UNIT 19 TEACHING GRAMMAR (TO

ADVANCED LEARNERS) IN
HIGHER CLASSES
Structure
19.0 Objectives
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Understanding Forms and Functions in English Language
19.3 The Use of Tenses in English
19.4 Probable Hard spots for ESL Learners
19.5 Inter-language – Causes and Effects
19.6 Error Corrections – Ways and Means
19.7 Discussion
19.8 Let Us Sum Up
19.9 Key Words
19.10 Suggested Reading
19.11 Answers

19.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this Unit and completing the exercises you would be able to:
 explain the significance of grammar in meaning-making when learning
a language;
 distinguish between forms and functions of /similar or dissimilar
sentences (with suitable examples) and establish the relationship (or the
lack there of) between these two aspects;
 revisit and review a few selected aspects of English grammar i.e. tenses,
conditional clauses and passive constructions;
 explain inter-language and enumerate the factors that lead to this
situation; and
 discuss (with examples) the advantages and disadvantages of self
correction; peer correction and individual and whole group (error)
correction by the teacher in a classroom.

19.1 INTRODUCTION
“Grammar is the structural foundation of our ability to express ourselves.
The more we are aware of how it works, the more we can monitor the
meaning and effectiveness of the way we and others use language.” (David
Crystal, 2004, In Word and Deed, TES). As Julio Foppoli argues 59
Teaching Writing and Grammar (www.esaudio.net/spanish/onlineclasses.html.) that as a train cannot move
without railways, you won’t be able to convey your ideas to their full extension
without a good command of underlying grammar patterns and structures of
the language.
As classroom teachers we are often faced with a very peculiar and
contradictory situation. While we have a set of students who do very well
in discrete item grammar tests, they are incapable of speaking fluently or
writing accurately for long. On the other hand, there are a few who have
very little awareness of grammar jargon and terminology, although they
make pretty good use of the language. As teachers, we want to prepare
learners who actually engage in communicative situations using appropriate
language and patterns. We are not interested in their explaining to us or
making a list of all the grammar uses that a certain pattern has or reciting,
parrot like (from memory) , the rules or exceptions which are associated
with different grammatical elements. Students in higher classes have several
years of studying the language under their belts. This is a great resource for
us as teachers, because we can help them with what they already know and
expand upon it. We can help them with a “deeper understanding of the
nuances of the language.” The time in class must be used for providing
learners with as many communicative situations as possible, rather than
making them focus on drills and patterns that they could easily practice on
their own.

19.2 UNDERSTANDING FORMS AND

FUNCTIONS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE
In other units of the block, you must have come across two oft – repeated
terms:
Forms of language
Functions of language
Before we proceed to discuss the relationship between forms and functions
in English language, let us quickly review the two concepts.
The forms of language include the types of sentences (structures/patterns)
used i.e. declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamatory. (These
structures that make up the grammar of the language include such things as
the present simple. (e.g. She reads) or the past continuous (e.g. He was
driving) or adjectives of comparison (Pari is taller than Ruby) or numbers
of nouns (I found a little child crying on the road and a few older children
talking to her).
On the other hand, language functions refer to its purposes; its use and what
it does when we use language to communicate. These are:
Informative Language Functions: Communicating information such as facts,
comparing and contrast, cause and effect relationship, summarising,
sequencing, questioning, answering techniques, etc.
Expressive Language Functions: Reporting feelings or attitudes or evoking
these feelings in the reader or listener (e.g. persuasion, agreeing / disagreeing,
apologizing, expressing enthusiasm/disappointment, dealing with anger,
60 sadness, indifference, etc.)
Directive Language Functions: Using language to cause or prevent actions, Teaching Grammar
such as commands or requests (e.g. inviting some of your friends to dinner, (To Advanced Learners)
in Higher Classess
giving directions to reach the restaurant, how to make soft rotis,) etc.
As teachers what we must make our learners in higher levels comprehend
and appreciate is the fact that there is no one to one match between
grammatical form and communicative functions. For example, The room is
quite warm (declarative sentence in simple present tense) might be used in
different contexts as informative (an observation); expressive (how one feels
at the moment) or directive (to switch on the air-conditioner). Hence, your
students must realize that a context often determines the purpose of an
utterance. Similarly, if we wish to invite someone we use the language of
inviting. For example, we might say,
Are you free this Saturday? Would you like to come to the picnic we are
planning to have?
We will be very happy if you come to the picnic with us this Saturday.
How about coming to the picnic on Saturday?
Hence for every function there is a number of different ways to express it.

Check Your Progress 1

1. Match each of the questions 1-6 from the list (a) with a function from
the list (h).
Question:
a) What is your plan for the evening?
Is that a suspension bridge or a cantilever bridge?
What sort of ring was Rini wearing?
Would you mind holding this packet for a minute?
What do you think of the English teacher?
Why does she always ask such stupid questions?
h) Function:
Asking someone to distinguish between alternatives.
Asking for information.
Asking for help.
Asking for a description.
Asking for opinion.
Expressing surprise.
Asking for details.
Expressing irritation.
(The purpose of this item is to make you observe and understand that
although each and every item in the first part has the same form, i.e. the
interrogative; the questions posed have different functions.)
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Teaching Writing and Grammar
2. What is your plan for the evening? – Asking/confirming availability
(before making a request)
i. Is that a suspension bridge or a cantilever bridge? – Distinguishing
between two alternatives.
What sort of ring was Rini wearing? – Asking for description.
Would you mind holding this packet for a minute? – Asking for
assistance.
What do you think of the English teacher? – Asking for opinion
Why does she always ask such stupid questions? – Expressing irritation
ii. What is common in the following sentences – form or function?
Do that and you’ll be in trouble.
You’d better not do that.
If you do that, you’ll be in trouble.
I wouldn’t do that, if I were you.
Mind you don’t do that.
All the sentences are warning couched in different structures.
iii. Besides the informative, expressive and directive language functions
mentioned in this Section, we have the ceremonial language use,
performative utterances and phatic expressions. Browse the web to
find the different functions that such language performs and give
examples of the same.

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19.3 THE USE OF TENSES IN ENGLISH

The concept of time, tense and aspect of a verb is an important area which
demands our attention. But before we proceed further, comment on the
following statements.
The verb form is the main marker of time in an English sentence.
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62 ................................................................................................................
Present tense is always used to express present time in English. Teaching Grammar
(To Advanced Learners)
................................................................................................................ in Higher Classess

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There is no future tense in English.
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Now read the following.
1. The verb phrase is usually the time marker in most cases but is
reinforced in the form of a time adverbial. The term tense is traditionally
used to refer to the way the verb changes its endings to express this
meaning. For example -
My husband loves gardening. Come winter and he is busy with his
petunias, lobelias, dahlias, chrysanthemums and what not. He is now
water ing the plants.

Indian Super League defending champions Atletico de Kolkata is all set

to train for a month in Spain.
I had viral fever last week. I still feel very weak.
2. Usually the present tense indicates present time e.g. I’m awfully busy
right now. Don’t disturb me.
I have a severe headache.
But the simple present tense can also indicate future time e.g.
I fly to Trivandrum next week. (fixed plan)
Pari, my granddaughter, wants to be a Tennis Champion. It is her dream
to play in the courts of Wimbledon. Pronoy, my grandson, on the other
hand, dreams of being an airplane pilot. Childhood ambitions!!(indefinite
future plans)
3. There is no separate tense marker in English to indicate future tense.
(e.g. – s at the end of verb with the third person singular subject indicating
simple tense, for example,
 Mummy gets up early in the morning to pack our lunch boxes.
Or the inflection -ed with regular verbs to indicate the past tense or a
change in spelling in irregular verbs – slept/ran.
I walked the whole distance as there was an auto-strike.
Therefore, English has two tenses. Traditional grammarians call these tenses
present and past. More modern names for these are Actual and Remote.
(Side by side, Book Four). However, there are five ways of expressing future
time, for example: 63
Teaching Writing and Grammar Taru will be admitted to the hospital tomorrow. (will / shall)
She is going to have a baby. (going to)
My daughter is coming next week to spend a day with us. (Simple present
continuous)
Ask her to call me when she leaves the house. (Simple present)
I’m about to complain to the Resident Welfare Association President about
our neighbour’s noisy late night parties. (about to)
We would like to draw your attention, very briefly, to the point that it is
possible to use the same form (i.e. present or past tense) to talk of different
points of time. In the words of David Crystal we can say that, ‘…there is
no identity between tense and time. Present and past tenses can be used to
refer to all parts of a time line,’ i. e. past time, present time (includes now)
and future time. This you can easily understand if you read the following
sentences carefully. All these sentences express habitual or routine actions.
What are the different ways in which the function is realized?
Mr. Misra is a chain-smoker. (Verb in simple present tense)
Pushpa is a very efficient assistant (use of adjective and noun, verb in simple
present tense.)
Ashish used to drink. (used to drink in the past, has now discontinued the
practice)
Pratyush cannot sleep at night without reading a few pages from a story
book. (Use of modal auxiliary verb- - can with the negative not- and simple
present tense –sleep to indicate habitual activity / inability to do without
something.)
Avantika is always spilling food on the floor. (Present continuous tense to
show repeated action.)
As the tense of the verb form indicates the time (at which an action takes
place), the aspect of the verb refers to how the time of action is regarded
– i.e. whether it is complete, in progress or showing duration. You have
already learnt in the earlier classes that the present continuous (progressive)
aspect is used to express an event in progress at a given time. The present
continuous tense is formed by combining the verb ‘be’ (is, am, are) with
the –ing ending to indicate an event in present time. The usual implication
is that the activity is taking place over a limited period and the situation is
temporary. For example:
- Shilpi is working from home today.
- Don’t make noise. The baby is sleeping.
- The children are playing in the park.
On the other hand, if we want to talk of an action that started in the past
and is seen in relation to a later event or time, we usually use the present
perfect tense, e. g.

64 He has been in prison for fifteen years. (He is probably still there.)
I have lived in Delhi for five years. (I still do.) Teaching Grammar
(To Advanced Learners)
The perfective aspect is formed by using the verb ‘have’. For example: in Higher Classess

The train has arrived. It is on platform number four.

Suhas and Aditi have finished washing the dishes.

I have worked for three hours at a stretch.

She has been ill for quite some time.

Students of English as a Second Language find it difficult to decide when

to use the Present Perfect aspect and when to use the Past tense. Remember
to recapitulate whenever you are reviewing the verb forms in the present and
past tense, the Past tense means ‘past-happening-related-to past time’; i. e.
the happening is related to a definite time in the past, e.g.

We went to Srinagar in 1986.

My father was 86 when he passed away last year.

The definite time in the past is usually identified by a past time adverbial
in the same sentence or the preceding language context.
In contrast, the perfect aspect is used for a past happening which is seen in
relation to a later event or time. Thus the present perfect means ‘past-
happening-related-to-present-time’, e.g.
We have eaten all the curd-rice for lunch. (There aren’t any left.)
Have you completed the project proposal? (You are expected to submit it
now.)
Different kinds of adverbials are associated with the past tense and the
present perfective, e.g.
I saw Tara a week ago.
I have not seen Shefali since December.
Using the wrong adverbial is a common error made by English learners,
As teachers you must be conscious of the fact that the verb is the central
element of a sentence. We would like to remind you here that you have to
learn all about tense and aspect of verbs because a good knowledge of verbs
is important to infer and comprehend the signification of the relationship of
the different sentences that are chosen for assessing your comprehension
skills. You would also need verbs to express your ideas in any kind of
advanced level writing tasks — be it descriptive, expository, discursive or
narrative or even a simple task like letter writing or answering questions
based on reading texts. For transformation exercises which are set in your
examination question papers you would need a thorough knowledge of the
correct form of the verb.
The two other sub-topics that we have selected to discuss in this unit –
conditional clauses and passive constructions — are also verb related. But
we will discuss more of it later. 65
Teaching Writing and Grammar
Check Your Progress 2
Consult any grammar book to list the different functions that a verb in the
simple present tense performs. Now identify the functions of the verb
forms in the sentences given below.
1. Water boils at 100 degree centigrade. …………………………….
She plays the piano really well. ……………………………………
The easiest way to go to Delhi Haat is to take the Metro from Model
Town………………..
Separate the egg whites and the yolks and keep them in two separate
bowls. Beat the whites stiff till they stand in peaks …………
…………………..
2. Saurav Ganguly wins the toss and decides to bat first ………
………………….
Rani plans to join her new job in September. She wants to rest for two
weeks before taking up the new assignment …………………
……………………
3. The following sentences are in the present continuous tense. But how
does the meaning differ in each sentence?
Air pollution is becoming worse day by day.
The government is planning to allow even and odd number cars on
alternate days on the road.
I’m going to attend a mono-acting programme on Kabir by Shekhar
Sen.
It is snowing in Simla.
I’m forever looking for my room keys.
4. What is the difference in the set of sentences given below?
i(a) The sun rises in the east.
(b) The sun is rising over the horizon. What a beautiful sight.
ii(a) In summer, it always rains in the evening in this place.
(b) It is not raining but is pouring now. How can you think of going
out?
iii(a) Joy reads a lot of books.
(b) He is reading the Glass Palace by Amitava Ghosh now.
iv(a) There was an explosion at the crowded Sarojini Nagar Market
before Diwali.
(b) There has been an explosion at Sarojini Nagar market. Many
people have lost their lives.
v(a) The Mughal Gardens at Rashtrapati Bhavan have been opened
for public.
Have you ever been there?
(b) We went to the Mughal Gardens at Rastrapati Bhavan last week.
It is opened for public viewing only for a fortnight.
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 Teaching Grammar
5. (a) Underline all the verbs in the simple present and put a circle (To Advanced Learners)
round all the verbs in the present continuous. in Higher Classess
(b) Comment on the utility of this kind of an exercise in higher
classes.
The day is mild. A filmy diffusion pales the blue of the sky and
gives a soft extra light. A gentle breeze touches the moving sea.
Here and there the surface breaks in a pattern of light, struck by
a shower of needles. Schools of sauries, each holding a million
fish, break and boil to the top. Their sides are gleaming iridescent
silver, their backs are metallic blue green. The Little Calf and his
mother, along with seven other females, the harem bull, and a
young male, are lazily following the fish, feasting as they go…
Even the Little Calf, though nursing, is swallowing the fat, tasty,
ten inch fish.
(Adapted from Collins Cobuild English Grammar Exercises)

We will end this section with a few observations from a study conducted by
R. K. Agnihotri, A. L. Khanna and Aditi Mukherjee on Undergraduate
Students of Delhi University. (Implicational Order of Difficulty in the Use
of Tenses in English – by R. K. Agnihotri, A. L. Khanna and Aditi Mukherjee).
They suggest that “the teaching of tenses should be incorporated in the
teaching curriculum in three distinct stages. The verbal forms which the
majority of our population finds difficult to handle and which are acquired
later…should be introduced only in the last stage of teaching of tenses. It
may not be particularly damaging to introduce these forms early at the
receptive levels but to insist on their productive control in the early stages
may result in disturbing the natural stages involved in learning. In natural
language acquisition a silent period generally intervenes between reception
and production…” Their findings underscore the need for contrasting the
present indefinite (simple present) and the present continuous as also the
simple past with present perfect. They have also highlighted the necessity to
introduce the simple present for general truths and for habitual actions at the
early stage. They also proposed the use of the simple present for future
references in the Second Stage and the present continuous for future action
as one of the ways to indicate future time. The researchers/authors also feel
that the more difficult areas in tenses, i.e. the past perfect and the perfect
continuous tenses should be taken up in the later stages. In brief, “the formal
devices evolved to express different aspects of time and activity constitute
one of the most critical aspects of any language and an adequate control over
the verbal forms and the associated adverbials is necessary to use language
meaningfully.’’

19.4 PROBABLE HARD SPOTS FOR ESL

LEARNERS
Students of English, who are no longer beginners but are not yet fully
proficient – face problems in different grammar areas. Contemporary
grammarians and authors like Penny Ur and John Eastwood have identified
a few topics viz. the conditional clauses, the use of passive constructions,
phrasal verbs, the meaning of different verb forms, prepositions and so on
as probable hard-spots for ESL learners. 67
Teaching Writing and Grammar In this section we would briefly touch upon (the major pitfalls in understanding
and using) Conditional Clauses and Passive Constructions.
19.4.1 The Conditionals
“Conditional clauses (in complex sentences) are related to (adverbial) reason
clauses; they discuss the consequence of something which may or may not
be a real event.” Usually, the second language learners are taught three types
of conditionals (although it is the third conditional that the students find
difficult to grasp and use effectively.)
The first conditional is an open condition i.e. what is said in the condition
is possible and refers to either present or future time). For example:
If we hurry, we will get the tickets for the morning show.
Syntactical Structure
Conditional Clause; main clause
If + present tense; will + infinitive + consequence
If I hear any news, I’ll ring you.
If he does not come on time, we’ll go without him.
If my father gets to know about this, he will be very upset.
If I save enough money, I’ll go on a Mediterranean Cruise.
The second conditional is an unreal or improbable situation also known as
a hypothetical condition. The tense of the verb in the conditional clause is
in the simple past tense and the verb in the main clause is would or should.
If I had more time, I would visit my friends more often.
If I walked for at least twenty minutes every day, my blood sugar would be
more controlled.
If Shalini didn’t know what to do, she should have asked you.
Although the main clause often has would, we can also use could or might.
If I had a camera, I could take a few photographs.
If you had a calculator, we could finish the calculations faster.
In second conditional clauses, we sometimes use were instead of was,
especially in the clause - if I were you. Examples:
If I were you, I would ask a doctor for some advice.
If I were you, I would settle the dispute as early as possible.
Please note: Although we are using the past tense, the time that we are
talking about is the present = NOW; e.g. If I knew the name of the author,
I would tell you.
Syntactical Structure
Conditional Clause Main Clause
68 If +Past Tense could/would + infinitive
 If I had money, I would buy a house in Kasauli. Teaching Grammar
(To Advanced Learners)
If you needed an invitation to the Opening Ceremony, I could get you in Higher Classess
one.
Third Conditional
In these types of sentences we are talking of hypothetical or unreal conditions,
and imagining the result of the situation. (Unreal /hypothetical conditions
are those where something had not happened in the past and therefore the
result is being imagined.)
If you had studied harder throughout the term, you would have done much
better in the examinations.(But you didn’t work hard and therefore you did
not do well.)
If you had told me that you were interested in seeing the play The War
Horse, I would have booked your ticket along with ours. (But you didn’t tell
me earlier, and so I didn’t buy a ticket for you.)
Syntactical Structure
Conditional Clause Main clause
If + past perfect, ... would/
could/might + have + past participle
The Third Conditional Clause, talks about the past. It is used to describe a
situation that did not happen in the past, and so the result of this situation
is unreal (imaginary).
If I hadn’t eaten so much, I wouldn’t have felt sick (but I did eat a lot, and
so I did feel sick).
If you had taken a taxi, you wouldn’t have missed the train.
Mummy wouldn’t have been so tired, if she had gone to bed earlier.
Ronnie would have been on time for the interview, if he had left the house
at quarter past eight.
Remember — We DO NOT normally use will or would in the conditional
clause, but only in the main clause. But there are exceptions. We can use
will in the if clause, when we make a request.
If you’ll just hold on for a minute, I’ll ask mother to take your call.
(If you want to learn more about tenses in conditional clauses you can refer
to Collins Cobuild English Grammar or a Communicative Grammar of
English by Leech and Svartvik.)

Check Your Progress 3

1. Complete the sentences given below.
i If my daughter comes tomorrow,……………………..
ii We will all be very happy if……………………..
iii If I have enough money, …………………….
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Teaching Writing and Grammar
iv I could take your photo if…………………
v ……………………, I would buy a house in Kodaikanal.
vi If you had a dictionary,………………………
vii Sheila would build up a well-stocked children’s library, if only the
School Principal……………..
viii If I were you, ……………………
ix I wouldn’t have caught a cold, if ………………..
x We wouldn’t have missed the train if ……………….
xi If we had taken the earlier train,………………….
xii If we had taken leave for a few more days, we……………….
2. What does the speaker mean?
i Riya could have worn her new dress, if only the tailor had altered
it on time.
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ii If you had told me before, I wouldn’t have shared our Sunday
plans with Prateek.
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iii Fever for over a week should not be neglected. If I were you, I
would have gone to the doctor by now.
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iv If Tina had asked me, I would have suggested wearing something
warmer.
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v If only Gopal was not so short-tempered, his colleagues would
have liked him better.
3. Which of these utterances might apply to (a) a good student (b) a lazy
student and (c) an ex-student?
i If he worked hard, he would pass.
ii If he had worked, he would have passed.
iii He’ll pass if he works hard.

70 (From: Discover English… Rod Bolitho and Brian Tomlinson)

 Teaching Grammar
4. Match the clauses given in Columns I and II to make meaningful (To Advanced Learners)
sentences. in Higher Classess

Column I Column II
If you have lost money a you’ll stay slim.
If I went to Germany b you must take the call.
If you don’t eat too much c the holiday would have been
miserable.
If she liked spaghetti, d contact the police.
If David phones, e I would buy a bigger car.
If the weather had not f she must have been Italian.
changed,
If I were as tired as you, g I would visit Berlin.
If I had enough money, h I should take a holiday.
If you can’t sleep i I would visit London first.
If I went to England, j take some sleeping tablets.

(From: Exploring Grammar in Context – Robert Carter, Rebecca Hughes &

Michael McCarthy)
5. Construct as many sentences as you can from the substitution table
given below.

passed would studied had Jack

failed he worked Jill
bad in have wouldn’t driven Bob
accident she slowly hadn’t
been late. taken
a taxi Marie
(From: Teach grammar … Scott Thornbury)

In their study of Delhi University Undergraduate students, R. K. Agnihotri,

A. L. Khanna and A. Mukherjee noticed that ‘the control over the use of
different tenses in the conditional clauses is generally poor…. The use of the
conditional clauses involves an understanding of whether the if clause assumes
something to be a fact or whether it imagines a non-fact to be an actual fact
(Close 1962)”. Because the concept of hypothetical past tense (unreal
condition) is fairly difficult to understand and the sentence structure is fairly
complex, The students find it very difficult to internalize conditional clauses,
specially the third conditionals. In fact, the researchers in their study
recommended that conditional clauses ‘….should be taught only at advanced
stages.’ Thus it may be assumed that the advanced learners would find the
review, reinforcement and recapitulation of conditional clauses in the higher
classes quite useful.
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Teaching Writing and Grammar 19.4.2 Passive Constructions
Understanding the meanings, uses and functions of the passive voice is
another difficult area for ESL learners and this has been reported by many
ESL/EFL teachers. As passive constructions are fairly frequent in academic
and scientific writings, advanced learners are often required to use passive
forms in documenting experiments or reports of significant events of their
institutions.

As beginners and at intermediate levels, learners are usually required to

identify the tense and voice of the verb at the sentence level or in very short
passages for transformation exercises. However, many students often fail to
differentiate between transitive and intransitive verbs. Hence they fail to
grasp that intransitive verbs which are not normally followed by direct objects?
and cannot be used in passive constructions, For example:

Shoubik and Mandira have a nice house. (cannot be changed to)

Similarly,

My dresses don’t fit me any more (cannot be changed to)

My sister lacks tact (cannot be changed to)

They walked into the room (cannot be changed to)

We often choose to use passive structures when we want to talk about

an action, but are not interested in saying who or what does it. For
example: Honey is squeezed from the comb and is sold in the comb cut from
the hive.

In this section we will briefly touch upon the situations in which passive
constructions are more appropriate than pseudo-passives. But before we go
into those details, let us revise how passives are formed – although we know
that you are familiar with it.

Passive forms consist of an appropriate tense of the verb be followed by a

past participle of the verb. For example:

His friend was shot in the chest and he died on the spot.

(In this sentence the subject is— His friend and the passive construction is
formed by using be (was) + shot (past participle). What according to you
is the difference between the sentences –

a) His friend was shot in the chest and he died on the spot. (passive)

b) The robbers shot his friend in the chest and he died on the spot. (active)

In the second sentence, we obviously want to draw your attention to the

robbers, “the doer/or the agent of the action instead of -‘his friend’—the
person or thing affected by the shooting. Thus there is a shift of emphasis.
This transformation from active sentence (b) to passive sentence (a) is possible
because the verb shot is used as transitive verb and has a distinct object.
However, there are a number of exceptions. Active verb forms cannot be
passivised when
72
a) The object is a reflexive, reciprocal or possessive pronoun. For example: Teaching Grammar
(To Advanced Learners)
She hurt herself in the darkness. (Reflexive) in Higher Classess

During the floods in Chennai, the neighbours helped each other.

(Reciprocal)
b) Verbs in the active sentence like resemble or lack. For example:
I lack patience.
My brother resembles my mother.
You already know that we prefer to choose a passive construction when
it is preferable not to mention the performer or when we do not know
who the performer is. For example:
Our house was burgled when we had gone abroad for a holiday.
In situations of social and historical significance the passive form is
used.
The Agra Fort which was earlier a brick fort was held by the Chauhan
Rajputs. Later it was rebuilt in red sandstone during the reign of Akbar.
The Fatehpur Sikri was also constructed during this period in honour
of the great Sufi Saint Salim Chishti.
Passives are used to:
 To describe a process:
To make methi parathas, wheat flour is mixed with besan and sieved.
Finely chopped methi leaves are mixed into the flour mixture and
kneaded.
 For classifying:
Based on the components and size of the participles, soil is classified
into different types, namely sandy, clay, silt, loamy, peat, and chalky
soil.
 For making proposals:
The abacus project proposed for children between the ages of four to
fourteen would be used not only to promote better numeracy skills but
also to stimulate visual memory for faster mental operations.
 For warning:
Driving should be avoided after too many (alcoholic) drinks at a party.
 For defining:
A delta, or an area of low flat fertile land, is shaped like a triangle.
Deltas are formed where the river splits into several branches before
entering the sea. They are formed in the regions of low tides and coastal
plains.
 For offering suggestions:
Don’t you think that contractual staff who have been in this office for 73
more than ten years should be regularized?
Teaching Writing and Grammar
Check Your Progress 4
1. Explain the contexts of the following sentences (the first one is done
for you.) Why is the agent not mentioned?
i The litmus paper is placed in the liquid.
Example: (Scientific experiment) The Person is a scientist / teacher/
student / researcher. Therefore, the doer of the action is taken for
granted.
ii The chicken breasts are cleaned, washed and then cut into half
inch broad strips………………………
iii The order to Public Works Department (PWD) to carry out
patchwork on Delhi roads was revoked…………………….
iv A cricketer, who was acquitted of match fixing charges, was banned
for five years. ……………………..
v Common sleep disorders that rob many people from a good night’s
sleep can be classified in four categories. ……………….
2. Rewrite the following headlines using a passive construction. Provide
an agent if you think would add to the meaning.
i 1000 strong Police Personnel deployed amid security fears.
ii Despite outcry, Japan to resume whaling.
iii Teen abducted, hidden at school.
iv Projects planned to decongest city traffic points.
v New method for ice-free preservation of tissues discovered.
3. Use the information boxes to write a paragraph on how biscuits are
made. Use the passive voice and appropriate sequencers. (First, after
that, finally, next, then)
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
4. As a Newspaper Correspondent, write a brief report of the programme
that you covered. Remember to add relevant details to the main
programme.
5 Identify the voice used in the following sentences from a newspaper
item.
A New Material to Make Roads Ice Proof
London: Driving in winters would soon become easier and safer, thanks
to a new material invented by scientists, that could ‘de-ice’ snow
covered, slippery roads potentially for years.
The new material delays the formation of ice compared to conventional
materials, researchers said. Every winter, when weather forecasters
predict snow or icy conditions, local governments deploy trucks that
dust roads with salt, sand or other chemical mixtures to help prevent
ice build – up.
74
19.4.3 Pseudo – passives Teaching Grammar
(To Advanced Learners)
Read the following sentences. in Higher Classess

I got kicked in the football match.

She had the plaster cast removed yesterday.
Expressions, such as ‘I had my hair cut’ or ‘I got my leg stuck’ are called
pseudo-passives. They are not formed in the same way as passives, (i.e. a
form of the auxiliary verb be + followed by the -ed participle) but they are
passive actions in that subjects have things done to them or for them. Unlike
standard passives, both get and have passives involve a subject.
My friend got robbed.
My uncle had his house flooded.
However, the subjects are not involved in the action described. Rather there
is a strong sense of helplessness on the part of the subject, particularly in the
case of get passives. For example:
got killed; got charged; got criticized for no fault of his; got beaten; got
intimidated.
Get – passives are avoided in formal style, and even in informal style are
much less frequent than be- passives. Get passives are a little more informal
than have passives and are more often used in speech (spoken form) rather
than in written form. They are normally used without an agent. For example:
Our house got broken into last night.
I had my hair cut but it was too expensive.

Check Your Progress 5

1. What is the difference in meaning in the two sentences of the same
set?
i a He just had his car repaired.
b He’s just repaired his car.
ii a He’s just had three teeth out.
b Three of his teeth have just been taken out.
iii a Do you clean your car yourself?
b Do you have your car cleaned?
2. Complete the sentences with appropriate get/have passives.
i. Do you stitch your own dresses or………………..?
ii. Do you plant the seedlings yourself or…………………….?
3. Number the sentences in the paragraph. Identify the passive
constructions in the paragraph. Are agents mentioned in all the
sentences? Why? Why not?
75
Teaching Writing and Grammar
i. The 459 passengers and 14 crew on board Flight AF463 were
evacuated using the emergency slides after the plane landed at
2136 GMT. The device was retrieved from the aircraft by
explosives experts from the navy and DCI (Directorate of Criminal
Investigations) a police officer tweeted.
ii. Nepal’s second largest city and its leading tourist hub Pokhara is
built on massive debris deposits which are associated with strong
medieval earthquakes, a new study has found. Three quakes in
1100, 1255 and 1344, triggered large scale collapses, mass wasting
and initiated the redistribution of material by catastrophic debris
flows on the mountain range.

‘The passive is infrequent in speech. In writing, it is more common in

informative than in imaginative prose, especially in contexts which demand
an objective, impersonal style, such as scientific publications and news
reporting. ...Today, there is a strong Plain English movement in both Britain
and the United States campaigning for the use of simpler, clearer and more
direct English in official forms and publications of all kinds…(The supporters
of Plain English) are opposed to the over-use of the passive. But passives
cannot be dispensed with entirely’ as is evident from scientific writings and
write-ups of scientific experiments. (Rediscover Grammar with David
Crystal.)

19.5 INTER LANGUAGE–CAUSES AND EFFECTS

“The process of learning a second language (L2) is characteristically non-
linear and fragmentary, masked by a mixed landscape of rapid progression
in certain areas but slow in others. Such a process results in a linguistic
system known as inter-language (a term used by Selinker, 1972) which to
varying degrees approximates that of the target language. In the earliest
conception, interlanguage is metaphorically a half-way-house between the
first language (L1) and the target language (L2), hence the term interlanguage.
The L1 is purportedly the source language that provides the initial building
materials to be gradually blended with materials from the target language
resulting in new forms that are neither in the L1, nor in the L2. As David
Crystal defines in A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics (1997)…

‘Interlanguage reflects the learners evolving system of rules, and results

from a variety of processes, including the influence of the first language,
contrastive interference from the target language and the over
generalization of newly encountered rules’. Interlanguage can be
applied to language learners phonology (sound system or the way a
learner pronounces, uses the stress patterns etc. while speaking),
morphology and syntax (which make the learner’s system of grammar
reflected in the learner’s knowledge of word formation, word order,
syntactical structures, etc.) and lexicon (vocabulary).

Before we proceed further, let us quickly look back to our own days of
learning English (which is L2 for most of us) and recollect instances of over
generalization of rules learned and mother tongue interference. Most
common, as you might have noticed, pertain to making plurals for example,
adding the extra –s to the word children; using the definite article the with
76 names, for example: The Gopal is very hard working(x) (in line with—The
Roys have gone to Ranikhet for a holiday – referring to the family as a Teaching Grammar
whole); use of –ed to indicate past tense e.g. buyed (x), sinked (x), etc. (To Advanced Learners)
in Higher Classess
Interference of the mother tongue is most noticeable in pronunciation and
stress patterns —(giving rise to comedy films and plays in all Indian
languages); use of wrong word order which is typically modelled on the
mother tongues the learners ; absence of inversion in interrogative sentences
or the indiscriminate use of isn’t it (?) in question tags; deviation from
grammatically correct subject –verb agreement rules –-to name only a few
areas where Indian ESL learners frequently go wrong. You can keep your
ears and eyes open and compile a list of errors your learners make.

Check Your Progress 6

1. Given below is an answer written by a class X student. Rewrite the
answer after making necessary corrections.
“The hungry victims could not eat anything. It is right to say. The
atom bomb on Hiroshima badly effected it. It erase 1,35,000 people
from the city and destroyed eight percent building of the city. But the
aftermaths of the atom bomb were equally serious. Pregnent women
aborded and never conceive again. Men and women lose the capability
of producing babies. The wounds close and for no reason opened.
The hair started break. There was started a teeth deaealt. The blood
started coming from the gums. Atom bomb effected the whole people
of Hiroshima and Nagasaki badly. The aftermaths were very serious
and people are not well till now. They are badly effected and till now
they cannot recover themselves from these bad aftermaths of the
atom bomb certainly. This was the worst unfortunate in the world
history.
2. Read the answer written by the student once again. For the time
being, let us ignore the words that have been spelt wrongly. Now
write the sentences under two broad categories – mother tongue
interference and overgeneration.
Mother Tongue interference Overgeneration
…………………………………. ………………………………….
…………………………………. ………………………………….

However, we are not trying to tell you or convince you that L1 interference/
transfer and overgeneralization on the basis of incomplete rule learning,( i.e.
not knowing the exceptions of a particular rule) are the only two reasons
why the target language is not adequately mastered by a learner. There are
factors – both internal and external— like age, diminishing motivation,
waning interest, lack of self confidence, anxiety, insufficient learning
opportunities, dearth of proficient language teachers – all of which contribute
to create a situation in which “incorrect linguistic features become a permanent
part of the way a person speaks or writes a language. Thus, if we think of
interlanguage as a continuum of gradually approaching the target language,
it can stop developing in any stage and the learner is unable to acquire total/
absolute proficiency. This freezing of the transition between native language
(L1) and the target language (L2) is termed fossilization of interlanguage. 77
Teaching Writing and Grammar This phenomenon occurs mostly in adult second language learners. This
interlanguage fossilization or a permanent cessation of progress toward the
target language shows up as error-reappearance (those language phenomena
whereby repeatedly corrected language errors occur again and again resulting
in language competence fossilization (viz., fossilization of pronunciation,
syntactic structures and vocabulary).

We would like to conclude this section on interlanguage and

interlanguage fossilization by re-iterating the following:
 The temporary and changing grammatical system, which is
constructed by the learner, approximates the grammatical system of
the target language in the process of second language acquisition.
Interlanguage continually evolves into an ever-closer approximation
of the target language and ideally becomes equivalent or nearly
equivalent to the target language.
 Interlanguage that become entrenched and permanent (or fossilized)
can only be eliminated with considerable effort. Language experts
have wondered why a majority of second language learners fail to
overcome fossilization. Is it because of the diminishing motivation
(to achieve native like competence) because complacency set in
after the learners begin to communicate effectively enough (even if
not impeccably)? Is it because learners tend to avoid complicated
rules and make their expression simple and rapid?
 In the process of teaching a language, teachers should not only
stress the correct form and grammar of the target language, but also
direct students to use appropriate communicative strategies (like
paraphrasing, borrowing, word coinage or avoidance).
 For the advanced learners, teachers should encourage students to
use new and advanced expressions while simultaneously acquainting
them with the culture and society of the target language. Only in this
way can students be encouraged to decrease fossilization to a certain
extent and approximate L1 proficiency and elevate their own
communicative competence. The significant role of the teacher in
learning has always been recognized and the model that a teacher
provides affects the learner in a big way.

19.6 ERROR CORRECTIONS–WAYS AND MEANS

Is there any difference in meaning between the two words – errors and
mistakes? What do you think? As a teacher what should you be more worried
about – errors or mistakes? Are you becoming puzzled? Confused? Irritated?
Please, don’t be.
Let us look at the dictionary definitions of these two oft-repeated words:
An error is something you have done which is considered to be incorrect or
wrong, or something that should not have been done or which have been
done wrong. However, if you make a mistake, you do something which you
did not intend to do, which produces a result that you did not want. Think
of the expressions – silly mistakes, careless mistakes and compare them
78 with expressions like common error or fatal error or errors of judgment.
Although all of us have suffered at different points of time – more in the Teaching Grammar
form of less marks than anything else – mistakes are inevitable. “When a (To Advanced Learners)
in Higher Classess
learner makes a mistake, s/he breaks the rules of the language as a result of
non-linguistic factors. Thus a pupil might normally use a particular item
correctly in discrete item grammar tests but when writing a composition, s/
he might use it wrongly because s/he is careless, tired, sick, bored, writing
very quickly or thinking ahead.

“Mistakes thus should not worry the teacher as they can usually be
corrected by the learner himself/herself (Ellis and Tomlinson: 1980).

On the other hand, when a language learner unconsciously breaks the

unwritten rules of the target language as a result of faulty learning, s/he
makes an error. In a second language learning situation the learner’s errors
are often habitual and recur despite repeated corrections. The errors are
frequently reinforced by similar errors made by peers and the mass media.
Thus students often have faulty language habits which they are unaware of.
Such errors are indicative of learning problems and make the teachers aware
of the areas to concentrate on when they decide to re-teach/revise to help
their students. As Julian Edge remarks in his book – ‘Mistakes and
Correction’—“….Correction doesn’t mean making everything absolutely
correct; correction means helping people learn to express themselves better.”
The same author remarks elsewhere.. “It is very depressing for a student to
get back any piece of written work with lots of teacher correction on it. We
know that students often just took at the mark they have been given, put the
paper away and forget about it.” Have we all not done the same in our own
school days? So what should we, now that we have become teachers, do
when our students make mistake and errors? One answer is to ignore mistakes
and treat them as positive evidence of learning steps (in their attempts to
make meaning) and encourage them in such risk taking to put into use
whatever language they have learnt. Another answer/way is involving learners
in judgments about correctness which help them become more accurate in
their own use of the language.
A large number of studies by cognitive linguists and first language acquisition
researchers developed the notion that second language learners could be
viewed as actively constructing rules from the data they encounter and by
adapting rules in the direction of the target language. (Refer to the section
on Interlanguage – Causes and Effects). We have already referred to the
evolution from the first attempts to the near perfect use of language as a
continuum and presumably every stage of the development is marked by
influence from the source language. The process of second language learning
“represents an accretion (the process of growth/accumulation) of elements
from the target language.” So as teachers we must allow the students to edit
and (self) correct their own writing. A teacher can choose a particular grammar
area e.g. the present perfect tense or the use of reflexive pronouns (depending
on the writing task) and ask his/her students to spot and rectify as many
mistakes as they can. (We do exactly this when we revise the answers before
submitting the answer-script in an exam but here the teacher restricts the
focus purposely so that students get an opportunity for self correction.) Or
a teacher can point out the mistakes (without correcting them) and then give
the students time to correct them as much as possible, on their own. Self 79
Teaching Writing and Grammar correction attempts raise the awareness level of the students and make them
capable of editing their own work.

Peer correction is another way of error correction where students work together
on correcting each other’s work. The obvious advantage is that students can
discuss with/consult each other if in doubt. Also in case one fails to see his/
her own mistakes, the other person can always help with it. However, the
spirit of co-operation has to pervade pair work.

(Also both self correction and peer correction find support in the constructivist
theory of teaching grammar. We have touched upon this in an earlier Unit
on different methodologies of teaching grammar.)

If we think that a mistake needs to be corrected, the student who made the
mistake or another student can correct it. In this case teacher intervention is
not required. But if the particular student or any other classmate is unable
to come up with the correct answer, then obviously the teacher needs to
intervene to stop wasting available class time.

Error correction by teachers for the whole class can be either hot (the teacher
makes the correction the moment the learner uses a wrong form/pronounces
a word wrongly— then and there) or cold (delayed response/correction at a
later point of time).

What do you think would be advantages or disadvantages of both forms of

correction?

........................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................

If you have written something like too many interruptions to correct mistakes
make the students hesitant and inhibited – you are right. Students would
never use new expressions / words / syntactical patterns and fall back on
safe, simple, repetitive expressions which they know are correct (albeit
overused and / or boring). Hence, language experts who look upon mistakes
as evidence of learning or learning steps, suggest that teachers should not
correct mistakes unless there is a breakdown in communication. In a delayed
correction scenario, a teacher can quietly collect samples/instances of wrong
usage, grammatical errors while going through students’ written work and
choose one or two items for re-teaching. Even if the teacher thinks that he
or she has taught a particular item but the students are still incapable of self
correction or no one in a class can correct a particular mistake, then obviously
80 it needs to be taught again in a different way.
 Teaching Grammar
Check Your Progress 7 (To Advanced Learners)
in Higher Classess
1. Given below are a few incorrect expressions used by learners in their
English examination answer scripts. Write the correct version in the
space provided. Identify the grammar elements which the learners are
confused with.
Expressions used by Attention needed in Correct version
learners teaching grammar
area

Taked a lot of photograph

Spended lot of money

Was crampt in the

Economy class of
the plane

Joint family more better

than nuclear family.

We take rest and freshed

up ourselves

19.7 DISCUSSION
Learning a language is a complex process. Hence, nothing is learnt at one
go. Our understanding of the meaning-making role of grammar also grows
gradually over a period of time. Reviewing, re-using what we have learnt
earlier and reinforcing what we know or have learnt help gradually.
All languages are rule governed. But as we have said earlier, only knowing/
learning the rules do not suffice. Learners need to use the language learnt
fluently, accurately and last but not the least appropriately. While we have
referred to these concepts in an earlier lesson, we would like to remind you
of these three important strands in language use in passing. In this Unit we
have tried to focus on form vs. functions to make you aware of the facts that
grammatically similar sentences may be used in quite different ways while
sentences being used in similar way may be grammatically quite dissimilar.
In other words, the uses to which a sentence might be put cannot be
ascertained from an analysis of its consistent parts, and a learner who knows
what all the words and structures in the language signify, does not necessarily
know how to use language correctly and appropriately.
Like a first rate driver goes through the physical operations of driving a car
automatically and yet follows all traffic rules, keeps an eye on other car
drivers on the road, driving at same time that he is, is mentally alert to his
surroundings and yet carries on a conversation / argument with his co-
passengers – all at the same time. Similarly, a proficient language user gains
automatic control over complex mental routines and sub-routines. This
comparison may be a little cliché / overused, yet we think the most apt.
81
Teaching Writing and Grammar Learning of a language does not occur in a linear sequence. It is an organic
process characterized by back sliding, leaps in competency, interaction
between grammatical elements, etc.
“Researches have demonstrated the complexity of the processes involved in
learning a second language. We now have data which show that it takes
much longer than we once thought to move from one developmental stage
to another… There seems to be little support for an approach in which all
explicit grammatical instruction is eschewed. However, the questions of
when, how and how much focus to place on grammar has not been settled.
In this Unit we have tried to explain that “structures are not learned in
isolation, but they interact with each other. Eisenstein et al (1982) investigated
the development of progressive and simple forms and came to the conclusion
that the problem of learning closely related verb structures is that while each
has its own job to perform, it is also interconnected with other structures.
This makes it difficult for the learner to determine where the boundaries are
and therefore, to know when it is appropriate to use one structure rather than
another. Eisenstein et al. point out that ultimately the challenge of learning
closely related verb structures is probably that they have to be integrated into
the semantic and grammatical system in such a way that each marks off its
own meaning domain, i.e. in the case of verbs, its own portion of time.
(Language Teaching Methodology, David Nunan, 1998)

Apart from internalizing complex grammar rules and using them automatically
and appropriately, another important focal point of this Unit is the fossilization
of inter language and the resultant, errors that show up in the productive
skills of speaking and writing. As most of us teachers are unwilling to accept
the errors as inevitable in second language learning and give sufficient time
to outgrow them at a later stage of learning. We think we can fully agree
with R. K. Agnihotri and A. L. Khanna when they suggest, ‘Nothing causes
more anxiety to teachers, parents, examiners and society in general than the
errors that a learner makes while learning a language. In fact, we often treat
errors as if they were diseases which need immediate treatment. The truth
is that making errors is a necessary part of a learning process.” They have
also pointed out that the rules of grammar are “created by those who use it.
And we all know languages keep changing all the time… It is possible that
today’s errors may become tomorrow’s rule.” Isn’t the comment thought
provoking and deserving some consideration? Think and ponder.

19.8 LET US SUM UP

We cannot ignore grammar in language as it directly influences the
effectiveness and meaning of what we would like to convey. Language and
grammar both goes side by side, we cannot separate one from another and
we should teach grammar combining it with language in a communicative
way.
Although students can successfully complete form-focused grammar exercises,
they cannot always transfer this knowledge of rules to sustained writing
tasks.
Forms of languages tell us about different sentence patterns and the inflections
82 of nouns (for indicating number/ gender), adjectives (for degrees of
comparison), verbs (for time, tense and aspect), pronouns (person, number, Teaching Grammar
gender) etc. all contribute to the overall meaning of a sentence, paragraph, (To Advanced Learners)
in Higher Classess
discourse. Students gradually learn the significance of all these components
in adding to the shades of meaning/nuances of language.

Language functions are more about communication and can be informative,

expressive, directive, phatic, ceremonial or performative.

There is no one to one correlation between grammatical form and

communicative function. The same expression may convey different meanings
in different contexts.

The time marker in most sentences is the verb phrase which in most cases
is corroborated by an adverb. There are two tenses in English language –
present and past tense – while future time is indicated in a variety of ways.
The aspect of the verb tells us whether the action is in progress (continuous)
or if an action is continuing up to the present (perfective).

While it is desirable to visit different areas of grammar in different classes

– it has been noticed by researchers that the proper uses of tenses, the
conditional clauses and passive constructions are some of the areas of
grammar where students make a lot of errors.

Language learners, especially second language learners go through different

phases of transition. Language one transfer/interference and overgeneralization
often result in what is known as interlanguage. A learner’s interlanguage
changes frequently as he or she becomes more proficient in the target
language. The term interlanguage draws attention to the fact that the learner’s
language system is neither that of his mother tongue nor that of the second
language.

Interlanguage fossilization is a phenomenon of second language learners

developing and retaining a linguistic system which falls short of total
approximation of the target language. Thus those aspects of interlanguage
that become entrenched and permanent are said to be fossilized. This happens
more with adult language learners.

While learning a language, learners are bound to make mistakes. Those

mistakes which learners are able to correct themselves (on their own or
when pointed out) are indicative of their attempts to take the desired learning
steps. However, despite repeated corrections or providing ample support,
students continue making errors. These may be caused by several different
processes:

 Borrowing patterns from mother tongue;

 Extending patterns from the target language; and

 Expressing meanings using the words and grammar which are already
known.

 There are two kinds of error correction techniques

 Hot (correction – as soon as we notice a student making an error);

83
Teaching Writing and Grammar  Cold (not to interrupt the activity in progress but take up the mistakes
made after words).

We should encourage self correction first and then follow it up with peer
correction, if needed. Teachers can concentrate on re-teaching certain areas
where all/most learners make errors.

19.9 KEY WORDS

Structures: Sentences are identical in structure and display the same pattern
because they all contain examples of the same grammatical categories which
are arranged in a certain order according to a set of grammatical rules e.g.

I’d like to go to Paris/Swaziland

Or

I’d like to go home/read a book etc.

Forms (of sentences) include different types of sentences like declarative,

negative, exclamatory sentences/or the different forms of verb – present/
past, weather a noun is singular or plural / countable or unaccountable.

Function(of sentences) – The purpose of an utterance/sentence; whether it

is an order, a request or a prayer.

Verb It is the central element in a sentence indicating what is happening or

the state of things.

Tense – refers to the time of action: present, past and future.

Aspect – Tells us whether the action denoted by the verb is complete or

incomplete e.g. She is cooking (action in progress at the time of speaking);
She has finished cooking. (action complete).

Conditional (clause): expresses a condition usually starting with if or unless

e.g. If you do not have your meals regularly, you will fall sick.

Passive Sentences: refers to the verb phrase in a sentence in which the

person or thing effected by the verb because the subject, e.g. the thief was
caught.

Pseudo Passives – (often with have or get) are common in informal English.
They have subjects which have things done for them, to them or which
happen to them e.g. I had my car washed.

Interlanguage: is the type of language produced by second and foreign

language learners who are in the process of learning a language. In language
learning, learner errors are caused by several different processes, i.e. borrowing
patterns from mother tongue, extending patterns from target language,
expressing meanings using the words and grammar which are already known.
Interlanguage has a structurally intermediate use between native and target
language.

Fossilization of Interlanguage: Second language learners develop and retain

84 a linguistic system, (interlanguage) that is different from both the learner’s
first language and the target language. This interlanguage continually evolves Teaching Grammar
into an ever closer approximation of the target language. But at some point (To Advanced Learners)
in Higher Classess
there is a permanent cessation of progress toward the target language.
Interlanguage then becomes enchanted and permanently which is then termed
Fossilization of Interlanguage.

19.10 SUGGESTED READING

Agnihotri, R. K. and A. L. Khanna. 1996. English Grammar in Context:
Ratnasagar Pte. Ltd. Delhi.

Agnihotri, R. K. and A. L. Khanna (ed). 1994. Second Language Acquisition:

Socio-Cultural and Linguistic Aspects of English in India. Sage Publications,
New Delhi.

Bannerjee, A. 1986. Side by Side, Book Fouor. Abhishek Publishers. Calcutta.

Carter, Ronald, Rebecca Hughes and Michael McCarthy. 2000 Exploring

Grammar in Context. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

Collins Cobuild English Grammar. 1990. Rupa and Co.

Crystal, David. Rediscover Grammar. Longman, U. K.

Eastwood, John. 1999. Oxford Practice Grammar. Oxford University Press.

Oxford.

Ellis, Rod and Brian Tomlinson. 1980. Teaching Secondary English, Longman
Group Ltd. England.

Leech, Geoffrey and Jan Svarvik. 2000. A Communicative Grammar of

English. Pearson Education Asia Private. Ltd. NOIDA.

Nunan, David. 1998. Language Teaching Methodology. Pearson Education

Limited, Edinburgh.

Swan, Michael. 1995. Practical English Usage. Oxford University Press,

Oxford.

Thornbury, Scott. 1999. Teach Grammar: Pearson Education Ltd. England.

Ur, Penny. 1988. Grammar Practice Activities. Cambridge University Press.

Cambridge.

Websites Consulted/Referred to

Error Correction in classrooms.

First, Second and Third Conditionals.

Fossilization of Interlanguage.

Interlanguage

Grammar for Advanced Learners. 85

Teaching Writing and Grammar
19.11 ANSWERS
Check Your Progress 1

3. Performative utterances: Language which performs the action it reports,

e.g. “I do” in marriage ceremony, or words like promise, apologize or
congratulate. The words denote an action which is performed by using
the version the first person.

Ceremonial (or ritual language use) e.g. Dearly beloved, we are gathered
here together to writers the holy matrimony of …(different from simply
mixing expressive and directive language because performative aspects
are also included).
Phatic language – Conversations accomplishing a social task or even a
nod or a wave of hand to greet somebody.
Check Your Progress 2
1. Water boils at 100 degree centigrade. Universal truth
She plays the piano really well. Habit (repeated action)
The easiest way to go to Delhi Haat is to take the Metro from Model
Town. Giving suggestions/advice
Separate the egg whites and the yolks and keep them in two separate
bowls. Beat the whites stiff till they stand in peaks. Instructions
2. Saurav Ganguly take to section wins the toss and
decides to bat first. Present event (commentary)
Rani plans to join her new job in September. She
wants to rest for two weeks before taking up
new assignment. Plans (proposed) for a future time
3. Air pollution is becoming worse day by day. (Progressive change)
The government is planning to allow even and
odd number cars on alternate days on the road.
(Proposed plans for future time)
I’m going to attend a mono-acting programme
on Kabir by Shekhar Sen.(fixed) (Plan for future time)
It is snowing in Simla. (Event happening at
the time of talking)
I’m forever looking for my room keys. (Habitual action that
takes place regularly).
4. Difference in the set of sentences given below:
i(a) The sun rises in the east. (Universal truth. True for all times)
(b) The sun is rising over the horizon. What a beautiful sight!
(Temporary event happening at the time of speaking)
ii(a) In summer, it always rains in the evening in this place.
(Frequent action)
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 (b) It is not raining but is pouring now. How can you think of Teaching Grammar
going out? (Temporary event happening at the time of (To Advanced Learners)
in Higher Classess
speaking)
iii(a) Joy reads a lot of books. (Regular action)
(b) He is reading the Glass Palace by Amitava Ghosh now. (Event
in progress but definitely for a limited period)
iv(a) There was an explosion at the crowded Sarojini Nagar Market
before Diwali. (Event happened in the past)
(b) There has been an explosion at Sarojini Nagar market. Many people
have lost their lives. (Past event but the effects (result) can be felt
in the present time).
v(a) The Mughal Gardens at Rashtrapati Bhavan have been opened for
public.
Have you ever been there? (Event in a period leading up to present
time)
(b) We went to the Mughal Gardens at Rastrapati Bhavan last week.
It is opened for public viewing only for a fortnight. (Event took
place in past time)
5. is, pales, gives, touches, breaks (sides) are, (are) (lazily) (following) is
swallouring
Check Your Progress 3
1. Completed sentences:
i If my daughter comes tomorrow, we will go to The Garden of Five
Senses to see the exhibition.
ii We will all be very happy if you spend the weekend with us.
iii If I have enough money, I will buy a small house in Ooty.
iv I could take your photo if I had a camera/A mobile with a good
quality camera.
v If my husband agrees, I would buy a house in Kodaikanal.
vi If you had a dictionary, you could have checked the pronunciation
or the meaning of the word in the given context.
vii Sheila would build up a well-stocked children’s library, if only the
School Principal had agreed to her proposal.
viii If I were you, I would never neglect such high fever for many days.
ix I wouldn’t have caught a cold, if I had taken my umbrella with me
in the morning.
x We wouldn’t have missed the train if we had not been held up in
the traffic jam.
xi If we had taken the earlier train, we could have visited the Titanic
House in the afternoon. 87
Teaching Writing and Grammar xii If we had taken leave for a few more days, we could have stayed
here for a few more days. This is such a quiet and peaceful place
2. i Riya could not wear her new dress because the tailor did not do the
alterations on time.
ii I shared our Sunday plans with Prateek because you never told me
not to./ I did not know it was to be kept secret.
iii Go visit a doctor. The fever may be indicative of more serious
illness than you think.
iv Tina is wearing something very light which is not very warm. (She
may feel cold later.)
v Gopal becomes angry very quickly. His colleagues do not like him
much.
3. i If he worked hard, he would pass. (b) a lazy student
ii If he had worked, he would have passed. (c) an ex-student.
iii He’ll pass if he works hard. (a) a good student
Check Your Press 4
1. i The litmus paper is placed in the liquid. The Person is either a
scientist / teacher/ student / researcher. Therefore, the doer of the
action is taken for granted.
ii The chicken breasts are cleaned, washed and then cut into half inch
broad strips.
Recipe/ instructions for making a chicken dish.
How to cook is more important than who the author of the cookbook
is.
iii The order to Public Works Department (PWD) to carry out
patchwork on Delhi roads was revoked.
Newspaper Report. Obviously the administrative authorities /
government in power.
iv A cricketer, who was acquitted of match fixing charges, was banned
for five years.
News report/Newspaper report. The Cricket Regulatory body alone
has such powers.
v Common sleep disorders that rob many people from a good night’s
sleep can be classified in four categories.
An article in a magazine or any text book chapter on sleep disorder.
Impersonal style is more acceptable in scientific writings.
2. These are suggested answers. Your answers may be different.
i The State Government has been compelled to deploy Police force
fearing arson and violence by the rioters.
ii Although the environmentalists are protesting vehemently, the
Japanese government is known to have given permission to kill
88 whales for sale in markets.
 iii Classmates have abducted one of their teen-aged friends and have Teaching Grammar
hidden him in the empty school premises over the weekend. (To Advanced Learners)
in Higher Classess
iv Detailed proposals would be submitted in the forthcoming council
meetings suggesting alternative measures to avoid regular traffic
jams.
v New methods were discovered by medical researchers to preserve
tissues without the use of ice.
3. All clues given. Write the procedure using the passive voice and linkers
indicating sequence. (Open ended-but do not change order of the boxes
given.
4. Open ended.
5 Although a newspaper item, simple present, simple past, past tense of
modals will (would), can (could) have been used. Thus the active voice
has been used in this news item because the focus is as much on the
‘Doer’ as the action.
Check Your Progress 5
1. i(a) The car was repaired by some one else (e.g. a mechanic in a garage.)
(b) He himself repaired the car.
ii(a) The teeth came out on their own (may be because of age/accident)
(b) The dentist extracted three of his teeth.
iii(a) A direct question to the owner of the car.
iii(b) Does somebody else (other than the owner) clean the car?
2 (i) get them stitched?
(ii) a gardener does it for you?
3 i. were evacuated (agent not mentioned, understood – the cabin crew)
was retrieved (agent mentioned – (by) explosive experts from the
navy and DCI. Specialized trained agents because not everybody
can deactivate explosives.
ii. (a) is built (b) are associated (agent – strong earthquakes)
Check Your Progress 6
a The hungry victims
b It is right to say. What? - sentence incomplete.
or
The incomplete sentence can be combined with the next sentence.
c All the “effected” (used three times) should be written as affected.
The word effect which means ‘result’ is usually used with words like
have an effect, produce an effect or take affect. The word affect is used 89
Teaching Writing and Grammar if a person or thing is influenced or changed in some way (because of
something)
d Some others are spelling mistakes:-
pregnant - should be pregnant
aborded - should be aborted
deaealt
e It erase - it erased/killed
aftermaths - is wrong because the word aftermath
(result) is used as a singular noun
never conceive again - should be corrected as never conceived
again or could never conceive again.
lose the capability - should be – lost the ability to have babies.
The wounds close - can be written as - wounds closed and
opened for no reason.
The hair started break - The hair started to break or hair started
breaking.
There was started a - use of passive voice is inappropriate. A gum
teeth deaealt. disease spread.
the whole people - should be corrected to the people of
they cannot recover themselves - should
be rewritten as till now they have not
recovered from the aftermath of the atom
bomb (certainly to be deleted).
This is world - should be rewritten as This is the most
unfortunate unfortunate event in world history.
(Spelling, grammar, world, order difference between two closely similar
words, not known to the student. The student language use is poor and needs
remedial teaching in many areas.)

Mother tongue interference Overgeneralization

Lose the capability of producing babies Effected

The hair started break Aftermaths (like results)

The blood started coming from They cannot recover

the gums themselves (like you cover
yourself with a blanket) (you
recover from illness, loss, etc.

The whole people of Hiroshima

The worst unfortunate in world history

90
Check Your Progress 7 Teaching Grammar
(To Advanced Learners)
Grammar for re-teaching Correct version Expression used in Higher Classess
by learners?

Past tense of irregular

verbs Took Taked

Past tense of irregular Spent Spended

verbs

Past tense of irregular Cramped Crampt

verbs and Spelling

Degrees of adjectives Better More better

Phrasal verb Freshened up Freshed up

3. i) (b) a lazy student (ii) (c) an ex-student (iii), (a) a good student
4. Match the clauses:
If you have lost money, contact the police.

If I went to Germany I would visit Berlin.

If you don’t eat too much you’ll stay slim.

If she liked spaghetti, she must have been Italian.

If David phones, you must take the call.

If the weather had not changed, the holiday would have been miserable.

If I were as tired as you, I should take a holiday.

If I had enough money, I would buy a bigger car.

If you can’t sleep take some sleeping tablets.

If I went to England, I would visit London first.

5. A few examples are given here. You can try and make more.
i If Jack had studied, he would have passed.
ii If Jill had driven slowly, she wouldn’t have had an accident.
iii If Maria had taken a taxi, she wouldn’t have been late.
iv If Bob had worked he wouldn’t have failed.
(You could construct more meaningful sentences)

91