The Pegasus Review: UCF

Undergraduate Research Journal

(URJ)

Volume 1 Article 8
Issue 1 Inaugural Issue

2005

The Effects of College Student Employment on Academic

Achievement
Lauren E. Watanabe
University of Central Florida, [email protected]

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Recommended Citation
Watanabe, Lauren E. (2005) "The Effects of College Student Employment on Academic Achievement," The
Pegasus Review: UCF Undergraduate Research Journal (URJ): Vol. 1 : Iss. 1 , Article 8.
Available at: https://stars.library.ucf.edu/urj/vol1/iss1/8
 Watanabe: The Effects of College Student Employment on Academic Achievement

Published
Vol. 1: 38–47
March 17, 2005
THE UNIVERSITY OF CENTRAL FLORIDA
UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH JOURNAL

The Effects of College Student

Employment on Academic Achievement
Lauren E. Watanabe
Faculty Mentor: Dr. Jana Jasinski

ABSTRACT: With college tuition and the cost of living rising, many students find themselves in the position of
needing employment while trying to attend classes. This study examines the effects that employment has on college
students’ academic achievement and other possible factors that might have contributed.

Republication not permitted without written consent of the author.

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INTRODUCTION labor market may also lead students to put forth less
The purpose of this study is to examine the effects of effort into both because they are spreading themselves
college student employment on academic achievement. “too thin” (Astin, 1993). According to these researchers,
Presently, 55% to 80% of students are employed while it is not the job itself that causes the problems, but the
attending college (Miller, 1997; King, 1998). These high overload on the amount of time worked because “students
percentages have led some to believe that students who who work more hours each week spend less time on
work suffer from decreased academic performance homework, [and] pay attention in class less often”
(Steinberg, Fegley, & Dornbusch, 1993). However, others (Steinberg & Dornbusch, 1991, p. 307).
feel that employment can have a positive effect if in the
proper proportions (Dallam & Hoyt, 1981). Research Not all of the research shows negative GPA effects from
regarding this topic is mixed. Consequently, the current the amount of hours a student is employed. Some findings
study will attempt to provide further empirical evidence indicated that employment had either a positive effect or
with which to better understand the effects of employment none at all. A number of researchers, for example, found
on academic achievement. that hard work built stronger academic character because
it taught the students time-management skills, gave
REVIEW OF LITERATURE them experience outside of the classroom, and provided
Employment among college students has been increasing them with more satisfaction in college (Pennington,
rapidly. Its effect on the academic performance of Zvonkovic, & Wilson, 1989). Dallam and Hoyt (1981)
students has been questioned by many researchers suggested that a good balance between students’ credit
(Green, 1987). Some of the issues raised in the literature hours and working hours forced students to be more
concern matters such as the number of hours worked, organized and to have better time management. They
whether the students’ jobs pertain to their majors, and also found that students who worked between 1 and 15
the students’ workloads. As more students are employed, hours per week showed a slightly higher GPA than those
they face having to balance their academic requirements, whose workloads were heavier and those who were not
extracurricular activities, and employment responsibilities working at all (Dallam & Hoyt, 1981; Li-Chen &
to maintain their lifestyles (Furr & Elling, 2000). The Wooster, 1979). Not only were higher GPAs found in
literature reviewed below examines how employment has students who maintained jobs, but Green (2001) also
affected academic achievement. stated “that they had gained job skills, experience,
knowledge of a variety of jobs, a sense of accomplishment,
Much of the research indicating that employment a feeling of responsibility, and money for personal and
negatively affects students’ academic achievement stated school expenses” (p. 329). Other researchers, when
that an increase in the amount of hours worked was the comparing high and low academic performance and the
most influential factor. In one study, more hours worked amount of hours students worked, found that the amount
decreased the likelihood of being an “A” student of hours employed did not have an adverse effect on their
(Pritchard, 1996). According to Furr and Elling (2000), academics (Pinto, Parente, & Palmer, 2001). Similarly,
29% of the students working 30-39 hours per week and Watts’ (2002) analysis of 19 students at the University of
39% of those students working full time indicated that Brighton found that 4 of 12 working undergraduates
work had a negative and frequent impact on their said that working did not affect their academics and 5
academic progress. Those who take on part-time jobs are said that it actually had a positive impact. Although some
less engaged in school before they enter the labor force, of the previously mentioned studies used samples of
and part-time employment, “especially for more than 20 high-school students rather than undergraduates, their
hours weekly, further exacerbates this problem”(Steinberg results were consistent. The fact that some contained
et al., 1993, p. 175). Furr and Elling (2000) also found samples of less than 50 students, however, may have
that upperclassmen worked more hours than freshmen, accounted for some of the differences between the
indicating that the older students would be more likely positive and negative academic results.
to suffer in their academics. Therefore, working full time
has an even greater impact on academics because, often Not accounting for the amount of time actually put into
times, working 40 or more hours further decreases a the job, researchers have found that the type of
student’s college grade point average (GPA) and is employment a student holds has an impact on academics.
negatively related to completion of a bachelor's degree Dead-end jobs such as a cashier or fast food worker tend
(Astin, 1993). The act of balancing school work with the to have a negative effect (Li-Chen & Wooster, 1979),

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whereas high-quality, part-time jobs that seemed to unpaid) that are related to the students' majors have a
develop career-related skills may in effect contribute to positive impact on academic achievement; (c) Higher
increased levels of “career maturity,” and these types of class standing of students lead to higher academic
jobs are more likely to be flexible and work with students’ achievement; (d) Students who take fewer credit hours
schedules (Healy, O'Shea, & Crook, 1985). These types will have higher academic achievement; and, (e) More
of jobs allow for hands-on experience that cannot be flexible work schedules lead to higher academic
gained in the classroom alone. For example, of the 600 achievement.
full-time students at Lamar University surveyed, 91 out
of 215 students whose jobs related to their majors had a METHODOLOGY
mean GPA of 2.98, while those whose jobs were career Method of Data Collection
unrelated had a mean GPA of 2.66 (Li-Chen & Wooster, The type of method that was used in this study consisted
1979). Also, student comments suggested that of a self-administered questionnaire. Consent from
employment related to a potential career provided professors was obtained prior to visiting the classrooms.
additional experience. For example, 10 out of 23 The surveys were distributed by the principal investigator
comments of a 120 nursing student survey at a university in classrooms at the University of Central Florida (UCF)
indicated that they were “gaining more practical during the Spring semester of 2004. The classes visited
experience . . .” and that “as all [their] employment is in ranged from lower-level general education classes to
care areas, [they felt] it [had] extended [their] experience” upper-level electives. In these settings, students were
(Lee, 1999, p. 448). informed of the purpose of the project, that filling out
the survey and turning it in was deemed as having their
As money and resources become more scarce for college consent, and that their participation was voluntary. They
students, jobs become more of a necessity rather than an were also aware that they could skip any question they
after-school activity. Any changes to students’ routines felt uncomfortable answering and that there was no
will lead to changes in academics, whether they are penalty for choosing not to participate. After explaining
positive or negative. Though the research results were not the procedure, the surveys were distributed.
always consistent, it was a common theme that the more Administration of the questionnaire took approximately
hours worked led to decreased academic performance, 10 minutes. The principal investigator stood at the front
but that working in general did not necessarily have a of the classroom, and all the completed surveys were
negative effect on grades. When it came to students’ jobs placed by the students into a covered box. This sample
as they applied to their majors, the effects were positive type was chosen for convenience so as to obtain as diverse
in that they provided experience beyond the classroom a sample as possible.
(Lee, Mawdsley, & Rangeley, 1999). The following study
will look at these variables as well as class standing, the The students were asked questions regarding their GPA,
amount of credit hours taken, and flexibility of the work the number of credit hours they took, their major, the
schedule in order to determine the positive or negative type of job they held, the average number of hours per
relationship of working and academics. Other variables, week they worked, the flexibility of their job schedule,
such as demographic factors, will also be examined. their reason for working, and general demographic
questions regarding age, gender, and race and ethnicity.
HYPOTHESES See Appendix A to review the questionnaire.
Much of the research reviewed has dealt with how many
hours students put into their jobs and what types of jobs Conceptual Definitions of Variables
they held. Since the results were not consistent, this study Employment: The student had a job or an internship (paid
examines similar variables in order to provide further or unpaid) during the Fall semester of 2003.
evidence to the debate regarding the effects of employment
on academic achievement. Much of the research reviewed Academic Achievement: The students’ grade point average
has used predominantly White American samples from during the Fall semester of 2003.
traditional colleges. In contrast, the current study uses a
more diverse sample from a metropolitan university. Hours Worked: The average number of hours a student
Based upon research evidence, the following hypotheses spent “on the clock” per week at their place of employment
were developed: (a) Fewer hours worked lead to higher during the Fall semester of 2003, or how many hours the
academic achievement; (b) Jobs or internships (paid or student spent at their internship (paid or unpaid) during

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the Fall semester of 2003.

RESULTS
Jobs Related to the Students’ Majors: For example, if the Univariate Analyses
student was a Hospitality Management major, and worked The sample observed was balanced almost equally
or had an internship (paid or unpaid) at the front desk of a between males (41.6%) and females (58.4%). White
hotel, then the job related to his or her major (the only American respondents comprised the largest portion of
relevant jobs or internships would be those that were held the sample (71.4%), with Hispanics being second,
during the Fall semester of 2003). although far behind with 12.5% (see Table 1). The other
race/ethnicity backgrounds examined included the
Class Standing: Whether the student was considered a following: African American (7.4%), Asian/Pacific
freshman, sophomore, junior, or senior by his or her college Islander (3.7%), Native American (.3%), and Other/
or university during the Fall semester of 2003. Multiracial (4.7%).

Number of Credits: The number of credit hours a student Frequency analyses of gender, GPA, percent of people
was enrolled in during the Fall semester of 2003. with jobs, percent of people with jobs within their majors,
and average number of hours worked were conducted.
Flexible Work Schedule: Employers that work with students' The nominal variable of gender had a mode of 1.00 (i.e.,
schedules regarding when students worked and how many the variable of female). The mean of GPAs, an interval
hours they spent working. The only relevant scheduling variable, was 3.44 with the minimum being 1.43, the
considerations were jobs or internships held during the Fall maximum being 4.00, and the standard deviation being
semester of 2003. 4.92. The majority of students had jobs (61.7%). Of that
61.7%, 83.5% did not have jobs pertaining to their
• Very flexible meant that employers worked majors. The mean of the variable measuring the average
completely around students’ schedules. number of hours worked was 25.26, the minimum being
• Somewhat flexible meaning that the employers take 1.00 hour and the maximum being 60 hours, and the
students’ schedules into consideration, but do not make standard deviation was 9.48 (see Table 1).
it a number one priority.
• Not too flexible meaning that employers only Table 1. Descriptives of UCF students regarding
make special scheduling considerations if employment
absolutely necessary. Catergorical Variables % N
• Not flexible at all meaning that employers do not
Gender
take into account the students’ schedules at all.
Female 58.4 174
Protection of Human Subjects Male 41.6 124
At the top of the survey, there was a consent form that Race
explained the research project to the students. It showed
how they remained anonymous by both placing the surveys Caucasian 71.4 212
in a covered box so that their names and faces could not be African American 7.4 22
placed together and by having no identifiable information Asian/Pacific Islander 3.7 11
on the survey itself. Reading the top part of the survey,
Hispanic 12.5 37
agreeing to the terms and conditions, and filling out the
survey was regarded as their consent. There was no formal Native American .3 1
consent form for the students to sign. Other/Multiracial 4.7 14
Percent with Jobs 61.7 185
Data Analysis Strategy
An independent samples t-test was used to analyze job Having to do with their majors 16.5 30
status related to students’ majors, flexibility of work GPA Recorded
schedules, number of credit hours taken, and academic 1.00 – 2.99 (1) 32.4 97
achievement of students with jobs versus students without
3.00 – 3.50 (2) 44.1 132
jobs. A one-way analysis of variance was used to analyze
the amount of hours worked and students’ class standing. 3.51 – 3.99 (3) 19.7 59

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4.00 (4) 3.7 11

Mean Std. Deviation
Continuous Variables % N
3.44
GPA 300
4.92
25.26
Avg. hours worked per week 184
9.48

Bivariate Analyses
To test the hypothesis that students with jobs had higher
academic achievement than students without jobs, an The GPA means of students from four different class
independent t-test was conducted comparing the mean standings (freshman, sophomore, junior, senior) were
of student GPAs with jobs to the mean of student GPAs compared using a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA)
without jobs (see Figure 1). No significant difference was to test whether or not class standing had an effect on
found, t (296) = -1.77, p > .05. The mean of student academic achievement (see Figure 3). No significant
GPAs with jobs (Mean = 3.12, SD = .485) was not difference was found, F (3, 295) = .069, p > .05. The
significantly different from the mean of student GPAs students’ GPA from the three different class standings
without jobs (Mean = 3.23, SD = .524). did not differ significantly during the Fall semester of
2003.
Figure 1. Employment and Internship Status. Figure 3. Class Standing.

In order to see if having a job pertaining to one’s major An independent t-test was conducted comparing the
had a positive effect on academic achievement, an GPA of students taking between 0 and 13 credit hours
independent t-test was conducted, comparing the mean and the GPA of students taking 14+ credit hours in order
GPA of students who had academic major-related jobs to test the hypothesis that students taking a lesser number
to the GPA of students who did not have major-related of credit hours would have higher academic achievement
jobs (See Figure 2). No significant difference was found, (see Figure 4). Considering that students taking 0 credit
t (178) = -.147, p > .05. The mean of student GPAs who hours would imply that they were not enrolled in school,
had major-related jobs (Mean = 3.11, SD = .620) was not the actual range was between 2 and 13, since that was the
significantly different from the mean of student GPAs lowest number of credit hours stated. No significant
who had non-major-related jobs (Mean = 3.13, SD = difference was found, t (297) = -1.78, p > .05. The mean
.459). GPA of students taking between 0 and 13 credit hours
(Mean = 3.12, SD = .506) was not significantly different
from the mean of the students taking 14+ credit hours
(Mean = 3.23, SD = .495).

Figure 2. Jobs Pertaining to Majors.

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Figure 4. Number of Credit Hours Taken. Furr and Elling (2000) found that students working
between 30-39 hours per week and those working 40+
hours per week felt that their employment had a negative
effect on their academic achievement. Others also found
that students working between 1 and 15 hours per week
showed a slightly higher GPA than those with a heavier
workload (Dallam & Hoyt, 1979; Li-Chen & Wooster,
1979). Both of these studies indicated that employment
had some kind of impact on academic achievement. The
present study, however, showed no significance with
regard to this variable. The hypothesis stating that the
It was hypothesized that the more flexible a student’s type of employment students held had a positive impact
work schedule, the higher his or her academic on academic achievement, if it was related to their major,
achievement, so an independent t-test was conducted was not supported. This finding conflicts with those of
comparing the GPA of students having flexible work Li-Chen and Wooster's (1979) survey of 600 students at
schedules to the GPA of students not having flexible Lamar University, wherein those whose jobs were relevant
work schedules (see Figure 5). No significant difference to their majors showed a higher GPA than those whose
was found, t (180) = .695, p > .05. The mean of student jobs were irrelevant. Class standing in this study did not
GPAs having flexible work schedules (Mean = 3.13, SD show a strong significance. This was inconsistent with
= .474) was not significantly different from the mean of some of the results found by Astin (1993), which stated
student GPAs not having flexible work schedules (Mean that the more years a student spent in school, the higher
= 3.05, SD = .587). his or her academic achievement.

Steinberg and Dornbusch (1991), after conducting their

research, stated that overloaded students will have
Figure 5. Flexibility of the Work Schedule. decreased attitudes toward academics, and by becoming
overly ambitious about trying to get things done will
lower academic achievement. Besides the amount of
hours worked, another measurement of a student’s
workload was the amount of credit hours taken. This
study did not support the literature because its finding
was not significant.

The final hypothesis regarding the flexibility of the work

schedule stated that the more flexible a student’s schedule,
the higher his or her academic achievement. The result
showed that this variable did not have an impact on
CONCLUSIONS academic achievement, which conflicted with findings
In this quantitative study, none of the research hypotheses from Healy, O'Shea, and Crook (1985), who found that
were supported, nor were any of the demographic quality jobs that work with students would allow them to
variables significant. This indicated that the null put in the needed time towards their studies.
hypothesis was accepted, which stated that college
student employment did not affect academic achievement. One of the interesting facts was that 25.2% of the other
This finding is surprising considering the amount of factors that students perceived to affect their academics
research that has found many positive and negative fell under the category of fraternity/sorority/social life.
significant factors of employment affecting academic In second, with 23.9%, was the category of other school-
achievement. The study did not contribute to either the related activities/sports (see Table 2). Both of these
positive or negative relationship between working and findings are viewed as neither positive nor negative. The
academic achievement. question on the survey that asked about other factors
that may have influenced academic achievement was
open ended. It did not require the students to give a

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positive or negative response; it simply showed that multivariate analyses could have been used in addition to
academic achievement can also be influenced by variables the bivariate analyses because multiple factors related to
other than employment. academic achievement could, therefore, be examined. In
addition, the relationship between employment and
Table 2. Factors Affecting GPA of UCF Students academic achievement may have been curvilinear. Taking
% N very few credit hours may lead to neglecting school work,
while taking a moderate amount may lead to better time-
Family 11.16 18
management skills, and taking too many credits may
Emotional 21.3 33 overload students and add unneeded stress. This should
Fraternity/Sorority/ be considered in future studies. Future studies conducted
25.2 39 from this survey should ask the students to state whether
Social Life
School/Sports Activities 23.9 37 other factors affecting their academic achievement are
positive or negative. Even though none of the research
Roommates/Friends 5.2 8 hypotheses were supported by the data, the sample was
Living Situation 5.2 8 more diverse than previous studies and, therefore,
Significant Other 7.7 12 provides a valuable contribution to this body of
literature.
Total N = 155

The fact that approximately 70% of the respondents

stated that their grade point averages were a 3.00 or
above greatly affected the results because of very little
variation. This made it very difficult to draw a strong
conclusion regarding the research hypothesis.

LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

The restricted variation in GPAs was a large drawback to
the study. One of the possible explanations for this would
be that the GPAs were self reported. Students could very
easily have embellished or forgotten their exact GPA due
to the fact that their answers relied on their memory of
the past semester. Having an official report of the GPAs
could have at least removed this possibility of human
error. Also, one of the questions asked students in an
open-ended format to state other factors that influenced
their academic achievement. It should have been posed
so that students had to state whether the results were
positive or negative. The fact that the sample observed
was a sample of convenience, and not a random sample,
may have presented a problem because it is possible that
the sample included the students for which there is no
relationship between employment and academic
achievement.

Suggestions for Future Research

The fact that GPA was the only way of measuring
academic achievement did not account for other factors
that could have affected this same variable. Therefore,
even though most of the research has used GPA as its
only source of academic achievement, variables such as
graduation rates should be examined. Secondly,

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REFERENCES
Astin, A. (1993). “What matters in college? Four critical Steinberg, L., Fegley, S., Dornbusch, S.M. (1993).
years revisited.” San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. “Negative impact of part-time work on adolescent
adjustment: Evidence from a longitudinal study,”
Dallam, J.W. & Hoyt, D.P. (1981). “Do students have Developmental Psychology, 29, 2, 171-180.
enough time to study?” College and University, 57, 84-91.
Watts, C. (2002). “The effects of term-time employment
Furr, S.R. & Elling, T.W. (2000). “The influence of work on academic performance,” Education + Training, 44,2,
on college student development,” NASPA Journal, 37, 2, 67-75.
454-470.

Green, G. (1987). “The effect of part-time employment on

academic achievement,” Journal of Educational Research,
80, 6, 325-329.

Healy, C.C., O'Shea, D., & Crook, R. H. (1985).

“Relation of career attitudes to age and programs during
college.” Journal of Counseling Psychology, 32, 239-244.

King, J. (1998). “Too many students are holding jobs for

too many hours.” Chronicle of Higher Education, p A72.

Lee, T., Mawdsley, J.M., Rangeley, H. (1999). “Students’

part-time work: Towards an understanding of the
implications for nurse education,” Nursing Education
Today, 19, 443-451.

Li-Chen, M. & Wooster, R.A. (1979). “The effect of

unemployment on the college students’ academic
performance,” College Student Journal, 13, 1, 12-20.

Miller, B. (1997). “Waiters, painters, and Big Mac

makers.” American Demographics, 19, p 26.

Pennington, D. C., Zronkovic, A. M., & Wilson, S. L.,

(1989). “Changes in college satisfaction across an
academic term.” Journal of College Student Development, 30,
54-58.

Pinto, M.B., Parente, D.H., Palmer, T. S. (2001). “College

student performance and credit card usage,” Journal of
College Student Development, 42,1, 49-58.

Pritchard, M. (1996). “Hours of employment and

undergraduate grades,” Consumer Interests Annual, 42,
207-209.

Steinberg, L. & Dornbusch, S.M. (1991). “Negative

correlates of part-time employment during adolescence:
Replication and elaboration,” Development Psychology, 27,
2, 304-313.

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APPENDIX
Sociological Survey of College Students
My name is Lauren Watanabe and I am a Sociology student at the University of Central Florida. Under the
supervision of Jana Jasinski, I am conducting research regarding the effects of college student employment on
academic achievement. You are being asked for about 5-10 minutes of your time to fill out the following survey,
answering only the questions you feel comfortable answering. There is no penalty for skipping questions or choosing
not to participate in the study, nor will I be able to give you any compensation or extra credit for your participation.
There are no risks involved with this study and your identity will remain anonymous because there is no personal
identifiable information given on the survey. Please place the surveys in the covered box so that surveys and faces
cannot be placed together. You must be at least 18 years of age to participate in this study. Any questions or concerns
regarding the information from this survey can be answered via email at [email protected].
Filling out the following survey will be regarded as your consent to participate in the study.

Are you at least 18 years of age ? Circle one

1. Yes (if so, please specify age in years)
2. No (if so, please do not continue on with this survey)

Directions - fill out the following survey using information from only the fall semester of 2003.

1. What was your GPA? _______________

2. What was your class standing? Circle one

1. Freshman
2. Sophomore
3. Junior
4. Senior

3. How many credit hours were you enrolled?

1. 0-6
2. 7-13
3. 14+

4. What was your major? ___________________________

5. Were you employed or were you involved in an internship (with or without pay)?
1. Yes
2. No (Skip to Question #10)

6. If yes, how many hours per week on average did you work? ____________

7. What type of job did you have or what was your job title? _____________

8. How flexible was your work schedule? Circle one

1. Very flexible (employers worked completely around your school schedule)
2. Somewhat flexible (employers took your schedule into consideration, but did not make it a priority)
3. Not too flexible (employers only made special scheduling considerations if absolutely necessary)
4. Not flexible at all (employers did take into account your school schedule at all)

(Continued on next page)

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9. What was your reason for working? Circle all that apply
1. Income needs
2. Spending money
3. Career advancement/ Career experience
4. Leisure purposes
5. Other (please specify) _______________________________________

10. Were there other factors that may have influenced your academics, your work schedule, or both?

__________________________________________________________________________________

11. What is your gender?

1. Female
2. Male

12. What is your race/ethnicity?

1. Caucasian
2. African American
3. Asian/ Pacific Islander
4. Hispanic
5. Native American

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