 ∂
external forces, 0 that 0 the loads are  applied
∂0 directly
∂ 2 ∂    , 
1, we obtain the following.(30) (15)
∂
0
For laminated
transverse zsection
axis,from shown
0  . in
respectively; Figureand For 1,0the welaminated obtain = the    =
following.
section shown  −ℎ in 2Figure(x= 0 and
ending, is given by:  deriving  represent the forces ∂ applied at the  beam=  ends(30)
,
∂0The virtual that  the =work 0loads
∂  
0 done0 by∂
are +applied the  directly
0 external 0  ∂2 + to
0 forces, ∂2the
 
where +axis  
0 assuming  is
of −the
0the  struc-
that the
0
,in theare
loads applied (23)directly ; and  is the volume of the beam.

present 11 the − distributed
∂2
11 20x = L), respectively;
loads −of wheretheThe ∂
∂
and
domain
FEM−
00N 
denotes
represents
11 according
∂∂222
application 00 the
the 0external
to
2normal
generates
∂
∂

the
00 is. aaxial
moments
force;
system xvariation
∂
∂ 0of
axis
(22)applied
∂ and
M
nodal denotes
atthe strain
00∂0 the
∂∂22matrix
0 equilibrium same component
ends.
bending
∂∂22equations 2
∂structure, oftype moment;

b ∂both
denotes ∂the
2
0 width
2
0of the
to the axis
∂ of ture
the 

∂ to
structureproduce
=
= ∂ to produce


11
bending,
∂ ∂ −− is
bending,
 given ∂

where by:
is given
 ∂  by:
−
− the 

 global 0 stiffness
= −−   where
  − of 
00
the is
 
 0the= ..  ,∂
globala 0function− stiffness
(22)  of 0matrix
− the
 of
geometry the  of∂ 
structure, the (30) . (22
ectively;
where
0 p(x) 
 +and and
  q(x) represent
 
 0By
0 +represent −
00 the
applying
the 11
11 forces
0
 distributed the, applied
11
11
equilibrium
loads 22 at
of the
(23)
condition
the beam
domain For ends
imposedthe11
11 
according (x
laminated
 =
byproperties0
the0to and
11
11 section
principle
the 11 22
axial ofxshown virtual
axis 11
2
2
and in
work
2 Figure (PTV), 1, we obtain 11 the following.
11 2 2
done by the external forces, section;
assuming
∂
∂
∂
and
that h
the
∂
∂
denotes
beam
loads
and ∂∂
are its
the height.
mechanical
applied where
∂
∂

directly is the global
∂
∂
a of ∂
functionthe
stiffness
∂
∂
materials, of
matrix
∂
both
of andthe theis ∂ given
structure,geometry by
a the
function
∂
assembly
of the
of bothbeam of∂
the elements,
and
geometry the
∂ as
of me- the
nd  represents
transverse z axis, the external
that is,  moments
 =
=  0
 applied
, the   at
differential
,shown the sameequations ends. of the problem can be instituted, previously
(21)
respectively; =and  represent the forces
in Equation applied (31); atthe the  beam the0ends
isEquations global (x = 0 of
vector and of loads, ∂0containing ∂the equivalent nodal 2 loads
   
∂
Theofbending,virtual work  done by  the   
external 0 x, +forces,
The 0 assuming
virtual work thatdone the by (21)
loads
,∂the are
− external applied (23)
forces, ofdirectly andassuming that 0the loads are applied
beam and mechanical properties
(22)directl
 by: + ∂2the0 materials, is given 0 by the ∂assembly
2 ∂of elements, as
to= produce
buted loads the making
domain =is  giventhe
0according variations 
0 to ofdisplacements
the 
axial axis the
in
and domain+    0−
portions =in chanical (22)
0
properties
and
Figure (23) through the
− materials, − of and is given 0
by
 the
.stress
x L), respectively; 
and represents the Forexternal a laminated
moments
acting on thecross
appliedstructure;
shown section,
at in the and same
Equation as  shown
ends.
∂is
0 (31);  the
11  ∂vector
is in
= the 11 of
global
, ∂2nodal 1,
vector the evaluation
displacements,
∂of loads, 11 ∂ obtained
containing 11the these 2 by
∂equivalent internal
solving
∂2 nodal the loads
(30)
ohe equilibrium condition imposed by the principle of virtual work (PTV),
(23) 0
is thethe variation
axis
represent
is the variation of the
the in in the
structure
forces strain
integration
the strainapplied component
to
by at
component produce
parts.
the beam
resultants
 ;
;ends
 and
bending,to  the
(x
isandperformed
 is the
is=∂the
system is
axis
0 and volume
given
of
volume
of Equations
by the of
by:
of the
adding
the
structure beam.
on beam.
(30). the to produce
assembly
contribution and  isof bending, theelements,
from is given as by:
shown ininthat Equation  (31);  solving =  ,the is
axiseach lamina; this process, are different
acting the structure; vector of nodal displacements, obtained by
the , external
where the differential
p(x)
By moments and
applying q(x)equations
represent
the +equilibrium of the+the problem
distributed
incondition can
loads
imposed
where 0be
of,by instituted,
the
is the thedomain
The principle
virtual
global previously
ofaccordingwork
stiffnessof virtual done to the
matrix work
by the
of axial (PTV),
the externalxstructure, anda function
forces, assuming of both the loads
theequivalent
geometry applied
of the directly
      0 applied at
This the
result same the ends.0system of differential equations (23)
associated with the model:
  0+        − system Equations (30).
or the laminated section shown in 0Figure
materials 1, we obtain the following. the global vector of loads, containing the nodal
are considered. With the bedevelopment ofbending,
the , addition,
where  is the we global obtain stiffness Equations matrix ∂0 (16)
of the and a functio
structure,
  
or
ofthatthe laminated
is,
displacements =section shown
, the in Figure
 differential 1, werepresent
equations obtain tothe
of the following.
problem can instituted, =previously
in the =0 domain portions in Equations the 3(22)
axis and of the (23) through
structure to produce is given by:
transverse z axis,  respectively;  and
∂
the forces applied at the beam
 ∂ 00ends (x  = 0and and (31) as
∂20 beam and 0the mechanical properties of ∂
the materials, is,given by+ the assembly of elements,
ondition imposed  by

=
the principle 
of ++0 
virtual
 

work
2 

(PTV), ++
 0  

 ++2 = 
  −−   

loads + 
acting
1 ,,   onbeam
= the  and + the
structure;
  (23)

mechanical
= and  ,  properties
=is −
the
 ,  of
vector the ,
materials,
of nod- (31) and is given (23
(30) b
∂(17), which are 2 compact 2expressions atof the resultants.
making the=variations 
 of displacements
00 00 in0the the domain
11external 00 0
−0 −in portions 2
=− 0
0 
0 inEquations
 0 or  0 00
(22) and
=− 0(23)  , vectorthrough 0 (24)
  0  0
x = L),
sent the
 respectively;
distributed

  where
∂
loadsand
∂ 0− p(x)
of
 represents
11the and2
0 q(x)
2domain
∂
∂ represent
according
− shown
11where
∂
∂ 0theto
11moments
 the
NE
∂
Equation
distributed

3∂isaxial
 0 applied
2the
∂
(31); loads
x∂∂2axis
number and
of .ofthe
is
finite thesame global
(22)
elements ends.
∂
∂
00defined of in 1
loads, 
the containing
beam  ,(31);
= discretization; the equivalent and ∂
nodal 0loadsof loads, containi
isvector
the (30)
shown in Equation is the 0
∂global
  
al equations
   =of0 the  11
problem −  can be instituted, −  previously −  11  20  . al (22)
displacements, obtained  by
integration by parts. 0 +solving −the system ,ofaEqua- of(23)
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ where NE is where
the number  is
of the
finite global elements stiffness defined matrix in of
the the
beam structure,
discretization; a function and of both is the geometry of the
 =  2is where + isof   +displacements,  obtained 
  11 11 11 11
0 ∂ ∂ 2 ∂ acting
3  ∂ on the 4  ∂structure;
2 2
∂ 
0and the 0vector the nodalglobal stiffness matrix 0 of the structure,
bythesolving function
the both the g
svely; and represent the forces applied atstiffness
the beam matrix ends of (x
the =represent
beam and element, which iswork given 0by
he
where thep(x)
system
invirtual  By
domain of
and differential
the
 q(x)
applying
portions domain represent
the
in according
equations
equilibrium
Equations theforces,
(22) tocondition
associated
distributed
andthe
11
axial
where
(23) 0with
3 −loads
xp(x)
imposed
through
 axis
the 0 and
model:
ofand= the
by transverse
q(x) domain
the
stiffness principle
where
matrixor beam z0the
according
of of
and the
is 
beam
= virtual
the
the to
0distributed
global. the
element,
mechanical 2axial
stiffness
thewhich
acting
 loads
0(PTV),
properties xon(25)
is matrix
given axis the
ofbyof
of the
the structure;
andthe domain
structure,
materials, andand ais function
according is∂
given by 0ofvector
thetoboth the
assembly ofaxial
the nodal
geometry
ofthexdisplacem
axis
elements,of the an
as
he
he virtual
represents Thiswork
work the
done
result
done in
external
bythe
by thesystem
the external
external
moments of differential
forces,
applied
assuming
system
assuming
at equations
the same
that
of
11
that  4the
Equations
associated
the
ends.
loads
loads are
(30).
with
are 
beam
applied
=
the
applied and
model:

11
2directly
beam
tions
directly
the −
mechanical
and
(30). 11 mechanical
system
properties ,
2  is the of of
properties
Equations
the materials,
of
(30). the
and
materials,
is given by
and
the
is given
assembly (16) by
of
assembly
elements, as
that
ransverse
of the is,structure

2 z axis,  =
axis,
to 
respectively; ,
3respectively;
produce  the
bending, differential
 is
theand
and
given  equations
by:
 represent
transverse
represent where of z the
the axis,
p(x) problem
forces
forcesand respectively;
 11
applied
q(x) can
applied shown
represent0 be
 11atin instituted,

 Equation
the
the
shown
− and

beam
distributed
11
0(31);in (31); previously
Equation
− −
 
ends
represent
11
 11 loads (x
(31); 0 =
of
11 global
0
the
 the and
is vector
forces

domain
the
11 of
global  loads,
applied
11 vectorat
according containing
of tothe the
loads, the
beamaxial equivalent
containingxendsaxis nodal
(x
and
the = loads
0
equival an
ofis  structure; − global 0  of loads,
  Because application  ofPTV,
of the
making 11structure
the
0
2 −  to produce
variations
0
=− bending,
  the given
or 3  by: =− , the zfollowing
 portions  in shown boundary in Equation
(24)
acting  on
conditions
the  are and extracted
,is the
(31) is at vector
 the vector nodal containing theobtained
displacements, equivalent
(31) by nodal
solving loads
the
0ofand
displacements in 0 the =domain  Equations (22) = and (23) through
2


= L),
equilibrium
ferential respectively;
equations
 at11the
condition =beam
and
3 imposed
associated ends represents
with
 =20, by
−(xinherent
 =model:
the 0principle
and the
to =−x
the
 x=external
L),

model: L),
of
 respectively;
transverse
virtual moments
respectively;
or work axis, applied
and
respectively;
(PTV),
=− acting 
system ,
on at
represents
the ofacting
the 0 same
11and
structure;
Equations

on 1the the
 ends.
(24)
and
6
(30).
2 structure;
external
represent
0 is12 the and
moments
the vectorforces
 of is applied
the
applied
nodal vector atatthe
611 displacements,
ofthenodal
beam =same displacements,
ends
obtained ends.
(x, = by obtained
0solving
and the
integration = by

parts.
11
 
11  3
xNE =0 L),
∂
respectively; 0 0  = 11
  12
and
11
0Equations system
6
(23)
represents −2 3of11Equations
12 11
the
11
0external , −(30). 11
0 moments
6
12
− 32 applied 11
11
at theand same
1
(17)
, system ends.
    4 0 + the    +  − 
the differential equations
0 00 represents
of the00 
external  +
problem +moments can
where be
+0applied   instituted,
isat the ∂previously
the0number
∂same ends.
2 0 , oforfinite
3of 
elements
= (23) , (30).
where NE
defined
22
is the in NE thenumber of finite 2 elements defined in in the beam
beam
3 =  0 +  4
02  and 0−  0
where 3 is the discretization; is the
     = 6number ofprinciple
finite elements defined (31)d
3  
 0 
By applying
−  the
=  equilibrium
 3
or 0 =
condition 0
=   0. =
imposed
By 
applying by the
the principle
equilibrium
(25)  of virtual
condition work (26)
imposed (PTV), by
 
the , 11 of virtual work (PTV
displacements
11 311 3 =−   in11 the or domain =−
 
portions0   ,  
in Equations 0 (24)
(22) and
or of(23)
∂
through  6
(25) 4  1  2 
This result Byin 4
the11
applying system 3the
where −of 
equilibrium
differential
11 4 =  2 condition
stiffness equations matrix imposed
By the
associated
applying
−
0 =by
2 beam
11  with  6. 11
element,
the
the the 11
−equilibrium
the which
411 is given
model: beam
11 11stiffness
condition
11
discretization; by−imposed 6

11
matrix
11 −of
= and 2the
by
11
11 
2 the beam
, is =theelement,
principle  of,which
stiffness virtual
matrix is given
workof by
(PTV), (31)
hat
)) and is,q(x) 
40q(x) represent   = 
represent the , the differential
distributed  loads of
of the
 0 that equations
0 is,
=domain and  according
0 = of
the
 = 0 to

problem
the axial ,or the
2 x
where can
differential
axis

NE = is be
and , instituted,
the
 2
number equations

 of finite
 previously

2 of 1the
(27)
 elements   problem
 defined
  in the can
1
. beam be instituted,
discretization; and previousl
 is the
ezand the distributed loads the domain according to the axial xat axis and
   = (32)
application
axis, respectively;
Because principle
of PTV,
of the
or andof
the
application virtual
2following
represent
2 work
0of. PTV,
boundary
the (PTV),
forces
the
3in that
conditions
0applied
following (25) is, 
boundary
at =the are 11=
 beam 
extracted ends
conditions  ,,−(x the

= thedifferential
where
are0 and  11NEelement,
beam
extracted isand equations
the

at11 number 11  of is
which of the given
finite problem
1111 . inby11thecan
by
elements definedbe instituted,
in11the (32) beam previously
11 discretization; 
making = the  variations of displacements
= 00the
making domain the 0 portions
variations 0 of in Equations
displacements
stiffness
0 matrix
− (22)
of thein − beam the (23)domain
element, 0through
which portions is given in Equations
0 − (22) − and (23) 0 throug
11 11
   
where NE is
 the  0
number
 of finite elements 0
defined − beam discretization; and  is the
11 z axis, respectively;  and   11 represent

2 − 11
theforces =  applied
3 =− model:
and  can at
thethe or beam
=variations  ends
=− or 0 (x  = 0, 
 stiffness
= and ,  matrix − domain (24) (28)
0,which (18)
 =of 
11 11 11 11
rent
system 
pectively;
4
to the
of and
and model:
differential
the equations
differential
inherent
represents to the
2
the associated
equations
model:
external momentsofwiththe the
problem making
applied at the be −
same instituted,
11 displacements in
+1
the
of the  beam portions−given
element,  in Equations
 which

is given(22) by  and (23)  through
 =
ntegration 0 by =  ,
parts. 
integration by parts.  ends.
 stiffness matrix
=1 of11 the11beam 11 6 element, is 11
12 by611 11
pectively;
PTV,2 the and  represents theconditions
external moments applied
integrationat at the by same parts. ends. 1211 0 611 3 12 11 0 12 012−
11
6−
11 12 011 6 12 6
following boundary are extracted of−6  −0 2 element 11 − 2 11
3  where Q making
previously is the shear
3  the forcevariations in
4the section obtained
ofprinciple
displacements from00 the
in 2 equilibrium
the 1211 the differential − 11 11311 60
11 3
1111 11 11 11 2 0 11− 3 11
yl: 0=
applying 0 the and  
equilibrium =  condition
=  and
0 imposed
 or  =  by
0 =
the , or of
orofresultvirtual
=  − , (26)
3
work  (PTV),− 2 11 11

2 (26) 0 0
−123(25) 2 3− 0− 2 −  3
−112 411 01211 611 −  0 
 0 ofdifferential ,11  11 6 (19) 611 2
y11 applying − the
2 This
0 equilibrium
 0
of0in
=− thethe beam. 011 0 or−imposed
condition
system 0 =− 4by =the
0  equations
principle
, (23) 
virtual 2==
(24) work  3  . 
11 (PTV),  2differential  6   

,result This result associated

in11the system with ofthe model: equations associated 113with the
 211 model:
canThis in the system of
11  6 11differential
0+1 211 equations
11 
2 associated
0 − with the model: 11 
 =
11 domain
the3differential portions in3 Equations
equations of the(22) problem and bethrough11 inte-
instituted, 62 =1 4
previously 11
112 11−  − 611− 22 11
− 2
6  4

  , the differential equations orof02=the problem , can 2  be− instituted, previously
 = =
0 
 and
0 and or 30 , (27) −(27)
11 11 
 =(26) 611 211 −66 4
 0or=   0 =
12
0 =  11 =     11 
11 111112  11 
 11 611 12  611 1211 611
 0 = 00
3 0 Because gration
4of by application
parts.  , of =000 in =Equations 0 extracted −
0 011 2−  26
3 110
11 −  
ee variations of 0 the
displacements in the 22domain PTV,
portions the following
11 20 −boundary (22) and conditions
(23) through are at
22
00
domain   33  11 3 .   process
(23) 
2
200of 
113
 
3 3 611 (29)
2224= 113 or
2 11
3can be 2 (24)
 variations − of displacements
=   in the
 or −  portions
 =  
=−
 in .
Equations
 =
 (22)
 

or and
During =
(25)
the
 
=− through
11   2−  −  −
,
applying 3
11
0

0
loads

− =−
=−2
3on . 
the  structural
 (24)
  element,
or .
 −=−the

=−
2 
matrix 
,2 
   , (20)
(32) (24
nn
by11=0parts.

0=and
3  11
= 0=and
4
inherent
,This 
 orDiscretization
result toin
0
= the
11
11 the
model:
0
, 22and
system or 11of
112 0
=33  (27)
differential 
0
ordifferent
equations  11
asso-
,for 3 11 =1  11 1111

+1
(28)
  3     
11
−11cracking  
0 11 11of2the  11 11
11 or 211 0 (32)−
   −  11 =    
0 0 0 0
(28)
   
by parts. 
2.4 = 
    = ,During even 0 
 elements2 of =
11 the same 11
 6 3 11 11 because
length  0 116
4 11the
− 11 4 process
6
 11 (32)
6 .be
concrete
   by the Finite Element Method the
the 
process
yielding of
of
the
applying
reinforcement3 
−loads
 −
on11 the
causes  4  2−
the
structural
0
damage 
element,
11
variable 2 to

11the11
 assume
−2
matrix
0
2
different

 11−
−
values

can 
2 the
along (30)
pplication0 in of ciated with the model:  0  because
  0 =   ,     12   
 PTV,
0 the following ,0boundary
his 4conditions are extracted at
result the system of differential equations associated with ,the model:  
ofThe 0quantities
different even 11for or, height
elements and of are associated with 11the term [1, −1] of the matrices 0 of 11(25)
22the
his
where
nd resultQ in
is=section
the system
shear 2.4.1 the
ofDetermination
force
or differential
in 0=  33
=section
 and
00equations Stiffness
obtained
the =4

from
associated
00 0Matrix the
(28) with
equilibriumtheor
length 11model: of =
theof
12   ,same
11 3
differential
the
11 =0 6
beam. length
− 4=
11element
11 11 40 = (26)
12 the cracking
 or 011 process
6

2=
of
2 11the concrete
11 −
. 6 11 . or 1211 (32)
. −
orce
tof
tothe in the
thebeam.
 model:  obtained from
11
11 the −equilibrium
 11
11 the =of the
yielding  differential
of the
where 0 or element
−
reinforcement
 isstiffness
the 11
11
=
causes
3 global −3− − the
stiffness . damage
11
2  0 matrix 0 0 =
12
variable
− of 
11 
the
11 6
to (25)
3 structure,
11− or
assume
0 a
11 11 
different
20function 0
12 311=
values
of both− 
112
6
along

the 11.0the
geometry − of the3 (25
extensional stiffness [A], bending [B], and coupling [D], respectively, as they are
11
220  3    33 
 44
 

2
2  3
  4−  −
       6  2    2 − 

 6
Herein, 3 0the classical beam element was 2.4.2
chosen Nonlinear
for treatment Analysis using FEM for formulation
0 and ofor (27)
3 2 3 2
on obtained from the
 
20 −
equilibrium  
110  =of3 0the
=−   0 =length
differential or [17]
element
orthe 0 or =−
heightBecause
beam ,(24)
the,and beam.the
ofthe = 
mechanical  , (24)
application (24)

properties

of PTV, of12 thethe
following
materials,
 and boundary
is
11 given by11 conditions
the assembly 611 are
of− extracted

elements,
11
6− as at11 4
2 − 11 =− =−
11 
inreferred tosubsections
in classical 11laminate 611 theory .11at−However, 66 mote that Equations (18)–(20)
211 [16] 111211 11611
1211 12
11 11 4
0 and 0 of 3or of (26)
0 = Because 11= developed the3 previous 
.following
3This element is delimited by two nodes its ends, 11 with
 2=0  , = 11 11
the 02 application PTV, the Because

 0 
 and
0 of boundary
the
 = , inherent
shown inTo application
reach
Equation the conditions
final
to the model:
(31);  of
0
equilibrium
is PTV,
−
the are
global
6
3 extracted
the
solution,0− −following
vector
112
−
incremental
of
2 at
loads, 0−

11
boundary
−
application
containing −3
2611 − 411
of 0
the conditions
external 
equivalent
2 loads
11
was
are
nodal
− extracted
loads
11 2
 a
3 .section  (29)
 
 3   0 04=    0= 11  −0 11
2.4.2 Nonlinear 0 Analysis 02    2 2       2
3 2 
 3 2
=0 = 0 and  =
 =  ,= 
inherent
three
 3 0 degrees − to
−211 4 = incorporate
 
4of=
the
  0and
0freedom
model: . at
3   =  the
2 of
each
 = orwidth
0 =and
these  
2 of
2nodes:
 = = acting
 , ,
performedor
  .(25)

inherent
 on
, b
and of

the
to
∂
the
=(29)
obtain to
structure;
. The beam,
,
the an  which
model:
and
interpolation
initial
(25) 11  is is
the
functions
(predicted) not(28)
vector present
used
solution,
11  During of nodal
followed
116the process
in bythe
displacements,
an equations
iterative
11 211 of applying obtained of
Newton–Raphson
11loads
classical
by solving the
611on the4structural elem
200and  or (27)
  11 11  , To22   6 2  6 4
03= 3  0 0
11 0
0 3 −011 
0
4 =  
 or = . force ∂
 During =(25) control andprocess
the
0the 2= 11
ofTable
applying 11− or
loads on thethe
11
= of
−structural  ,element,
11
the matrix 11(26) can be
reach the final equilibrium 0solution, incremental application of 2 −
external loads − can was

2.4Discretization
= 11 2 − 11 by
11 
to the Finite
3 .represent
laminate
Element
the displacements theory.
Method along the During
(29) 
finite system
using
the
element process of
of Equations
orof
lengthdisplacement 0(30).
applying were During loads
cubic

process.
on
the  structural
process
different
polynomials  for
0 1of
even summarizes
 applying
for
 element,
 elements
2  the flowchart
loads
 of the
matrix
onsame the
the
program.
length 2 bebecause
structural 

the crack
where
the
0Finite Qis the
0 Element shear 0force
Method in
 the= section andobtained
application  = from the equilibrium orare ofDuring
different the differential
even for
,0and elements element
of the same length
(26)   or because the cracking process of the concrete or
to (26
ecause of
ofthe application of PTV, 0 the following ,
boundary
00performed to conditions
obtain an of extracted
initial ===
(predicted) at 
solution, ==applying

followed by thean iterative =
 Newton–Raphson concrete
, for
 different even for elements the same
ecause = theand  Because
application = =
 of Stiffness
of
 00and
PTV, the the
linear 00orfollowing 
polynomials=  of
boundaryPTV,
for 00
 = the
conditions
  following
. (28)
are
Finally, the 0
extracted
the 0element,
rotation
yielding 
0length
Table
the
of at ∂and
the 01.
process 
the
Iterative
was  because
0the
0 =
matrix
of
obtained
reinforcement
 0 the
yielding

process 0by of
causes loads
cracking
ofobtaining
can
, the on be
damage or
thea process
reinforcement
different
solution
structural
variable =of to
the
causes
,assume
even
element, the damage
the ele-or variable
matrix
different (27)
(31)
values alongcan assu
be
the
2.4.1
of=the
ent Determination
Methodbeam.
inherent 0of the 0 2.3 Principlethe Matrix ofusing Virtual 0 Works0 During the process
1 of applying loads on the structural element,  the matr
inherent to to the model:
   
= , yielding forceofor the reinforcement causes the
displacement control process. ∂ damage
Table 1 the
length variable
summarizes
or height to the assume
offlowchart
the different
beam. of the values
program. along theof the concrete or
ofthe ,Stiffness Matrixthe model: beam   0.0 andwas
=0 element  = or  different
or length
 even
or for
height
 elements
and of the of
beam. same length (27) because
or the cracking(D> 0) process process(27
0 = =of ,(D  0 =elements
0  =
different even for of  , different
deriving from  where NE isPre-cracking
the 
number 0phase  =
0 0) the same length
Post-cracking phase because the cracking of
e in the Herein,
section the
obtained classical from 00the equilibrium length00
chosen
of 2 the height
for
differential3of
00 treatment the beam.
using
element
the FEM
yielding for = of finite
0formulation
the and
reinforcement
elements
 =
causes
defined
0 the in
0 the
damage or beam
variable discretization;
= to  ,
assume
and  is the
values(28) along the
Matrix 0 = 0 and  =  0 In
 this study,
or 0 FEM =  
 0was used
,.,1. Calculation ofto
Table
2.4.2 model
1. (26)
Iterative
theNonlinearthe yielding
 the laminated
process
Analysis of2.4.2the of Nonlinear
obtaining
reinforcement beam, and
abyAnalysis
 solution
causes of the
thethe principle
damage matrixvariable of virtual
to assume different v
assical beam
developed in the element = wasand
4 previous subsections 
chosen 0 = = 
for =
treatment
00. This2.4.2 element or
using−  FEM
issystem =
delimited stiffness
 for matrix
formulation
by length
two nodes of the beam
stiffness (26)matrix;element, which (29)is given 1. Calculation stiffness in relation to the
0 at itsofends, ofwith
The FEM [17]
00 application generates 2 00 a 3of 00 nodal equilibrium orheight equations 0the beam. type0 last equilibrium
0 0  0 
 0 11 
 11    0
work was and used 
toNonlinear
write Analysis
equilibrium or isforce and (28) configuration using displacements,
or (28
(Dequations and transform the continuous >problem , into a loads appl
ment was chosen for. treatment using =is FEM for  by
formulation where = 
Q is the shear  =
in11 length
= the ,load or
section height obtainedof the beam.
11; To =from reach thethe equilibrium
final  of
equilibrium =the  differential
solution, element
incremental
0 and or ,,2.its To (27)
reach the final equilibrium solution, incremental application of external was
The load updated from the increment
ous
three subsections
degrees of

 0 =
[17]
=
freedom This
 and
atelement


each 
 0of =
= these delimited

 0 nodes:  , two
or

  , nodes
and

 == 

0at
Pre-cracking
∂ 
.The ends,
phase
interpolation
2.4.2 with
Nonlinear
=
 0)
(27)

functions
Analysis 0 used −

 strains,
− 11Post-cracking
stresses,
 0and thephase 11
updated(D 0)
damage variable;
2.4
17] Discretization
. This element
 is by
 00the Finite
0 delimited
2
by discrete
0
two
 3 Element
nodes problem.
0 at its Method
ends,
0 of the
with
0
To reach beam.  3. Solve the system ofEquation (30);
∂ the final equilibrium
matrix; 2.4.2 solution, incremental application ofmatrix
external loads was followed by a
performed to obtain
Nonlinear an initial
Analysis
performed
 (predicted)to2. Update
 obtain solution,anfrom followed
initial  by
(predicted) an iterative
solution, Newton–Raphson
Fto
0
30. (29)
at each
= of =  2 00−  11 ∂0 0 1. Calculation of the stiffness
   
om
where Q is the

these11
shear0 nodes: 
force ,along
0in the , and0section .The
obtained
where interpolation
Q isfromthe thefunctions
shear equilibrium
force used in the of(28) the
section 12differential
finalobtained 61. Calculation
element
from
of theload
the
stiffness
equilibrium
load
6increment in relation
of
; the
to represent the 0 =
displacements
= ∂ 0 and
and  0 the== 
finite
 element
performed
0 or
or of 
to
 =
length 
obtain
=  ,,4.Return
an wereinitialcubic
using
to step 1;To force
0 reach
polynomials
(predicted) or
(28) the
displacement
11
solution, forequilibrium
using control
11
force
followed solution,
process.
or
0 by 3−
12
Table
displacement
an incremental
111 summarizes
iterative control thethe
11 application
process.
Newton–Raphson flowchartdifferential
of external
Table of1 the elemen
loads
program.
summarizes was
the
2.4.1
se nodes:Determination
,  ,and of
. the
The Stiffness
interpolation
 Matrix
∂
Given functions

 that
used
thecubic structural system To reach last  equilibrium
2
the  final configuration
equilibrium
  using
solution, displacements,
incremental ofapplication
the (29)of exte
0 will  be in;=initial
equilibrium, ifsolution,
the
0 0  2. The load is updated from the ∂ load increment = 
3 2 0 0 total
3
virtual
2
work
strains, 2 − 11 3 .
∂   
ofcements
f the beam. along the finite element of length of the were beam. polynomials performed for to obtain an
11(predicted)
stresses, 3. and
Solve thetheupdated
system of
followedEquation
damage by(30);
an
variable; iterative Newton–Raphson
 mm, with a span of 2400 mm and loads located 800 mm from the suppor
and b.
The reinforcement rate of the beams was varied such that three t
flexural tension failure (under-reinforced section), flexural compression
section), and simultaneous failure (optimized section), could be
Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering reinforcement
Research | Volume of all05 beams
| Issue 04 | Octoberof2022
consisted two bars with a diameter
reinforcement varied based on the type of failure expected for the b
reinforced section beam (Figure 2b), three bars with a diameter of 10 m
ments of the same length Lel because the cracking process failuremm (over-reinforced
2 section), and simultaneous fail-
); ii) for the optimized section beam (Figure 2c), five bars with a d
of the concrete or the yielding of the reinforcement causes ure (optimized
used (As =section),
393 mm ); 2 could bethe
iii) for evaluated. The upper
over-reinforced section beam (Figure
the damage variable to assume different values along the reinforcement diameter of 10 allmm
beams
wereconsisted
used (As =of 550two
mmbars
2
with
). For beama reinforcement,
length or height of the beam. diameterwere
ofassumed
5 mm. The for steel:
lower = 196 GPa,  =
 reinforcement 500 MPa,
varied basedand  = 500 M
on the type of failure expected for the beam: i) for the un-
2.4.2 Nonlinear Analysis der-reinforced section beam (Figure 2b), three bars with
2
To reach the final equilibrium solution, incremental a diameter of 10 mm were used (As = 236 mm ); ii) for
the optimized section beam (Figure 2c), five bars with a
application of external loads was performed to obtain an
diameter of 10 mm were used (As = 393 mm2); iii) for the
initial (predicted) solution, followed by an iterative New-
over-reinforced section beam (Figure 2d),  ,seven bars with
ton–Raphson using force or displacement control process.   =
a diameter of10=mm  , were used (A = 550 mm2). For beam (30)
Table 1 summarizes the flowchart of the program. s
where  is the global stiffness matrix of the structure, a function of both the geom
where  is the global reinforcement,
stiffness
beam and matrix the of thethefollowing
mechanical structure, a properties
properties function were
of theofmaterials,
both the assumed
geometry
and is given offor
thethe assembly of e
by
beam and the mechanical properties shown in ofEquation
the materials, (31); and
 is is given by thevector
the global assembly of elements,
ofMPa.
loads, containing as the equivalent
2.5 Model Validation steel: E = 196
Figure GPa, f = 500
2. Experimental MPa, and f = 500
and  issetup
u : a)
offour-point bending
loads test; b) under
[15]
shown in Equation (31); acting is stheon global vector
the structure;
y of loads, containing
the vectorthe equivalent
nodal nodal
displacements, obtained by
acting on the structure; and Forsystemconcrete
isoftheEquations modeling,
vector of
(30).nodalan elastic
displacements,
optimized modulusobtained
beam; ofd)
by29.2
solving GPa
over-reinforcedthe beam.
[15]
The experimental results obtained by Álvares were (30).
system of Equations
and the following parameters necessary for the Mazar
For concrete modeling,  =an  1elastic
 , modulus of 29.2 GPa and th
used to validate the proposed model. Reinforced concrete damage model,  =   , by Álvares [15]
defined , were used.byAÁlvares (31)
t=
where necessary
NE is the fornumber
1 the Mazar of finite damage
elements model,
defined defined
in the beam
[15]
, were
discretization; and u
beams with different reinforcement ratios where wereNE experi-
is the number 995, Bfinite
ofstiffness =
8000
t 8000, ,
elements
matrix A = = 0.85,
defined
0.85,
 cof the beam  B
in the
= = 1620
beam
1620 and
and
discretization;
 celement, which is0  =
given by and
0.00007   .. Ad-
Additionally,
is the a Poi
mentally investigated to evaluate their failure stiffness
formmatrix when of the beam element, assumed. which is given by
ditionally, a Poisson’s 11 ratio of 0.2 was 11 assumed.  
0study − − 11 process) 0 of the11discretization
− A11 convergence 0 (30) (verification
11   11
subjected to a four-point bending test. The experimental   = A , convergence 0 −  11
study (verification 
process) 
of the dis- 
 displacement  solution
 12was11the performed
6 to determine 1211 the 611finite element
test of the beams was performed with load beam andcontrol
the mechanicalsuch
where  is the global stiffness matrix of the structure, a function of both the geometry of 11
cretization
1211and is given parameters
611 0 of the
12 load–displacement
6211 0 − solution
properties0of the materials,
shown in Equation (31);  is the global vectorof 3 varying the
2
by thenumber 0
assembly of of
− layers
3 11
elements,
 3
as (10, 2 20, and 40 layers) 3 of the 2 cross section,
 loads, containing
 the equivalent nodal loads 
that the test was interrupted when the breaking load and
acting on the structure; was  is thewas
11 vector 6performed
of for displacements,
nodal the4length to− determine
of
11 the
obtained beams
611the
11 by solving
6 the finite
(12,224,
411 element
36, 11 and 48 −mesh
elements),
6 11 of211the initial loa
11 11 2 11 11
system of Equations (30). −  −    2–3 –4
2 kN), by and the tolerance of
 2 the iterative process (10 , 10 , and. 10–6). The
reached.   = , (30) the beams   varying
 = 11 the number


  of
  layers

11 (10, 20, and
where  is the global stiffness matrix of the structure, a function of both the [15]geometry of the  =  =  ,
recommended

1
−11

for the 0 (31)
simulation 11
of .
the three beams
0 (32)
were

− 11 a discretizati
The properties
beam and the mechanical beamsof the evaluated
materials, and isbygivenÁlvares hadNEaas isrectangular
by the assembly of elements,
where the number of finite
11
40
−elements layers)
0 in theof
defined
11
beamthe cross  section,
discretization; and  0is thethe −

number
 11 of
 elements for 
is givenelements,  an initial load12 step of 16kN and tolerance 1211of 10 6 . 11
 –6
shown in Equation (31);  is the global vector of loads, containing the equivalent nodal matrix of the beam element,which
loads
stiffness  by  
acting on thesection
structure; andmeasuring
 is the vector of120 mm × 300 obtainedmm, with a span of the length of the beams (12, 24, 36, and 48 elements), the
11 11
nodal displacements, by solving the 12 11 6 11 0 − 12 11 − 6 11 0 −
system of Equations (30).

0 0−  −−  3 0 − 2
11 11
0 11 3 11
− 2 2
3
2
3
2400 mm and =loads located 800 mm from the support,
as initial 
load
3. Results step 
(0.5,
6 and

 1.0, and
11 Discussion

6 11 2.0 
kN),
2

11 and the
 tolerance
6 of4
, 
 (31) 0
12 6
11  0 11 −
6
12
11 11
211 11
11
611 11
411 − 11 − 211 11

where NE isshown
the number in Figure
elements2a andin the
1
2b.beam discretization; and  is the
 3
 2
− (10 –3−2 2–4
3 2
 –6   
 4the iterative process , 10 , and 10 ). Therefore, the
   
of finite defined   6 211 11 6  
11 2 11   
11 11  
−  − 
stiffness matrix of the beam element, which is given by 2 2

The reinforcement rate of the beams wasvaried


 such
  
investigation
During
 
the. process offor
recommended applying loads on the of structural element, the matrix 
on the structuralthe simulation the matrix the  three
     
= (32)
−During 0the process of applying loads element, can be
 11 11  11 11
   0 −
11
0 − − 11
0 11 11
  different
 even for
 elements of the same length  because the cracking process of the
that 0three 12 types 6 of failures, namely flexuraldifferenttension even for
0 fail-
12 elements
− beams
of the
0 were
samealength  because of
discretization the 20cracking
layers process
and of 36 the concrete or
elements,
       
   
11
0 11
−
12 6 11 11 −
6
the yielding
12 11
−of 6
11
the reinforcement 11
causes11
the damage variable to assume different valu
 3
 2
  3 the yielding of the
2  reinforcement
 causes
3

 the damage variable to assume different –6
2

3

2
 values along the
ure− (under-reinforced section), flexural compression an initial
length load
or
6 height
step of
4 of the beam.
1 kN and tolerance of 10 .
   
 6 2 
length or height of thebeam.
11 11 11 11 11 11
611 411  11
−
6 11 2 11 11 − 2 −  2
 2   2        
 = . (32) 2.4.2 Nonlinearelement,Analysis
−
11
0
11 11
0 −
11
2.4.2
DuringNonlinear Analysis
the process of applying loads on the structural the matrix  can be
    different even for elements of the same length  because the cracking process of the concrete or
0 −
1211
−
611
0
1211
−
611 Table 1. Iterative process of obtaining a solution
the yielding of the reinforcement causes the damage variableToto assume
reachdifferent
To reach the final equilibrium solution, incremental
the final
values equilibrium
along the solution,
incremental application of externa
application of
external loads was
3 2 3 2 length or height of the beam.
performed to obtain an initial (predicted) solution, followed by an iterative Newto
11 611
−
211
− 2
11 611
performed
411
2.4.2 Nonlinear Analysisto obtain an initial (predicted) solution, followed by an iterative Newton–Raphson

Pre-cracking
2 
phase (D = 0)   
Post-cracking using force
phase or displacement control process. Table 1 summarizes the flowchart of the p
(Dapplication
> 0)
During the process of applying loads on the structural element, the matrix  can be using
To force
reach the or
final displacement
equilibrium control
solution, process.
incremental Table
of 1 summarizes
external loads was the flowchart of the program.
performedor to obtain an initial (predicted) solution, followed by an iterative Newton–Raphson
different even for elements of the same length  because the cracking process of the concrete Table 1.
Table 1. Iterative process of obtaining a solution Iterative process of obtaining a solution
the yielding of the reinforcement causes the damage variable to assume different valuesusing
alongforce
the or displacement control process. Table 1 summarizes the flowchart of the program.
length or height of the beam.
1. 1.Calculation
Table Iterative processof
Pre-cracking phase (D of the stiffness
obtaining
= 0) solutionmatrix
aPre-cracking in relation
phase (D = 0) to the last equilibrium
Post-cracking phase (D > 0)
Post-cracking phase (D > 0
2.4.2 Nonlinear Analysis
To reach the final equilibrium solution, incremental application of external loads was 1. Calculation of configuration
Pre-cracking phase (D = 0)
using
the stiffness matrix; displacements,
1. Calculation of the stiffness strains,
Post-cracking phase (D > 0)
stresses,
matrix;
1. Calculation and
of the the updated
stiffness matrix indamage
1. Calculation of the stiffness matrix in
relation to the
performed to obtain an initial (predicted) solution, followed by an iterative Newton–Raphson
1. Calculation of the stiffness matrix; 1. Calculation of the stiffness matrix in relation to the last equilibrium configuration using d
variable; last2. equilibrium
The load is updated
configuration last
from
using equilibrium
the load configuration
increment
displacements,  ; using displacements,
using force or displacement control process. Table 1 summarizes the flowchart of the program. 2. The load2.is The load
updated fromistheupdated
load from
increment the
; load
strains,increment
stresses, and the ;
updated damage variable; strains, stresses, and the updated damage var
strains, stresses, and the updated damage variable;
3. Solveload thefrom
system of Equation (30);

3. Solve the system of Equation (30);
2. Update load from
2. Updateload load increment F;;
increment
Table 1. Iterative process of obtaining a solution 3. Solve the system of Equation (30); 2. Update load from load increment F
 
4. Return to step 1;
4.3. Return to step
Solve the system 1;
of Equation (30);
2. Update load from load increment F ;
Pre-cracking phase (D = 0) Post-cracking phase (D > 0)
4. Return to step3.1;Solve the system of Equation (30);
4. Check convergence through the unbalanced force 3. Solve the system of Equation (30);
(external forces minus internal forces); 3. Solve the system of Equation (30);
1. Calculation of the stiffness matrix; 1. Calculation of the stiffness matrix in relation to the
2. The load is1. Calculation of thestiffness matrix; 4. Check convergence through the unbalanced force (external forces minus
last equilibrium configuration using displacements,
updated from the load increment ; strains, stresses, and the updated damage variable; 4. Check convergence through the unb
5. If there is no convergence, the 4. Check
stiffness convergence through the unbalanced
of the force
3. Solve the system of Equation (30);
2. The load is updated from2. the Updateload load increment F;;
increment
load from internal forces); structure must be updated and then the increment of the
(external forces minus internal forces); (external forces minus internal forces);
4. Return to step 1; nodal displacements  must be calculated through the
unbalance force. Subsequently, the displacements
3. Solve the system of Equation (30); 5. If there is no convergence, the st
3. Solve the system of Equation (30); 5. If there is no convergence,
(  the stiffness
+  ) and the damage
Finally, the unbalanced force is
5. are
variable of theis structure
If updated.
there
updated and
muststructure
no convergence, be
theupdated
stiffness of the
must beofupdated and then the inc
4. Check convergence through the unbalanced force structure mustthebe updated and then the increment the
4. Return to step 1; (external forces minus internal forces); convergence is verified (external force minus internal
and then the increment of the nodal displacements
nodal displacements  must benodal
must be displacements
calculated
calculated  must be calculate
through the
Subsequently,unbalance force. Subsequently, the
5. If there is no convergence, the stiffness of the
structure must be updated and then the increment of the unbalance force. the displacements
nodal displacements  must be calculated through the through the unbalance force. Subsequently,
(  + the displacements
) and the damage ((variable  ))updated.
 + are and
and the damage variable
unbalance force. Subsequently, the displacements
Finally, the unbalanced force Finally, the and
isis updated
updated unbalanced
the force is upda
(  +  ) and the damage variable are updated. the damage variable are updated. Finally, the unbalanced forceconvergence isand
verified (external force m
Finally, the unbalanced force is updated and the convergence is verified (external force minus internal
convergence is verified (external force minus internal
the convergence is verified (external force minus internal force). Repeat this
process until the solution converges to that charge level.
6. After convergence, go back to step 1.

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 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 05 | Issue 04 | October 2022

Figure 2. Experimental setup [15]: a) four-point bending test; b) under-reinforced beam; c) optimized beam; d) over-rein-
forced beam.

3. Results and Discussion the experimental results. However, the experimental curve
presents an ultimate displacement during the beam test
For the three types of beams, Figures 3~5 show the that is smaller than that predicted by the numerical result.
force–displacement curves obtained experimentally by This is because the load control used in the experiment
Álvares [15] and the respective numerical results obtained halts the test when the maximum load is reached.
from the proposed model. The experimentally acquired In the numerical model, taking the limits of deforma-
force–displacement curves exhibited the typical behavior tion presented in Figure 6 as a reference, the beam failure
of reinforced concrete beams subjected to bending failure, was established by monitoring the strains in the most com-
along with the identification of three stages (Figure 3). In pressed concrete layer and in the most stressed steel layer.
Stage I, the concrete was undamaged, and the stiffness of The ultimate limit states of a reinforced concrete beam
the EII beams was because of the combined action of con- can be established when the strain in the concrete reaches
crete and steel. The cracking of concrete indicates the end a value = 0.35% because of compression failure, and/
of this stage. The cracking load is defined by the tensile or by tensile failure when the strain in the steel reaches a
strength of the concrete. value = 1.00% caused by crushing the compressed sec-
In stage II, the curve initially exhibits nonlinear be- tion. Balanced beams fail because of crushing of the com-
havior that is characterized by the appearance of multiple pressed region; however, the strain in the steel is equal to
cracks on the lower face of the beam. Gradually, stress or less than the yield strain . When the beam cross-sec-
is transferred to the steel bars, which provide the tensile tion and reinforcement ratio are optimally designed, fail-
strength of the beam. As the load increases, a second lin- ure occurs simultaneously in the top compressed layer and
ear section is formed whose slope represents the stiffness the most tensioned reinforcement section.
EIII of the cracked beam and is defined primarily by the The proposed numerical model allows for the moni-
reinforcement rate. However, the cracked concrete can toring of the strains of the materials of the beam and the
contribute to the stiffness in a phenomenon called the ten- identification of the failure mechanism, as shown in Figure
sion-stiffening effect [18]. 7. In the over-reinforced beam, failure occurs by crushing
Stage III begins with a further reduction in the stiffness the compressed region. This beam has the highest failure
and a trend to stabilize the force until the beam fails. The load, of the order of 73 kN, but a lower total displacement
reinforcement rate of the beam affects the force and dis- than the other beams analyzed. For the under-reinforced
placements that define the beginning and end of stage III, beam, the maximum load obtained was 81% lower than
which can lead to three types of failure associated with the load observed for the over-reinforced beam, and the
deformations in steel and concrete at the instant of beam deformation was 1.2 times greater. The optimized beam
collapse. presents a load 46% less than the load observed for the
For stages I and II, a good approximation between the over-reinforced beam, but with a deformation 1.3 times
experimental load–displacement curves and the curves greater. In addition, this beam presents the best use of ma-
obtained using the proposed model, wherein the damage terials, which contributes to the reduction of energy con-
model is associated with the classical theory of laminates, sumption and non-renewable materials, thereby increasing
can be confirmed by comparing the numerical results with the sustainability of the structures.

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 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 05 | Issue 04 | October 2022

compressive stresses did not reach the peak stress but the
stress–strain behavior was observed in the nonlinear re-
gime at failure, thus indicating the appearance of damage
to the stiffness of the concrete. As the strains in the rein-
forcement reached their maximum value, the neutral axis
approached the upper surface of the beam section. For the
other beams, the concrete had reached its ultimate strain,
and the beam’s neutral axis was close to the centroid of
the cross-section.

Figure 3. Flexural behavior of under-reinforced beam

Figure 6. Strain limits for steel and concrete in the beam

cross section

Figure 4. Flexural behavior of optimized beam

Figure 7. Theoretical identification of limiting strains of

steel and concrete
Evidently, the proposed model for the behavior of ten-
sioned concrete considers the contribution of cracking
Figure 5. Flexural behavior of over-reinforced beam concrete (below the neutral axis), in contrast to design
The results obtained by the numerical model indicated codes for reinforced concrete structures, even though the
a variation in the stress–strain behavior of each beam, tensile stress value is low when comparing the stresses in
as shown in Figure 8. For under-reinforced beams, the the reinforcement and even in the compressed concrete.

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 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 05 | Issue 04 | October 2022

Figure 8. Stress–strain diagrams of concrete at failure of beam.

The variation in the stress–strain behavior is a function magnitude of the maximum transverse displacement of
of the evolution of the damage parameter. As established the beam with respect to the height is small, thus justify-
by Equation (3), when the deformations exceed the limit ing the geometric linear analysis. The failure modes of the
value, , there is a gradual reduction in the stiffness beams did not include shear failures.
of the beam owing to cracking of the concrete. Figure 9
shows the variation in the damage parameter (1-Dc) for 5. Conclusions
the three types of beams investigated, with the increase in The proposed model combines the classic theory of
the vertical displacement of the beam. Initially, the value laminates and the Mazars damage model. By using FEM,
of (1-Dc) was equal to unity because there was no damage it was able to evaluate the flexural behavior of reinforced
to the compressed concrete. With increasing displacement, concrete beams up to the failure of these elements for
a reduction in this parameter was verified; however, it was different rates of flexural using numerical simulation of
affected by the reinforcement ratio of the beam. At failure, the reinforced concrete beams under four-point bend tests.
compression damage of approximately 60% was observed This was possible because the strategy of incorporating in
for under-reinforced beams, and the damage was approxi- the finite elements, the lamination of the transverse sec-
mately 80% for the optimized and over-reinforced beams. tion, and the physical nonlinearity of the materials by con-
tinuous damage mechanics allowed the following of the
stress and strain state of each layer of material, whether
concrete (with its progressive cracking) or the reinforce-
ment (even in the yielding).
Therefore, despite the relative simplicity of the pro-
posed model, its potential to predict the behavior of rein-
forced concrete beams under bending was demonstrated,
thereby allowing a precise identification of deformations
and rupture criteria. The numerical model allowed the
identification of the failure form of each type of rein-
forced concrete beam analyzed, through the prediction
of the neutral line variation and the determination of the
stress-strain behavior. In this way, the model can be used
Figure 9. Variation in the damage parameter with increase
to predict the behavior of structural elements subjected to
in the vertical displacement of the beams.
bending and lead to optimized designs, with greater safety
and lower cost.
4. Limitations of the Study
The model used in this study, within the scope of static
Author Contributions
loading, ignores shear and geometric nonlinearity effects. JMFL: methodology, numerical modelling, formal
Furthermore, the Mazars damage model is elastic and is analysis, writing - original draft; PRLL: conceptualization,
not appropriate for situations of cyclic loadings, which is investigation, data curation, formal analysis, writing -
not the case in the present study. However, the order of review & editing; GJBS: numerical modelling, formal

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 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 05 | Issue 04 | October 2022

analysis, writing - original draft. 2022. A modified mazars damage model with energy
regularization. Engineering Fracture Mechanics. 259,
Conflict of Interest 108129.
No conflict of interest. [10] Carrera, E., Augello, R., Pagani, A., et al., 2021.
Component-wise approach to reinforced concrete
Funding structures. Mechanics of Advanced Materials and
Structures. 1-19.
This research was funded by CNPq, grant numbers [11] Arruda, M.R.T., Castro, L.M.S., 2021. Non-linear
313693/2019-6 and 408135/2021-2, and State Univer- dynamic analysis of reinforced concrete structures
sity of Feira de Santana, grant numbers 034/2021 and with hybrid mixed stress finite elements. Advances
064/2021. Engineering Software. 153, 102965.
[12] Leone, F.A., Justusson, B.P., 2020. Effects of charac-
References
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[1] Wang, T., Hsu, T., 2001. Nonlinear finite element in continuum damage mechanics models. Journal of
analysis of concrete structures using new constitutive Composites Materials. 55(24), 3551-3566.
models. Computer& Structures. 79, 2781-2791. [13] Di Prisco, M., Mazars, J., 1996. Crush-crack’: a
[2] Assan, A., 2002. Nonlinear analysis of reinforced non-local damage model for concrete. Mechanics of
concrete cylindrical shells. Computer&Structures. Cohesive-frictional Materials. An International Jour-
80, 2177-2184. nal on Experiments, Modelling and Computation of
[3] Tao, X., Phillips, D., 2005. A simplified isotropic Materials and Structures. 1(4), 321-347.
damage model for concrete under bi-axial stress DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1484
states. Cement & Concrete Composites. 27, 716-726. (199610)1:4<321::AID-CFM17>3.0.CO;2-2
[4] Mazars, J., Kotronis, P., Ragueneau, F., et al., 2006. [14] Mazars, J., Lemaitre, J., 1985. Application of Con-
Using multifiber beams to account for shear and tor- tinuous Damage Mechanics to Strain and Fracture
sion. Applications to concrete structural elements. Behavior of Concrete. Shah, S.P. (eds) Application
Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engi- of Fracture Mechanics to Cementitious Composites.
neering. 195, 7264-7281. NATO ASI Series, vol 94. Springer, Dordrecht.
[5] Butean, C., Heghes, B., 2020. Flexure Behavior of a DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-5121-1_17
two layer reinforced concrete beam. Procedia Manu- [15] Alva, G.M.S., El Debs, A.L.H.C., Kaminski Jr, J.,
facturing. 46, 110-115. 2010. Nonlinear analysis of reinforced concrete
[6] Liu, C., Yang, Y., Wang, J., et al., 2020. Biaxial rein- structures in design procedures: application of
forced concrete constitutive models for implicit and lumped dissipation models. Revista IBRACON de
explicit solvers with reduced mesh sensitivity. Engi- Estruturas e Materiais. 3, 149-178.
neering Structures. 219, 110880. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/S1983-41952010000200003
[7] Tjitradi, D., Eliatun, E., Taufik, S., 2017. 3D ANSYS [16] Reddy, J.N., 2004. Mechanics of laminated compos-
numerical modeling of reinforced concrete beam ite plates and shells: theory and analysis. CRC Press.
behavior under different collapsed mechanisms. In- USA. pp. 831.
ternational Journal of Mechanics and Applications. [17] Cook, R.D., Malkus, D.S., Plesha, M.E., et al., 2002.
7(1), 14-23. Concepts and applications of finite element analysis.
[8] Gorgogianni, A., Elias, J., Le, J.L., 2020. Mecha- John Wiley & Sons. Inc. USA. pp. 719.
nism-based energy regularization in computational [18] Martins, M.P., Rangel, C.S., Amario, M., et al., 2020.
modeling of quasibrittle fracture. Journal of Applied Modelling of tension stiffening effect in reinforced
Mechanics. 87(9), 091003. recycled concrete. Revista Ibracon de Estruturas e
[9] Arruda, M.R.T., Pacheco, J., Castro, L.M.S., et al., Materiais. 13, 1-21.

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 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 05 | Issue 04 | October 2022

Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research

https://ojs.bilpublishing.com/index.php/jaeser

REVIEW
Dynamic Reliability Assessment of Heavy Vehicle Crossing a
Prototype Bridge Deck by Using Simulation Technology and Health
Monitoring Data
Yinghua Li1* Junyong He2 Xiaoqing Zeng3 Yanxing Tang4
1. Shixing County Administrative Service Center, Shixing, Shaoguan, Guangdong, 512500, China
2. Guangdong College of Industry and Commerce, No. 1O98, Guangzhou North Road, Tianhe, Guangzhou,
Guangdong, China
3. Shixing County Statistics Bureau, Shixing, Shaoguan, Guangdong, 512500, China
4. Shixing County Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shixing, Shaoguan, Guangdong, 512500, China

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Article history Overloads of vehicle may cause damage to bridge structures, and how to
Received: 20 September 2022 assess the safety influence of heavy vehicles crossing the prototype bridge
is one of the challenges. In this report, using a large amount of monitored
Revised: 21 October 2022 data collected from the structural health monitoring system (SHMS) in
Accepted: 10 November 2022 service of the prototype bridge, of which the bridge type is large-span
Published Online: 25 November 2022 continuous rigid frame bridge, and adopting FEM simulation technique,
we suggested a dynamic reliability assessment method in the report to
Keywords: assess the safety impact of heavy vehicles on the prototype bridge during
operation. In the first place, by using the health monitored strain data, of
Large-span continuous rigid frame bridge which the selected monitored data time range is before the opening of
Heavy vehicle traffic, the quasi dynamic reliability around the embedded sensor with
Dynamic reliability evaluation no traffic load effects is obtained; then, with FEM technology, the FEM
simulation model of one main span of the prototype bridge is built by using
SHM
ANSYS software and then the dynamic reliability when the heavy vehicles
Finite element simulation technology crossing the prototype bridge corresponding to the middle-span web plate
is comprehensively analyzed and discussed. At last, assuming that the main
beam stress state change is in the stage of approximately linear elasticity
under heavy vehicle loads impact, the authors got the impact level of heavy
vehicles effects on the dynamic reliability of the prototype bridge. Based
on a large number of field measured data, the dynamic reliability value
calculated by our proposed methodology is more accurate. The method
suggested in the paper can do good for not only the traffic management but
also the damage analysis of bridges.

*Corresponding Author:
Yinghua Li,
Shixing County Administrative Service Center, Shixing, Shaoguan, Guangdong, 512500, China;
Email: [email protected]

DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jaeser.v5i4.5073
Copyright © 2022 by the author(s). Published by Bilingual Publishing Co. This is an open access article under the Creative Commons
Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/).

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 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 05 | Issue 04 | October 2022

1. Introduction in the management of heavy vehicles crossing bridges.

Hu B X et al. [7] built a model of the random dense vehi-
Heavy vehicle in many countries, especially in devel-
cle load of bridge structures and obtained three different
oping countries, is a widespread problem resulting in early
degree dense vehicle loads by using the simulated mod-
damage of the bridge and brings in huge economic losses.
el. Li Y H et al. [8] suggested a method for analyzing the
Here, we take China as an example. By 2020, China’s
probability of heavy vehicles with adopting the monitored
total expressway mileage is up to 161,000 km. Due to the
strain data from a structural health monitoring system of
reforms and opening up as well as the deepening of Chi-
a bridge. Tao Fuxian and Du shanpeng [9] introduce the
na’s market economy, the states have heavily increased
evaluation method and checking calculation points of the
investment in infrastructure, bringing the transportation
bearing capacity of the bridge structure, and give the ba-
sector to a new stage. However, a variety of problems,
sis for the carrying capacity of the bridge structure under
such as increase in traffic, loads due to heavy-duty vehi-
the overweight load, and introduce several engineering
cles, increasing speed of the vehicles as well as increased
technology and management measures when the over-
carrying capacity, presents the transport sector with
weight vehicles cross the bridge. Wang K and Liu J [10] put
“high-volume, heavy and channel traffic” challenges. The
forward the safety evaluation conclusion on the basis of
increasing heavy trucks cause a cumulative growth in
bridge status and finite element calculation which ensured
the standard axle load and lead to serious damage of the
the overweight vehicle to cross hollow plate girder bridge
roads and bridges. Urban roads and bridges carrying these
safety. Liu Jing and Cao Xintao [11] check the bearing ca-
heavy transport regularly induce the bridge structures
pacity of the bridge, and put forward the corresponding
and its components to withstand large dynamic load and
frequent load times. Although the stress level is far below bridge management measures, so as to reduce the harm
the ultimate strength or yield limit of materials used in the of overweight vehicles to the highway bridge and im-
bridges such as steel, concrete etc., it often causes sudden prove the bearing capacity of the bridge. W. Han et al. [12]
and unexpected destruction. presented a methodology for assessing the safety of pre-
As for the impact of overweight vehicles on bridge stressed concrete box-beam bridges with considering
safety, many scholars around the world have conducted customized transport vehicle load effects. As for large
extensive research. Kirkegaard P H et al. [1] considered number of bridge collapse accidents due to heavy truck.
the vehicle load dynamic amplification on minor highway Zhu Songye et al. [13] suggested a vehicle-bridge coupled
bridges for evaluating the safety of the bridge structure vibration model of a rigid-frame bridge for evaluating
load carrying capacity. Zhao Yu et al. [2] elaborate the bridge structure safety under practical traffic loads effects.
evaluation steps, checking principles, checking methods Evgeny A. Lugovtsev [14] implemented programs with an
and traffic management measures of the overweight ve- experimental and analytical method for assessing the tech-
hicles passing through the bridge deck, which provides nical condition of road bridges for reliability, and revealed
the way for evaluating the overweight vehicles passing the features, conditions of application, positive and nega-
through the bridge. Chang Hao et al. [3] take reinforcement tive aspects of each version of the program.
measures seriously, of which the aim is to cooperate with In short, researchers in the word wide still lack data to
overweight vehicles crossing the bridge, and resolutely assist doing safety impact assessment of heavy vehicle
put an end to all kinds of major accidents to ensure the load effects for bridge structures. The present study lacks
smooth flow of the road. Jiang H et al. [4] established a effective support from field measured data. Consequently,
bridge model with finite element software and the process by using large amount of strain monitoring data and AN-
that heavy vehicle pass through the bridge was simulated, SYS software, a method is suggested to assess the safety
and finally the safety margin of the bridge was evaluated impact of heavy vehicle on the prototype bridge in this
on the basis of bearing capacity analysis. Na H S et al. [5] paper. Based on large amount of in-situ measured data, the
identified the dynamic characteristics with vehicle-impact calculated value got by our suggested method is closer to
loading and analyzed the behaviors of U-channel segmen- the bridge structure actual situation. We firstly suggested a
tal concrete bridge (UCB) system. Yu Xiaofei [6] presents calculation method for the dynamic reliability calculation
the harm of heavy vehicles to bridges, and puts forward of the abnormal load of a type overweight vehicle, and the
relevant requirements for the problems needing attention method can also be extended to do security evaluation for

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 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 05 | Issue 04 | October 2022

other abnormal loads. The method is very useful for of the sor measuring time interval is 1 hour. The strain gauge
bridge traffic management, and hence can effectively re- parameters are shown in Table 1. The health monitoring
duce the damage of bridge structures under heavy vehicle system is still operating normally at present, and a large
load effects. amount of strain monitored data have been obtained.

2. Brief Introduction of the Prototype Bridge Table 1. Parameters of the strain gauge
Name Range Sensitivity Gauge length Remarks

2.1 Structural Health Monitoring System of the Intelligent

Strain gauge
digital
Prototype Bridge vibrating strain
±1500 µε 1 µε 157 mm embedded in
concrete
gauge
The superstructure of the prototype bridge main beam
is a continuous box-beam system with a total of eight
main piers and 7 main spans. The first span is 145.4 m
long and the sixth span is 87 m long, and the 4 center
spans are all 144 m long. The cross section of box gird-
er is a single-box and single-chamber. The width of box
girder top plate is 12.5 and the base plate width of is 6.8 m.
The bridge deck transverse slope is 2.0% and the bridge Figure 1. Picture of the JMZX-215 strain gauge
deck longitudinal slope is 0.15%. The heights of the main
beam cross sections change from 8 m to 2.8 m according
to 1.6 order power parabola from the supporting base to
the mid-span. The thickness of the main beam base plate
Figure 2. Cross section locations of the embedded sensors
varies from 1 m to 0.32 m and thickness of the main beam
of SHMS
web plate varies 0.9 m to 0.45 m. The main beam is fully
prestressed concrete structure with vertical, horizontal and
longitudinal prestressed arrangement, and the prestressed
j
tendons are 15Φ 15.24 mm steel strand with the strength:
b
Ry = 1860 MPa , 2Φ j 12.7 mm steel strand with the strength:
Ryb = 1395 MPa and high strength rebar respectively.
The monitoring points of the SHM in each cross sec-
tion of the main beam locate near piers, in mid-span and
in 1/4 span, with total 20 sections. Among them, there are
8 cantilever end sections, 8 L/4 span sections, and 4 L/2
span sections. The strain variety sensor material object Figure 3. Position of the embedded sensors in half-span
of the prototype bridge
(JMZX-215 type) is shown in Figure 1, which is string
type strain gauge. The section locations can be seen in
2.2 The Acquired Strain Data of the Bridge
Figure 2. The sensor embedded locations in each section
SHMS
can be seen in Figure 3 with unique given numbers. With
the given name of cross section and number, a sensor in In this article, the data acquired from the sensors
the SHMS can be located in the girder uniquely, such as a 3G1H-1, 3-4MID-1, 4Z9H-1 and 3-4MID-2 are used by
sensor is named 3-4MID-1, which means that it locates in us as examples to display the outline of the monitoring
the top plate center of the mid-span cross-section between data, and the chosen time range is from March 2006 to
pier 3# and pier 4#. The sensors manufacturer is CHANG- April 2010. The pre-processed method that how to trans-
SHA KINGMACH HIGHTECHNICS CO., LTD [15]. With form the initial data into strain data can be seen in the
the given name of cross section and number, a sensor in papers [16,17]. Figure 4 shows the profile of the original data
the SHMS can be located in the girder uniquely. The sen- after several pre-processed steps.

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 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 05 | Issue 04 | October 2022

SHM) includes the quasi dynamic load effects, such as

temperature load effect, vehicle load effects etc., so, we
name the safety index the initial quasi dynamic reliability
βq .

3.3 The Calculation of the Initial Quasi Dynamic

Reliability β q
As for the prestress loss and concrete shrinkage and
creep etc., the load effects σ S distribution gradually close
to concrete tensile strength distribution with time, there-
fore, we calculate the initial quasi dynamic reliability β q
Figure 4. The graph of the monitored data after pre-pro-
by using the quasi dynamic tensile strength distribution as
cessed steps
the the resistance σ R . The method of quasi dynamic load
effects σ S transferred from the monitored data and initial
3. Main Idea of Calculation of Initial Quasi
quasi dynamic reliability β q calculation step both can be
Dynamic Reliability seen in the papers [18,19]. Figure 5 illustrates the quasi dy-
namic load effects σ S distribution. In the report, the data
3.1 The Fundamental Theory of First Order Sec- collected from the sensor 2-3MID-2, which is embedded
ond Moment Method in the mid-span web plate between the main pier 2# and
In this article, the first order second moment method is main pier 3#, are taken as examples, and the selected time
range is from March 2006 to October 2006. During March
adopted to calculate structural members’ safety index β ,
2006 to October 2006, the bridge has just begun to enter
and its reliability index β calculation expression can be
written as follows: into service, which reflects the quasi dynamic reliability
state of the bridge at the beginning of operation. Based on
β = −Φ −1 ( Pf ) = ( µ R − µ S ) / (σ R2 + σ S2 )1/2  (1) Equation (1), the initial quasi dynamic reliability β q value
where is the inverse function of the standard normal is got, seen in Table 3. Since the selected monitored data
distribution; µ R and µS are the mean of the resistance time range is before the opening of traffic, and so the traf-
and load effects respectively; σ R and σ S are the standard fic load effect is not included in the monitored data.
deviation of the resistance and load effects respectively.
The concrete strength probability distribution function ba- 0.15
sically obey Gaussian distribution and can be taken as the
Probabi l i t y densi t y

probability density function of the resistance .

0.10
3.2 The Definition of Quasi Dynamic Reliability
As the concrete compressive and tensile strength pa- 0.05
rameters are measured by testing machine at a certain
strain rate, then, the concrete compressive and tensile
0.00
strength are called by the name of quasi dynamic com- -19 -18 -17 -16
pressive strength and quasi dynamic tensile strength. The St ress ( MPa)
mean and standard deviation values of the concrete quasi
dynamic compressive and tensile strength respectively (2-3MID-2) 2006.05 ～ 2006.10
with 28 days curing are shown in Table 2.
Figure 5. The graph of quasi dynamic load effects σ S
Table 2. The quasi dynamic parameters of concrete com- distribution and Gaussian distribution fitting
pressive and tensile strength used in the prototype bridge
Mean (units: Standard deviation (units:
Table 3. The initial quasi dynamic reliability β q value in
Strength
MPa) MPa) mid-span web plate between main pier#2 and main pier#3
compressive 55.12 6.063 Sensor number 2-3MID-2
tensile 3.2783 0.361
The initial quasi dynamic reliability β q value 10.7903
In the meanwhile, as the load effects σ S (acquired by

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 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 05 | Issue 04 | October 2022

4. The Building of Simulation Model for 4.3 The Simulation Process

Heavy Vehicle Passing through the Bridge
In this paper, the key is to design a reasonable load
in FEM model to represent the heavy vehicle. Here we
4.1 Building of the FEM Model introduce one kind of vehicle loads with four kinds of
In order to obtain the dynamic load effects induced by speeds: A QC-20 heavy truck with about double standard
heavy vehicles, FEM technology is used to simulate heavy load. The alxe load distribution is shown in Figure 9, and
vehicles passing through the bridge. Here, the sub-model such load will “move” along the span with speed 10 m/s,
technology will be used to learn the local responses in the 20 m/s to learn the response strength around the sensor
bridge [20,21], which helps to simplify the analysis model 2-3MID-2 at the mid-span.
and get enough analysis accuracy. A FEM sub-model of
the prototype bridge is set up including the girder between
the main pier 2# and the main pier 3# (shown in Figure 6).
In this model, a 3D element (solid 45 element) with the
shortest length 0.25 m is used to simulate concrete, and
there are 37,388 elements and 57600 nodes in the sub-
mode. The boundary condition of the FEM model is set as
consolidation.
Figure 7. Loading Scheme of the loading capacity test

Figure 6. Schematic and mesh mode of FEM sub-model

4.2 Calibration of the Reliability of the Simula-

tion Model Figure 8. Comparison between the simulated data and the
monitored data (Corresponding to the sensor 2-3MID-2)
For the sake of checking the reliability of the FEM
model, we have done a calibration work on a loading
capacity test of the bridge before the bridge came into
service. On the test, utmost ten QC-20 main vehicles (a
truck loading model with the weight 300 kN defined in
a Chinese Specification JTG D60-04 [22]) were used, and
they were divided into four loading levels: 900 kN, 1500
kN, 2400 kN, 3000 kN. At present, we have only the static
loading test data for the calibration of the FEM model.
Figure 7 shows the loading distribution of each loading
level, where first loading level included trucks with “ ① ”
and second loading level included trucks with “ ① ” and
“ ②”, and so on. Figure 8 illustrates the comparison be-
tween the measured results and FEM results at the posi-
tion sensor 2-3MID-2 located, and the two results have
a good agreement, and the errors between numerical and
tested strains of the four data points shown in Figure 8 are
18.4%, 4.92%, 14.6%, 7.9%, which means that the built Figure 9. Load’s distribution of QC-20 heavy vehicle and
FEM model is reliable. moving diagram

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 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 05 | Issue 04 | October 2022

Vehicle loads also have impact effect on bridges. sign of concrete structures” [24], we assume that the main
Hwang and Nowak [22] developed models for trucks, road beam stress state change is in the stage of approximately
surface (roughness) and the bridge, which dealt with the linear elasticity under heavy vehicle loads impact in this
analysis of dynamic loads in bridges, and found that the article. Hence, the heavy vehicle load effects and the quasi
simulated deflections indicate that the dynamic compo- load effects transformed from the monitored data are sta-
nent is not correlated with the static component, and also tistically independent random variables, through formulas
found that the dynamic loads are lower for heavier truck (1) and (2), and the initial quasi dynamic reliability cal-
and the dynamic loads for two trucks are lower than for culation formula with considering the influence of heavy
single trucks. According to a Chinese Specification JTG vehicle loads can be derived as follows:
D60-04 [23], the impact coefficient of vehicle load takes µ R − ( µ M + µqc )
the value 0.081. By considering the four vehicle loading β qc =  (3)
σ R2 + σ M2 + σ qc2
effects and the dynamic properties, Stress values generat-
ed under vehicles passing through the girder in the above where, β qc is the initial quasi dynamic dynamic reliability
case, at the sensor 2-3MID-2 position, can be seen in index considering heavy vehicle effects; µ R is the mean
Figure 10. After we got the stress data, we then do normal of the resistance, and µ M is the mean of quasi load effects
distribution statistical analysis, which can be seen from transformed from the SHM; σ R is the standard deviation
Figure 10, and we can find that the stress data are basical- of the resistance, and σ M is the standard deviation of the
ly normally distributed. Therefore, we deal with the stress quasi load effects transformed from the SHM; µqc is the
statistical data with Gaussian distribution fitting, seen in mean of heavy vehicle effects, and σ qc is the standard de-
Figure 10. viation of the heavy vehicle effects.
By Gaussian distribution fitting of the stress distribu-
1.0 Moving speed 20m/s tion statistics, seen in Figure 10, the values of µqc and σ qc
Gauss fit Data: Book1_stress20mm
Model: Gauss
were obtained, and can been seen in Table 4.
0.8 Equation: y=y0 + (A/(w*sqrt(PI/2)))*exp(-2*((x-xc)/w)^2)

Table 4. The values of µqc and σ qc corresponding to the

Weighting:
y No weighting
Stress(Mpa)

Chi^2/DoF = 0.00139
0.6 R^2 = 0.98277
sensor 2-3MID-2 embedded in mid-span web plate
y0 0.01561 ¡ 0À.00183
xc 6.81434 ¡ À0.0072

0.4
w
A
3.06415
3.14012
¡
¡
À0.01737
À0.01966
Speed 10m/s 20m/s
µqc (MPa) 0.238 0.238
0.2

σ 2 (MPa) 0.0797 0.0801

0.0 qc

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Time(s)
With the data in Table 1 and Table 3, we calculated the
Figure 10. Gaussian distribution fitting of the stress distri- dynamic reliability index values β qc with the Equation (3),
bution statistics and then we got the values which are shown in Table 5.
Table 5. The values β qc corresponding to the sensor
5. Results and Discussion 2-3MID-2 position embedded in mid-span web plate
Speed 10m/s 20m/s
5.1 Some Properties of Normal Distribution
β qc 10.354 10.640
The normal distribution has some very important char-
By comprehensive analysis of the data shown in Table
acteristics, such as: if X ~ N ( µ X , σ X2 ) and Y ~ N ( µY , σ Y2 )
2 and Table 4, the impact level of heavy vehicle loads on
are statistically independent normal random variables, and
dynamic reliability of the prototype bridge is obtained,
also the sum of them satisfies the normal distribution, and
and in the paper we name it ∆β qc , of which the values can
can be written as the following formula:
be seen in Table 6.
X + Y ~ N ( µ X + µY , σ X2 + σ Y2 ) (2)
Table 6. The values ∆β qc caused by heavy vehicle loads
5.2 Formula Derivation of Heavy Vehicle Load Speed 10m/s 20m/s
Effects Impact on Bridge Structure Reliability ∆β qc 0.437 0.151

According to the stress-strain characteristics of high- It can be seen from Figure 9 that the variation range of
strength concrete specified in the standard “code for de- the stress induced by heavy vehicle is about 1 MPa in the

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 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 05 | Issue 04 | October 2022

mid-span web plate of the prototype bridge, and it is in a partners for their enthusiastic help. Without their help, this
safe state, because the change range is in the bearing ca- article could not be finished.
pacity limit and the pressure safety reserve of the concrete
materials during the bridge in the early stage of service. Conflict of Interest
According to the above results, under a heavy vehicle in- There is no conflict of interest.
tensity influence，the range of variation of the quasi dy-
namic reliability ∆β qc is about 0.15-0.44 in the mid-span References
web plate corresponding to the sensor 2-3MID-2 position,
[1] Kirkegaard, P.H., Nielson, S., Enevoldsen, I., 1998.
of which the meaning is that heavy vehicle load effects
Dynamic vehicle impact for safety assessment of
have limited impact on bridge safety.
bridges. European Conference on Weigh-in-motion
6. Conclusions of Road Vehicles.
[2] Zhao, Y., Ren, W., Lv, Y.Zh., 2005. Research on
As for the difficulties of safety evaluation of load ef- Countermeasures for overweight vehicles crossing
fects of the heavy vehicle for bridges, combine with the bridges. National bridge academic conference of
large amount of monitored strain data acquired from the bridge and structural engineering branch of China
SHMS of the prototype bridge and simulation technology, highway society.
a evaluation method is put forward for assessing the dy- [3] Chang, H., Zhang, Sh.F., Ge, X.K., et al., 2007.
namic reliability of this type bridge under heavy vehicle Analysis on the harm and prevention of overweight
load effects influence in this paper, and the main conclu- vehicles to highway bridges. Traffic Standardization.
sions are: (9), 50-52.
1) Assuming that the main beam stress state change is [4] Jiang, H., Wei, C., Huang, F., 2009. The Permit Man-
in the stage of approximately linear elasticity under heavy agement and Safety Assessment of Shengli Bridge
vehicle loads impact, a methodology is presented for the under Overweight Vehicle. IEEE.
calculation of dynamic reliability of the prototype bridge [5] Na, H.S., Lee, G.W., Choi, D.H., 2009. Assessment
with considering heavy vehicle load effects, and we found of Vehicle Impact to Edge Beams of U-channel Seg-
that the heavy vehicle load effects have limited impact mental Concrete Bridges.
on bridge safety. Also, we found that the range of stress [6] Yu, X.F., 2010. Management and reinforcement
change induced by heavy vehicle is small. maintenance measures for overweight vehicles cross-
2) The statistical analysis of the simulated a type heavy ing bridges. Northern Transportation. (05), 86-89.
vehicle load effects indicates that they basically obey [7] Hu, B.X., Zhang, J.R., Yin, X.F., et al., 2012. Safety
Gaussian distribution, and hence we can use the first order Assessment of Bridge Structures under the Random
second moment method to assess the heavy vehicle load Dense Vehicle Loads. Applied Mechanics & Materi-
effects safety influence on bridge structures. als. 117-119, 690-694.
3) The next research project should pay key attention to [8] Li, Y.H., Tang, L., Liu, Z., et al., 2012. Statistics and
the bridge aging, the bridge material strength degradation, probability analysis of vehicle overloads on a rig-
shrinkage and creep of concrete etc., and then study the id frame bridge from long-term monitored strains.
reliability of bridge structures taking into account heavy Smart Structures & Systems. 9(3), 287-301.
vehicle load effects. When the prototype bridge served for [9] Tao, F.X., Du, Sh.P., 2013. Structural safety as-
a long time, conducting the analysis whether the safety sessment and bridge crossing countermeasures for
reserve of the bridge meets the heavy vehicle load effects overweight vehicles. Theoretical research on urban
safety requirements or not is quite necessary. In the mean- construction (electronic version). (14).
while, the next step research plan should also focus on [10] Wang, K., Liu, J., 2014. Safety Evaluation of Struc-
finding out the difference between this study’s quasi-result tural Behaviors for Overweight Vehicle to Cross
and the actual result. Prestressed Concrete Hollow Plate Girder Bridge.
The means suggested in the paper can provide basis Highway Engineering.
and direction for the safety evaluating of bridge structures [11] Liu, J., Cao, X.T., Fang, Sh.T., 2015. Damage ef-
encountering other abnormal events. fect of overweight vehicles on highway bridges and
bridge crossing management measures. Highway
Acknowledgements
traffic science and Technology (Application Technol-
The authors wish to express their gratitude to their ogy Edition). 000(008), 3-5.

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 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 05 | Issue 04 | October 2022

[12] Han, W., Yuan, Y., Chen, X., et al., 2018. Safety as- tural Engineering Research. 3(1).
sessment of continuous beam bridges under heavy- [18] Li, Ying hua et al. Maintenance Management Re-
customized transport vehicle load. Journal of Bridge search of a Large-span Continuous Rigid Frame
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[13] Zhu, S.Y., Lu, N.W., Wang, K., et al., 2020. Dynamic Strain Monitored Data. Journal of Architectural En-
Reliability of Continuous Rigid-Frame Bridges under vironment & Structural Engineering Research, [S.l.],
Stochastic Moving Vehicle Loads. Shock and Vibra- v. 4, n. 2, may 2021.
tion. 1-13. [19] Ko, J.M., Ni, Y.Q., 2005. Technology developments
[14] Evgeny, A.L., 2021. Justification of the development in structural health monitoring of large-scale bridges.
and application of express assessment programs for Engineering Structures. 27, 1715-1725.
road bridges when heavy vehicles pass through them.
[20] ANSYS company, 1999. Modeling and Meshing
Structural Mechanics of Engineering Constructions
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and Buildings. 17(4), 315-323.
[21] Xie, S.M., Jiang, D., Zhao, W.D., 2000. An advanced
[15] Ouyang, Sh., 2009. Control technology of construct-
analysis technique sub-modeling and side-frame ex-
ing t-rigid frame turret bridge of no.1 bridge for an
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expressway. Industrial Buildings. Suppl(39), 1079-
1065. [22] Hwang, E.S., Nowak, A.S., 1991. Simulation of dy-
[16] Liu, Z., Li, Y.H., Tang, L., et al., 2014. Localized namic load for bridges. ASCE Journal of Structural
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system. Smart Structures & Systems. 14(2), 209-224. nications ministerial standard, 2004. General Code
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Time-varying Reliability Analysis of Long-span D60-2004), People Transportation Press, Beijing.
Continuous Rigid Frame bridge under Cantilever [24] National Standards of the People’s Republic of Chi-
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 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 05 | Issue 04 | October 2022

Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research

https://ojs.bilpublishing.com/index.php/jaeser

ARTICLE
Effect of Substitution of Cement by Mineral Powders on the Physico-
mechanical Properties and Microstructure of Sand Concretes
Belkacem Belhadj1* Justin Houessou2 Nicolas Montrelay2 Michèle Quéneudec2
1. SREML Laboratory, University Amar Telidji, BP 37 G, Laghouat, 03000, Algeria
2. Research unit “EPROAD”, University of Picardie Jules Verne, Amiens, 80000, France

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Article history The approach that contributes to the development of eco-materials in

Received: 10 November2022 construction is the use of mineral powders, which can improve mechani-
cal properties and reduce cement consumption. This article aims to study
Revised: 28 December 2022 the effect of substitution by mass of cement with mineral powders on the
Accepted: 2 January 2023 physicomechanical properties and microstructure of sand concretes. The
Published Online: 11 January 2023 used mineral powders are A: the limestone, B: the natural pozzolan, C: the
hydraulic lime, D: (1/3 limestone + 1/3 natural pozzolan + 1/3 hydraulic
Keywords: lime), and E: (1/2 natural pozzolan + 1/2 hydraulic lime). The studied
percentages are 5%, 10% and 15%, in both separated and combined states.
Eco-materials The studied properties are workability, compressive strength, the elastic-
Sand concretes ity modulus in compression, shrinkage and microstructure analysis. The
Cements objective is to target the optimal percentage of the substitution of cement
with mineral powders, which ensures the best compromise between the
Mineral powders
main properties of the studied sand concretes. The obtained results show
Physico-mechanical properties that the optimal percentage is in favor of the substitution of cement by 10%
Microstructure D (1/3 limestone, 1/3 natural pozzolan and 1/3 hydraulic lime). Even the
15% of mineral powder D, presented similar performances compared to
the sand concrete (without mineral powders). Finally, in the context of the
development of eco-materials, it should be noted that the 10% D and 15%
D (1/3 limestone, 1/3 natural pozzolan and 1/3 hydraulic lime) contribute to
decrease the use of cement and consequently to reduce of CO2 emissions.

1. Introduction emission released into the atmosphere is about 900 kg for

Cement manufacturing is an energy-intensive process, every ton of cement produced [2], which has a negative
about 12%-15% of the total energy consumption of a effect on the environment. That is why the main require-
country [1]. The cement industry has always been among ments of sustainable development in construction are re-
the largest sources of CO 2 emissions [2]. It represents ducing energy consumption, gas emissions, and even the
about 7% of total CO2 emissions worldwide [3]. The CO2 use of water.

*Corresponding Author:
Belkacem Belhadj,
Architecture Department, University Amar Telidji, Laghouat, 03000, Algeria;
Email: [email protected]

DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jaeser.v5i4.5248
Copyright © 2022 by the author(s). Published by Bilingual Publishing Co. This is an open access article under the Creative Commons
Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/).

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 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 05 | Issue 04 | October 2022

Moreover, the use of eco-materials development in workability, compressive strength, the elasticity modulus
construction is an environmentally and sustainable ap- in compression, shrinkage and microstructure analysis.
proach that can contribute to lessening the impact of en- The objective is to target the optimal percentage of the
vironmental degradation (limiting the greenhouse effect, proposed substitution of cement by mineral powders,
saving natural resources, health and comfort) [4]. Indeed, which ensures the best compromise between the main
it is virtually impossible to imagine a world without con- properties of the studied sand concretes. Furthermore, it
crete. However, we have to improve its environmental reduces the use of cement and thus contributes to the re-
impact through the sustainable use of local resources [5]. duction of CO2 emissions.
In this context, the partial substitution of cement for
mineral powders can improve the mechanical properties 2. Materials and Methods
and durability of concretes, while reducing cement con- 2.1 Materials Used
sumption, which helps to simply and economically solve
some environmental problems [6]. Practically, the use of Both types of sand were used: a local dune sand (DS:
mineral powders in cementitious composites may present 0/63 mm) that covers a very large part of southern Algeria
three fields of interest. and an alluvial sand (AS: 0/5 mm) that was extracted from
The first one is the search for new types of cement [7,8]. the M’zi river crossing the Laghouat region. The sands
Actually, new types of cement, whose mechanical proper- were used in admixture under a weight ratio determined by
ties meet the needs of cement masonry and architectural correcting the granulometric curve of alluvial sand, in its
engineering, were prepared from ground limestone pow- fine part, by adding dune sand. Bederina et al. studied the
der, blast furnace slag, steel slag and gypsum [9]. The sec- mixture of the same sands (alluvial sand and dune sand)
ond one is the partial substitution of some components of and found that the optimum compacity can be obtained
the clinker with other components having hydraulic and/ with the report AS/DS = 1.7 [19]. Even, Nécira et al. also
or pozzolanic properties such as, limestone, blast furnace studied the optimization of a mixture of sands and found
slag and pozzolan for mortar limestone [10,11]. The third one that, in the case of alluvial and dune sands, the proportions:
is the partial substitution of artificial Portland cement or (60% of alluvial sand + 40% of dune sand) which are very
Portland cement compound by other mineral powders. In close to the previous report, seems to be the best combina-
this context, Itim et al. used limestone, pozzolan separated tion [20,21]. These types of sand are essentially siliceous [22].
with different percentages [12]; Burgos-Montes et al. sub- Table 1 includes all their physical properties.
stituted a part of cement by limestone, fly ash and silica Table 1. Physical characteristics of the used sands.
fume [13]; Dif et al. used combined natural volcanic pow-
Dune Alluvial Sand
ders: pozzolan and perlite [14]; Zaitri et al. used dune sand Characteristics
sand sand mixture
powder and limestone [15,16]; Deepankar used silica fume, Apparent density (kg/m3) 1501 1662 1622
and metakaolin [17]. 3
Specific density (kg/m ) 2587 2425 2485
Sand concrete is back in force, due to its specific prop-
Fineness modulus 1.98 2.89 2.81
erties that brought some technical solutions to problems,
Compactness (%) 0.5754 0.6677 0.6715
sometimes, poorly resolved by traditional concrete [18].
Visual Sand Equivalent (%) 90.7 93.5 93.2
Sand concrete is a material intended for the building’s
Sand Equivalent with piston (%) 81.4 82.2 80.3
structure and architectural elements. It should also be
noted that one of the preferred applications of sand con- For sustainable building solutions, Portland limestone
cretes in the construction field is the prefabrication of ar- cement type is usually used (of type CPJ-CEM II/A-L
chitectural elements, intended to remain apparent, i.e., the 42.5 R). This cement provides similar performances to
various architectural effects, such as shape, finish, color, those obtained with conventional Portland cement. The
texture and excellent quality make an essential contribu- results of both chemical and physical analyses of the used
tion to the design of façades. cement are shown in Tables 2 and 3.
This article aims to study the effect of substitution (by The choice of mineral powders used in this study was
mass) of cement by mineral powders on the physicomechan- inspired from the literature and is essentially based on
ical properties and microstructure of sand concretes. The economic and environmental considerations. These min-
used mineral powders are, A: the limestone, B: the natural eral powders are a limestone, which is generally consid-
pozzolan, C: the hydraulic lime, D: (1/3 limestone + 1/3 ered as inert filler, a natural pozzolan (active filler) and a
natural pozzolan + 1/3 hydraulic lime) and E: (1/2 natural hydraulic lime (active filler). The physical properties are
pozzolan + 1/2 hydraulic lime). The studied properties are mentioned in Table 4.

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 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 05 | Issue 04 | October 2022

Table 2. Chemical analysis of the used cement (%).

SiO2 CaO MgO Al2O3 Fe2O3 SO3 K2O Cl Na2O Free CaO Loss Ins.
16.93 62.23 1.03 5.26 2.82 2.89 0.65 0.02 0.04 1.782 7.83 1.61

Table 3. Physical analysis of the used cement.

Properties Percentage
Blaine 444.9 (m2/kg)
Specific density 3030 (kg/m3)
Apparent density 1032 (kg/m3)

Table 4. Physical properties of mineral powders.

Physical properties Limestone Pozzolan Lime
2
Blaine (m /kg) 280 388 650
Specific density (kg/m3) 2700 2850 2750
Apparent density (kg/m3) 1530 1005 666

The limestone fillers are obtained by wet sieving meth- inspired from the work of Belhadj [24]. This composition is
od (through a sieve of 80 µm) of crushing waste available shown in Table 5 [24,25]. Let us note that, according to the
in a local quarry located on the northern edge of Laghouat specifications, the Portland limestone cement contains an
city (Algeria). These fillers are intended to supplement initial mineral powder which is the limestone whose pro-
the grading curve of the sand in its fine part, which is portion ranges from 6% to 20%. Clinker ranges from 80%
highly recommended, as fillers, for sand concrete. These to 94%. The different mineral powders considered in this
fillers contain the following elements: Calcium Carbonate study are:
(CaCO3), Silica (SiO2) and Calcium Oxide (CaO) [23]. - Mineral powders A: 5%, 10% and 15% of limestone;
The natural pozzolan is of volcanic origin. It was ex- - Mineral powders B: 5%, 10% and 15% of natural
tracted from Bouhamidi deposit located south of the city pozzolan;
of Beni Saf in Algeria. This is an effusive volcanic rock - Mineral powders C: 5%, 10% and 15% of hydraulic lime;
composition, especially, siliceous Feldspar. This pozzolan - Mineral powders D: 5%, 10% and 15% of (1/3 lime-
is provided as a crushed rock pumice slag type with a stone + 1/3 natural pozzolan + 1/3 hydraulic lime);
grain diameter ranging from 5 mm to10 mm. We first con- - Mineral powders E: 5%, 10% and 15% of (1/2 natural
ducted its drying at 105 °C to remove any possible mois- pozzolan + 1/2 hydraulic lime).
ture and facilitate its grinding in a Los Angeles-type mill The different percentages of substitution used are 5%,
and then sieved it through a sieve of 80 µm. The conser- 10% and 15% for each type of mineral powder: A, B, C,
vation takes place in a sealed container. The natural poz- D and E. The mineral powders are substituted for cement
zolan contains the following elements: aluminum oxide in mass percentages. The water / (cement + % powders) is
(Al2O3), calcium oxide (CaO), magnesium oxide (MgO) set to 0.6 for all compositions tested (Table 5). This value,
and dioxide sulfur (SO2) [23]. corresponding to a slump of 9 cm with the Abrams cone,
The lime used is a hydraulic lime brought from the ensures good workability for the basic composition of
Saida plant (SNMC Company - Algeria). It was subjected sand concrete (without mineral powders) made with Port-
to sieving through an 80 μm sieve in order to obtain the land limestone cement.
same size as that of limestone and pozzolan. Hydraulic To better homogenize the mixture, which contributes to
lime contains the following elements: Calcium Carbonate a better quality of sand concrete and therefore the proper
(CaCO3) and Calcium Hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) [23]. control of the various properties of the finished product,
To improve the performance characteristics of the sand the following procedure was adopted. First a dry mixing
concretes, the use of the adjuvant is essential. The used of cement and mineral powders for one minute at low
adjuvant is of MEDAPLAST type SP40; it is in accord- speed was made [26]. Then, the alluvial-sand dune and
ance with the EN934-2 standard. limestone fillers are added, in a dry mixture performed for
three minutes at a low speed [22,26]. Finally, the mixing wa-
2.2 Elaboration of Studied Sand Concretes
ter is added gradually to the mixture without breaking the
The basic composition of the sand concrete (without kneading in order to ensure the good homogenization of
mineral powders), taken as a reference for our study, is the mixture for three other minutes at a low speed [22,26].

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 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 05 | Issue 04 | October 2022

Table 5. The studied compositions of the sand concretes.

Composition A B C D E
297.5: 85% 297.5: 85% 297.5: 85% 297.5: 85% 297.5: 85%
3 315.0: 90% 315.0: 90% 315.0: 90% 315.0: 90% 315.0: 90%
Cement (kg/m )
332.5: 95% 332.5: 95% 332.5: 95% 332.5: 95% 332.5: 95%
350.0: 100% 350.0: 100% 350.0:100% 350.0: 100% 350.0: 100%
52.5: 15% - - 17.5: (1/3)15% 00.0
Limestone powder 35.0: 10% - - 10.83: (1/3)10% 00.0
(kg/m3) 17.5: 5% - - 5.83: (1/3)5% 00.0
00.0: 0% - - - 00.0
- 52.5: 15% - 17.5: (1/3)15% 26.25:(1/2)15%
Pozzolan powder - 35.0: 10% - 10.83: (1/3)10% 17.5:(1/2)10%
(kg/m3) - 17.5: 5% - 5.83: (1/3)5% 8.75:(1/2)5%
- 00.0: 0% - - -
- - 52.5: 15% 17.5: (1/3)15% 26.25: (1/2)15%
Lime powder - - 35.0: 10% 10.83: (1/3)10% 17.5: (1/2)10%
(kg/m3) - - 17.5: 5% 5.83: (1/3)5% 8.75: (1/2)5%
- - 00.0: 0% - -
(DS) + (AS)
Dune Sand + alluvial Sand 1316
(kg/m3)
Limestone filler (kg/m3) 135
Water
210
(l/m3)
Superplasticizer (%) (based on
2
the weight of cement)

After mixing, the material is poured into molds: spectrometry Prestige-2. This technique is very interesting
(40 × 40 × 160 mm3) for the shrinkage tests and (70 × and allows the identification of functional groups from
70 × 280 mm3) for the mechanical tests. The specimens their vibrational properties within a cementitious material
are demoulded after 24 hours and the samples are kept, after hydration. Infrared radiation excites vibration modes
until the day of the test, in the same room, where the in- (bond stretching or bending) that characterize the chem-
door climatic conditions of the laboratory room are closer ical bonds and the different species coexisting in the hy-
to the weather conditions, namely at a temperature of drated products after adding minerals. The analyzed sam-
(20 °C ± 5 °C), and relative humidity of (50% ± 10%). ples were previously ground and mixed with potassium
bromide (KBr) at 2 mg of sample to 190 mg of KBr. The
2.3 Experimental Techniques whole mixture is placed in a cylindrical mold between two
The study of the consistency of the sand concrete was metal pads and then subjected to a pressure of 8 tons in a
made by the slump test with the Abrams cone according press with a piston and a pump. The obtained pellets were
to the NF P18-451 standard. The compressive strength analyzed by transmission.
was determined using a universal press of type “Controls”, The X-ray analysis by diffraction was performed using
in accordance with the standard (EN196-1). The compres- a PHILIPS X’Pert diffractometer type on samples of con-
sion test was performed on cubes of (70 × 70 mm2). The crete, ground and screened to an 80 µm screen.
modulus of elasticity in compression was determined by
3. Results
a Shimadzu type press at a ramp rate equal to 500 N/s, in
accordance with the standard NBN EN 1015-11. The interpretation of results focuses, first of all, on the
The shrinkage was measured using an instrument of a study of the effect of the substitution of cement by mineral
controls type prismatic sample (40 × 40 × 160 mm3). This powders on the physicomechanical properties of the stud-
instrument is equipped with a comparator for performing ied sand concretes, i.e., workability, compressive strength
measurements with an accuracy of less or equal to 0.005 and shrinkage. Then, on their microstructure, let us note
mm; the test is described by the standard (NF P 15-433) [27]. that the study of the influence of mineral powders on the
Infrared analysis was carried out by a Shimadzu IR microstructure was limited to only the sand concrete con-

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 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 05 | Issue 04 | October 2022

taining the mineral powder D. corded with 15% of mineral powder C. This weak worka-
bility may be explained by the Blaine surface of the lime
3.1 Workability (650 m2/kg) which is higher than that of the cement, for
Figure 1 shows the effect of mineral powders on the different powder percentages. With mineral powder E,
workability of the studied concretes. When the percent- the workability also decreases, but in this case this can be
age of the mineral powder A increases in the cement, the explained by the presence of pozzolan in the mineral pow-
workability of the studied sand concrete begins to increase der.
starting from a mineral powder proportion equal to 10%. Finally, it should be noted that, as far as workability,
The consistency of sand concrete is highly plastic for min- mineral powders B and D seem to be the most interesting.
eral powder proportions of 10% and 15%. This increase in
3.2 Compressive Strength
workability can be explained by the weak Blaine surface
of the limestone filler (280 m2/kg) compared to that of the The compressive strength generally projects an overall
cement (444.9 m2/kg). Indeed, other parameters can also picture of the quality of concrete; it is the key element in
affect the workability like the form of the filler grains, the the design of concrete structures. According to Figure 2,
ration water/bender, etc. all the studied sand concretes containing 5% of mineral
powders gave compressive strength values greater than
that of the basic composition of sand concrete (without
12 mineral powders), except in the case of mineral powder A.
11 The optimum mineral powder percentages of A and C are
10
very close to those of the literature for mortars which are
9
4% and 5% respectively [12,13], but for the mineral powder
8
percentage of B is about 10% to 20% [12]. On the other
Slump (cm)

7
hand, the results of the compressive strength of the sand
6
concrete for the different percentages of lime are slightly
5 Sand concrete with mineral powder A better compared to mortars with cement-lime at 28 days,
Sand concrete with mineral powder B
4
Sand concrete with mineral powder C which the experimental campaign ranges from 0.4 MPa to
Sand concrete with mineral powder D
3
Sand concrete with mineral powder E 13 MPa [28], but significantly better at 90 days.
2
0 5 10 15

Percentage of mineral powders

23

22

Figure 1. Workability of the studied sand concretes. 21

Compressive strength (MPa)

20
When the mineral powders percentage of B or D, increas-
19
es in cement, the workability of the compositions tested is 18
almost similar to that of the basic composition of sand con- 17
crete (without mineral powders), with a slump value of 9 cm. 16
In the case of mineral powder B, this can be explained by the 15 Sand concrete with mineral Powder A
Sand concrete with mineral Powder B
Blaine surface of pozzolan (388 m2/kg) which is barely less 14 Sand concrete with mineral Powder C
Sand concrete with mineral Powder D
than that of the cement (444.9 m2/kg). In the case of mineral 13
Sand concrete with mineral Powder E
powder D, this can be explained by the Blaine surface of the 12
0 5 10 15
powder (439.33 m2/kg) which is very close to that of the ce- Percentage of mineral powders
ment. Let us note that the Blaine surface of the mineral pow-
der D is taken as the average of the three fillers (limestone,
pozzolan and lime). Figure 2. Compressive strength of studied sand concretes
When the percentage of the mineral powders C and at 90 days.
E increases in the cement, the workability of the corre- According to Figure 2, all the sand concretes studied
sponding sand concretes decreases between 5% and 15% with 5% mineral powders gave compressive strength val-
of mineral powders. Let us note that the composition ues greater than those of the sand concretes with 10% and
containing the mineral powder C (lime approximate) gave 15%. The mineral powder D is better for a mineral pow-
the lowest slump values compared to the other mineral der percentage of 5%, 10% and 15%. The compressive
powders (slump value ≤ 4 cm). The lowest value was re- strength of the composition containing 15% of mineral

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 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 05 | Issue 04 | October 2022

powder E is slightly higher than that of the composition prisms having a section (40 × 40 mm2). The results of the
containing 15% of mineral powder D. Therefore, we can elasticity modulus in compression are mentioned in Table
opt for the mineral powder D values since, with this pow- 6. The elasticity modulus in compression for the sand con-
der, the consistency of the sand concrete is more interest- crete with 10% of mineral powders D was improved by
ing. about + 8.35% compared to the basic composition of sand
Figure 3 shows, for the four types of selected sand con- concrete (without mineral powders).
cretes, the compressive strength recorded at 28 days and at
90 days. A higher percentage of mineral powder D (15%)
increases the difference in compressive strength between
28 days and 90 days.

40
Sand concrete at 28 days
35 Sand concrete at 90 days
1: Sand concrete without mineral powders
Compressive strength (MPa)

30
2: Sand concrete with 5% mineral powder D
3: Sand concrete with 10% mineral powder
25 4: Sand concrete with 15% mineral powder D

20

15

10
Figure 4. Relationship between the compressive strength
at 28 days and the density.
5
Table 6. Elasticity modulus in compression.
0
1 2 3 4

Type studied sand concretes Contrainte

Elasticity modulus in
Sand concrete type maximale
compression (MPa)
(MPa)
Figure 3. Compressive strength of studied sand concretes
with mineral powders D. Sand concrete:
387.36 5.63615
Generally, there is always a relationship between without mineral powders
compressive strength and density, in the case of building
materials [29]. For this study, a relationship between the Sand concrete:
with 10% mineral 419.73 5.63679
compressive strength at 28 days and the density has been
powders D
found; the latter follows a polynomial equation of type:
Y = a + b.x + c.x2 with a correlation coefficient R2 = The study shows the displacement as a function of the
0.711 as shown in Figure 4. Where “Y” represents the maximum compressive stress in the elastic part of the
compressive strength and “x” represents the density. In studied concretes. For a maximum compressive stress of
summary, mineral powder D has an interest in compres- 5.63615 MPa in the elastic zone, it was recorded a dis-
sive strength compared to the other types of mineral pow- placement of 0.94862 mm for the composition of sand
ders, more particularly the composition containing 10% concrete without mineral powders as shown in Figure 5.
of mineral powder D. It should also be noted that even the Nevertheless, for a maximum compressive strength of
composition containing 15% of mineral powder D has a 5.63679 MPa in the elastic zone, it was recorded a dis-
compressive strength similar to that of the basic composi- placement of 0.86408 mm for the composition of the sand
tion of sand concrete (without mineral powders). concrete with 10% of mineral powder D as shown in Fig-
ure 6. The variation of the displacement with respect to
3.3 Elasticity Modulus in Compression
the compressive strength shows the advantage of the com-
The tests of the elasticity modulus in compression are position with 10% of powder D, compared to the compo-
made for two compositions of sand concretes, namely sition of sand concrete (without mineral powders), with
the basic composition (without mineral powders) and the a reduction of 0.08454 mm (i.e. － 8.91%). For example,
composition of sand concrete with 10% of mineral pow- Figure 5 and Figure 6 show the results of the elastic mod-
ders D (optimal percentage of the substitution of cement ulus in compression test which shows the maximum com-
by mineral powders ). These tests were carried out on pressive stress in the elastic part.

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 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 05 | Issue 04 | October 2022

without powders. The shrinkage tends to stabilize after 21

days. This increase in shrinkage is in agreement with that
observed by Itim et al. [12].

Figure 5. Displacement versus maximum compressive

stress (sand concrete without mineral powders).

3.4 Choice of Optimal Percentage

Figure 6. Displacement versus maximum compressive
In order to choose the optimal percentage, the best stress (sand concrete with mineral powders).
three percentages, i.e., 5%, 10% and 15% of mineral pow-
In these three compositions, it was found that the op-
der D, were selected. These three percentages presented
timum composition that constitutes the best compromise
the best compromise between the studied properties,
whose values are shown in Table 7. In order to deepen the between the properties studied, i.e., workability, com-
study of these compositions, tests of shrinkage have been pressive strength and shrinkage, is that containing 5% of
made. Figure 7 shows the development of their shrinkage mineral powder D. The composition of sand concrete con-
as a function of age (between 0 and 28 days). It is clear taining 10% of mineral powder D is approaching that 5%
that the sand concretes with mineral powder D present of mineral powder D. So for economic and environmental
higher shrinkage at 28 days compared to the sand concrete considerations, we opt for the formulation of 10% D.

Table 7. Physico-mechanical properties and shrinkage of the studied sand concretes.

Shrinkage
Density Compressive strength at 90
Studied sand concrete Type at 90 days
(kg/m3) days (MPa)
(mm/m)

Sand concrete without mineral powders. 19.70 ± 0.55 0.529 ± 0.022

1992.57 ± 11.32
Improvement (%) 00% 00%

Sand concrete with 05% mineral powder D 21.66 ± 0.30 0.681 ± 0.020
(limestone + pozzolan + lime). 2076.98 ± 22.91
Improvement (%) + 9.94% + 28.73%

Sand concrete with 10% mineral powder D 21.58 ± 0.23 0.720 ± 0.034
(limestone + pozzolan + lime). 2041.53 ± 19.36
Improvement (%) + 9.54% + 36.10%

Sand concrete with 15% mineral powder D 19.76 ± 0.66 0.685 ± 0.033
(limestone + pozzolan + lime). 2026.29 ± 15.51
Improvement (%) - 0.30% + 29.48%

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 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 05 | Issue 04 | October 2022

ties at 711 cm-1 and 873 cm-1 [35], correspond to the calcite
1,1
and suggest that calcite participates in hydration reactions
1,0 Sand concrete without mineral powders
Sand concrete with 5% mineral powder D in the presence of calcium aluminates to form hydrated
0,9 Sand concrete with 10% mineral powder D
calcium carboaluminates. Also, between 1006 cm-1 and
Shrinkage at 28 days (mm/m)

0,8
Sand concrete with 15% mineral powder D
1200 cm-1, we have a mixture of hydrated aluminates:
0,7
C4AH13 of 1083 cm-1 and C3AH6 of 1150 cm-1.
0,6

0,5

0,4

0,3

0,2

0,1

0,0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28

Age in days

Figure 7. Shrinkage of studied sand concretes at 28 days.

3.5 Microstructure Analysis

3.5.1 Infrared Spectrometric Analysis in Fourier
Transform (FTIR)
Figure 8. Spectrum of the studied sand concretes—Sam-
The spectrum obtained after the analysis of Sample 1 ple 1: without mineral powders and Sample 2: with 10%
(without mineral powders) and Sample 2 (with 10% of mineral powder D.
mineral powder D) is shown in Figure 8. The reduced C3AH6 is a phase much more stable and is obtained
peak at 3641 cm-1 in sample 1 is due to the O-H stretching by changing intermediate phases such as C4AH13 phase,
vibration of portlandite [30,31]. The disappeared calcium according to the conditions and environment of hydration
hydroxide reacted with the siliceous and aluminous com- of C3A. The coexistence of these very stable phases with
pounds and those of pozzolan cement to form hydrated other silicate phases contributes to the improvement of
calcium silicates and aluminates. First, C-S-H hydrate the mechanical properties of sample 2 (sand concrete with
(calcium silicate hydrate), resulting from the dominant 10% of mineral powders D), contrary to sample 1 (sand
C3S component, is responsible for most of the mechanical concrete without mineral powders).
properties of the cured material due to its binding power.
Many bands of the Si-O-Si (918 cm-1, 925 cm-1, 935 cm-1) 3.5.2 X-ray Chemical Analysis by Diffraction
anhydrous C3S don’t show the formation of calcium sili-
cate hydrates. This hydrate is spotted, on the one hand to According to the diffractogram of the sand concrete
1005 cm-1 which explains the change in the environment of without mineral powders (Figure 9) and the diffractogram
the chemical bond of Si-O (C3S that hydrates in C-S-H) [30], of sand concrete with 10% mineral powders D (Figure
and secondly by the O-H stretching vibration of bonds 10), it was found that the concrete with mineral pow-
water molecules constituting the hydrated phase C-S-H ders led to the development of calcium silicate hydrates
3450 cm-1 [32]. The calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H) are (C-S-H) and hence improved the mechanical properties of
the main bond phases for several concretes [33]. Calcium the material. This is explained by:
silicate hydrate (C-S-H), the most important Portland ce- 1) The increase in the intensity of the quartz of about
ment hydration product, determines the mechanical prop- 1500 to 3000, can be explained by the presence of natural
erties and durability of cementitious materials [34]. pozzolan which is rich in silica.
We also observed bands located in 711 cm-1, 873 cm-1, 2) The decrease in the intensity of the calcite of about
2513 cm-1, 1797 cm-1, 2875 cm-1 and 2983 cm-1 which 1500-800.
correspond to the C-O group of calcite in the two samples 3) The decrease in the intensity of portlandite, because
(1 and 2). Indeed, in sample 2, the reduced band intensi- of the probable presence of hydraulic lime.

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 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 05 | Issue 04 | October 2022

These two techniques have shown the development of

calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H). Moreover the coex-
istence of these very stable phases with the other silicate
phases, contributes to the improvement of the mechanical
properties of sand concrete with 10% of mineral powder D,
contrary to sand concrete without mineral powders.
Finally, the advantage of this approach is for environ-
mental considerations: reduction of the use of cement and
significantly reduced CO2 emissions, and technical con-
siderations: improvement of the mechanical performance
and durability of the studied concretes or mortars.

Figure 9. X-ray diffractogram analysis of the sand con- 5. Conclusions

crete without mineral powders.
In order to study the effect of substitution (by mass)
of cement by mineral powders on the physicomechanical
properties and microstructure of sand concretes, differ-
ent mineral powders have been studied, such as A: the
limestone, B: the natural pozzolan, C: the hydraulic lime,
D: (1/3 limestone + 1/3 pozzolan + 1/3 lime) and E: (1/2
pozzolan + 1/2 lime), with 5%, 10% and 15%, in both
separated and combined states. Considering the obtained
results, the following conclusions can be drawn:
• The mineral powder D is better for a mineral powder
of 5%, 10% and 15% compared to other mineral powders.
• The composition of sand concrete containing 10% of
mineral powder D is approaching 5% of mineral powder
Figure 10. X-ray diffractogram analysis of the sand con- D. So for economic and environmental considerations, we
crete with mineral powders. opt for the formulation of 10% mineral powder D.
• The 15% of mineral powder D presented similar per-
4. Discussion formances compared to the sand concrete (without miner-
al powders).
The advantage of the results of the compressive • The elasticity modulus in compression for the sand
strength at 28 days and at 90 days is in favor of the sand concrete with 10% of mineral powders D was improved
concretes with mineral powder (D) for 5%, 10% and 15% by about + 8.35% compared to the sand concrete (without
compared to the sand concretes with 5%, 10% and 15% mineral powders).
of the mineral powders (A, B and C) used separated. This • The Microstructure analysis showed the coexistence
observation confirms the advantage of several types of re- of very stable phases with other silicate phases contributes
search on the use of both mineral powders [14-16,36], and the to the improvement of the mechanical properties of sand
use of three mineral powders [10,37]. For example, the test concrete with 10% of mineral powders D compared to
results showed that the addition of limestone filler, blast sand concrete without mineral powders.
furnace slag, and natural pozzolan, incorporated simulta- • In the economical and environmental aspect, the pow-
neously in cement improves the mechanical behavior of der D (limestone, natural pozzolan and hydraulic lime),
limestone mortars [37]. gave the optimal percentage, especially with the propor-
Furthermore, from the results of the effect of mineral tion of 10%, which can help to reduce CO2 emissions and
powders on the physicomechanical properties and the therefore against global warming.
microstructure analysis, we can conclude that the use of • In the technical aspect, the microstructure study
10% of powder D has an advantageous effect on the de- showed the beneficial effect of 10% mineral powders D
velopment of the chemical reactions of the sand concrete, compared to the sand concrete without mineral powders
which are confirmed by the cross interpretation of the on the development of hydration reactions, leading thus to
results relating to the Fourier transform infrared spectrom- the improvement of its mechanical strength.
etry (FTIR) analysis and the analysis by X-ray diffraction. • Its mechanical properties allow it to be considered

26
 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 05 | Issue 04 | October 2022

a good eco-material development in construction, which struction: Challenges and prospects. Seventh Edition
can be used in both structural elements and architectural of the Scientific Meetings of the Group Francophone
elements. for Research and Training on Concrete (RF)2B; 2006
Jun 19-20; Toulouse, France.
Author Contributions [5] Flatt, R.J., Roussel, N., Cheeseman, C.R., 2012.
Author 1 > Belkacem BELHADJ, University of Amat Concrete: An ecomaterial that needs to be improved.
Tledji, Laghouat, Algeria: Journal of the European Ceramic Society. 11, 2787-
- The presented work falls within the framework of my 2798.
research works. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2011.11.012
- Corresponding author. [6] Oliveira, L.A.P., Jalali, S., Fernandes, J.M., et al.,
Author 2 > Justin HOUESSOU, Research unit 2005. The use of metakaolin in the production of
“EPROAD”, University of Picardie Jules Verne, Amiens, environmentally efficient concrete. Materials and
France: Structures. 38, 403-410.
- A researcher who has significantly contributed in the DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02479308
Infrared spectrometry analysis Fourier transform (FTIR) [7] Lin, Y., Zhou, S., Li, F., et al., 2012. Utilization of
tests. municipal sewage sludge as additives for the produc-
Author 3 > Nicolas MONTRELAY, Research unit tion of eco-cement. Journal of Hazardous Materials.
“EPROAD”, University of Picardie Jules Verne, Amiens, 213-214, 457-465.
France: DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2012.02.020
- A researcher who has significantly contributed in the [8] Weiguo, S., Mingkai, Z., Qinglin, Z., 2006. A New
elasticity modulus in compression tests. kind of eco-cement made of cement klin dust and
Author 4 > Michèle QUÉNEUDEC, Research unit granular blast furnace slag. Journal of Wuhan Uni-
“EPROAD”, University of Picardie Jules Verne, Amiens, versity of Technology—Materials Science Edition.
France: 21 N° 1, 143-146.
- A researcher teacher who has significantly contributed DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02861493
in the methodology and wording the paper. [9] Zongshou, L., Qian, Z., 2009. Strength of lime-
stone-based non-calcined cement and its properties.
Conflict of Interest Journal of Wuhan University of Technology—Mate-
rials Science Edition. 471-475.
No Conflict of Interest in Online Web System and Of-
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11595-009-3471-8
fline.
[10] Makhloufi, Z., Kadri, E.H., Bouhicha, M., et al.,
Funding 2012. Resistance of limestone mortars with quaterna-
ry binders to sulfuric acid solution. Construction and
This research received no external funding. Building Materials. 26, 497-504.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.06.050
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[34] Liu, X., Feng, P., Li, W., et al., 2021. Effects of pH DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.07.053
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 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 05 | Issue 04 | October 2022

Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research

https://ojs.bilpublishing.com/index.php/jaeser

EDITORIAL
Construction Technology of Pipe Jacking Method through
Underground Obstacles
Jianyong Han1,3 Dongfeng Jia2 Fushun Yan2 Yue Zhao4* Dong Liu1 Qinghai Wang1
1. School of Civil Engineering, Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan, Shandong, 250101, China
2. The Third Construction Co.,Ltd. of CTCE Group, Tianjin, 300163, China
3. Key Laboratory of Building Structural Retrofitting and Underground Space Engineering (Shandong Jianzhu
University), Ministry of Education, Jinan, Shandong, 250101, China
4. Science and Technology Service Platform, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan,
Shandong 250000, China

ARTICLE INFO

Article history
Received: 30 November2022
Accepted: 6 December 2022
Published Online: 23 December 2022

Due to the increase in the global urban population and lack of reasonable planning of underground space de-
the continuous improvement of requirements, urban in- velopment in the early stage, different structure forms of
frastructure construction is developing rapidly. Various underground excavation support and foundation, complex
underground pipelines and channels are increasing and geological conditions and etc. The underground obstacles
the demand is increasing. As a trenchless technology, pipe include the foundation structures of existing buildings,
jacking construction technology has been widely used support structures of underground excavation, abandoned
in pipeline laying and underpass construction, especially structures, existing pipelines and solitary rocks. The pipe
in complex urban environments and cross-river regions, jacking machine crossing the stratum with obstacles will
which has great advantages [1]. However, the pipe jacking bring great risks, which will be a great challenge for the
machine may be resisted by underground obstacles in the practice of pipe jacking engineering. The construction
construction process due to various reasons, such as the technology of pipe jacking through underground obstacles

*Corresponding Author:
Yue Zhao,
Science and Technology Service Platform, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan, Shandong
250000, China;
Email: [email protected]

DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jaeser.v5i4.5302
Copyright © 2022 by the author(s). Published by Bilingual Publishing Co. This is an open access article under the Creative Commons
Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/).

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 Journal of Architectural Environment & Structural Engineering Research | Volume 05 | Issue 04 | October 2022

still needs further investigation. jacking machine. At present, the common crossing meth-
The development of mechanical equipment and con- od is to remove the existing anchor cable structure and
struction method of pipe jacking method mainly draws then perform the pipe jacking method. When the space
on the application experience of the shield method in the requirement is satisfied, the anchor cable can be directly
early period. Common shield tunneling machines and pulled out at one end. However, this method has two dis-
pipe jacking machines are usually only applicable to stra- advantages: 1) When the pull-out force is insufficient, the
ta with little change in mechanical properties and do not anchor cable cannot be pulled out (in this case, the casing
have the function to remove obstacles in strata. For a slur- follow-up method can be used to reduce the friction resist-
ry-balanced shield machine, a small crusher is equipped ance between the anchor cable and the ground); 2) Cor-
to ensure the smooth excavation of the mud suction pump, rosion of anchor cable structure causes the anchor tendon
which can break small stones. When obstacles, such as to break. Therefore, the method of directly pulling out the
reinforced concrete piles, underground diaphragm walls, anchor cable is often unable to complete the removal of
or large solitary stones, are encountered on the tunnel the anchor cable structure. In addition, a rotary drilling rig
or pipeline line, common shield tunneling machines and can be used to drill and remove the anchor cables. The ro-
pipe jacking machines cannot pass through directly. In tary drilling rig has a high torsion force. Through torsion
this case, adjusting the line position to avoid obstacles and winding, the steel strand could be taken out of the
and structures is an economical and safe method. When ground. However, this method needs a large workspace
the line cannot avoid obstacles, treatments such as remov- and has a rotary drilling workload. In addition, the anchor
ing existing structures, pulling piles on the ground, and cable structure can be broken manually by excavating the
removing obstacles after digging shafts could be used to existing anchor cable area. However, in the process of ex-
remove the obstacles in advance. Subsequently, the pipe cavation, the construction of excavation support structures
jacking machine could be jacked through this region. is the most difficulty of this method. Because of the ex-
With the continuous improvement of the shield tunne- istence of a steel strand, the water stop system of the sup-
ling machine and pipe jacking machine technology, the porting structure can not be continuous, resulting in water-
cutting performance of the shield tunneling machine and proofing failure. Based on this, combining the steel-sheet
pipe jacking machine has been continuously improved. piles and jet grouting piles for waterproofing and sup-
Cases of direct-cutting obstacles have appeared in the past
porting excavation methods for crossing the anchor-cable
decade, such as the Shenzhen North Ring Line, Shanghai
area is proposed [3]. Through the occlusion of steel sheet
Metro Line 10, Suzhou Metro Line 2, etc. [2]. The men-
piles and high-pressure jet grouting piles, waterproofing
tioned cases are all practices of the shield method directly
can be ensured in the process of excavation construction.
cutting underground obstacles. However, the cases of pipe
The mentioned methods have been successfully applied in
jacking method are rare. Direct cutting of reinforced con-
many case histories. When the surrounding environment
crete structure has great wear to the cutter head. A large
is complex, the surrounding strata are often reinforced by
number of studies have made beneficial improvements
grouting.
to the performance of the shield cutter head, mainly by
To sum up, some solutions to pipe jacking through dif-
improving the configuration and performance of different
ferent underground obstacles have been proposed. How-
types of cutters. For a pipe jacking tunnel, its diameter is
ever, there is still great room for further improvement.
often smaller than a shield tunnel, it is less difficult to di-
Especially for the case of pipe jacking through the stratum
rectly cut obstacles.
of anchor cable structure, the construction technology is
Among the types of underground obstacles, the an-
still complicated for professional persons. Therefore, more
chor cable structure is the most difficult one to deal with.
efforts are required to improve the mechanical properties
Anchor cable is a kind of anchorage technology, which
is often used as the support structure of underground ex- of pipe jacking machines and study the obstacle removal
cavation with a pile or diaphragm wall. The anchor cable methods.
structure is composed of grout and steel strand, which has
Conflict of Interest
a high tensile strength of 1860 MPa. Therefore, if the pipe
jacking machine cuts the anchor cable structure directly, The authors declare that they have no known compet-
the cutter head could be wound due to the high toughness ing financial interests or personal relationships that could
of the steel strand, which could cause damage to the pipe have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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References dation of a road bridge with pile underpinning tech-

nologies in Shanghai. Tunnelling and Underground
[1] Li, T., Zhao, W., Liu, R., et al., 2021. Experimental Space Technology. 45, 20-23.
study on the pipe-soil interface under the influence of [3] Han, J., Wang, J., Jia, D., et al., 2022. Construc-
pipe jacking stagnation time. KSCE Journal of Civil tion technologies and mechanical effects of the
Engineering. 1-11. pipe-jacking crossing anchor-cable group in soft
[2] Xu, Q., Zhu, H., Ma, X., et al., 2015. A case history stratum. Frontiers in Earth Science. DOI: https://doi.
of shield tunnel crossing through group pile foun- org/10.3389/feart.2022.1019801.

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 JAESER 2022 Reviewer Recognition and Thanks

JAESER would like to thank all the reviewers who spent their valuable time supporting the peer review process. We
will continue to publish research related to the built environment and structural engineering and would like to thank all
of our peer reviewers for their continued support and service to the journal and the broader scientific community

Outstanding Reviewer
Jian-yong Han Northeastern University,China

Reviewer Acknowledgement
Marco Breccolotti University of Perugia,Italy

Huaping Wang Lanzhou University,China

Ahmed Elyamani Ali Cairo University,Spain

Mohammed Jassam Altaee University of Babylon,Iraq

Mª Dolores Álvarez Elipe    CEIPSO Salvador Dalí,Spain

Alper Bideci    Düzce University, turkey

Seongkyun Cho    Ministry Of Land,Infrastructure,and Transport, Republic of Korea

Fabrizio Scozzese University of Camerino,Italy

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