Unit 1: Contouring: by Er - Mukesh Kafle
Unit 1: Contouring: by Er - Mukesh Kafle
Unit 1: Contouring: by Er - Mukesh Kafle
By
Er.Mukesh kafle
1.1 Definition
Contour:
A contour is defined as an imaginary line of constant elevation on the ground surface.
It can also be defined as the line of intersection of a level surface with the ground
surface.
For example, the line of intersection of the water surface of a still lake or pond with
the surrounding ground represents a contour line.
Contour interval:
The difference in elevation between successive contour lines on a given map is fixed.
This vertical distance between any two contour lines in a map is called the contour
interval (C.I.) of the map. Figure (a) shows contour interval of 1m whereas
Figre(b)shows 10m.
Horizontal equivalent
The horizontal distance between any two adjacent contours is called as horizontal
equivalent.
The contour interval is constant between the consecutive contours while the
horizontal equivalent is variable and depends upon the slope of the ground.
General contours
A contour line shown on a map in a distinctive manner for ease of identification, being
printed more heavily than other contour lines and generally labeled with a value (such as
figure of elevation) along its course.
It appears at regular intervals, such as every fifth or sometimes every fourth contour
line (depending on the contour interval).
1.2 Criteria for selection of contour interval
The choice of suitable contour interval in a map depends upon four principal
considerations.
These are:
Nature of the Terrain
Scale of the Map
Accuracy
Time of Cost
Cont…..
Nature of Terrain:
The contour interval depends upon the nature of the terrain (Table 1).
For flat ground, a small contour interval is chosen whereas for undulating and broken
ground, greater contour interval is adopted.
Cont……
Accuracy
Accuracy need of surveying work also decide the contour interval.
Surveying for detailed design work or for earthwork calculations demands high
accuracy and thus a small contour interval is used.
But in case of location surveys where the desired accuracy is less, higher contour
interval should be used.
Cont…
Time of Cost
If the contour interval is small, greater time and funds will be required in the field
survey, in reduction and in plotting the map.
If the time and funds available are limited, the contour interval may be kept large.
1.3 Characteristics of contours
Contour lines with V-shaped with convexity towards higher ground indicate valley .
Contour lines generally do not meet or intersect each other.
If contour lines are meeting in some portion, it shows existence of a vertical cliff .
If contour lines cross each other, it shows existence of overhanging cliffs or a cave .
Cont….
Cont….
1.4 Methods of control for contour survey
In the direct method, the contour to be plotted is actually traced on the ground. Points
which happen to fall on a desired contour are only surveyed, plotted and finally joined
to obtain the particular contour.
This method is slow and tedious and thus used for large scale maps, small contour
interval and at high degree of precision.
Cont…..
Vertical control :
In this method, a benchmark is required in the project area. The level is set up on any commanding position
and back sight is taken on the bench mark. Let the back sight reading on the bench mark be 1.485 m. If the
reduced level of the bench mark is 100 m, the height of instrument would be 100 + 1.485 = 101.485 m.
To locate the contour of 100.5 m value, the staff man is directed to occupy the position on the ground
where the staff reading is 101.485 -100.500 = 0.985 m. Mark all such positions on the ground where the
staff reading would be 0.985 m by inserting pegs. Similarly locate the points where the staff reading would
be 101.485 -101 = 0.485 m for 101m contour.
The contour of 101.5 m cannot be set from this setting of the instrument because the height of instrument
for this setting of the instrument is only 101.485 m. Therefore, locating contours of higher value, the
instrument has to be shifted to some other suitable position.
Establish a forward station on a firm ground and take fore sight on it. This point acts as a point of known
elevation, for shifting the position of the instrument to another position, from where the work proceeds in
the similar manner till the entire area is contoured.
Cont…
Horizontal control :
The horizontal control is generally provided by method of plane table surveying or
locating the positions of points.
1.4.2 Indirect method
In this method, levels are taken at some selected points and their levels are reduced. Thus
in this method horizontal control is established first and then the levels of those points
found.After locating the points on the plan, reduced levels are marked and contour lines are
interpolated between the selected points.
For selecting points any of the following methods can be used:
I. Method of squares
II. Method of cross-section
III. Radial line method
Method of squares
In this method area is divided into a number of squares and all grid points
are marked .
Commonly used size of square varies from 5 m × 5 m to 20 m × 20 m. Levels
of all grid points are established by leveling.
Then grid square is plotted on the drawing sheet. Reduced levels of grid
points marked and contour lines are drawn by interpolation [Ref. Fig. 1].
Method of Cross-Section
In this method cross-sectional points are taken at regular interval. By leveling the
reduced level of all those points are established. The points are marked on the drawing
sheets, their reduced levels (RL) are marked and contour lines interpolated.
Figure 2 shows a typical planning of this work. The spacing of cross-section depends
upon the nature of the ground, scale of the map and the contour interval required. It
varies from 20 m to 100 m. Closer intervals are required if ground level varies abruptly.
The cross- sectional line need not be always being at right angles to the main line. This
method is ideally suited for road and railway projects.
Cont…
Radial Line Method
[Fig. 3]. In this method several radial lines are taken from a point in the area. The
direction of each line is noted. On these lines at selected distances points are marked
and levels determined. This method is ideally suited for hilly areas. In this survey
theodolite with tacheometry facility is commonly used.
D ir e c t M e th o d Indirect Method
N o t v e r y a c c u r a te b u t q u ic k e r a n d le s s
1 Very accurate but slow and tedious
te d io u s .
2 E x p e n siv e R e a s o n a b le c o s t
S u it a b le f o r la r g e p ro j e c ts re q u i ri n g
A p p r o p r i a t e fo r s m a l l p r o je c ts re q u i r i n g h i g h m o d e ra te to lo w a c c u ra c y , e . g ., la y o u t o f
3 accuracy, e.g., layout of building, factory, h i g h w a y , ra il w a y , c a n a l, e tc .
s tr u c tu ra l fo u n d a tio n s , e tc .
4 More suitable for low undulating terrain. Suitable for hilly terrain.
Calculations need to be carried out in the
5 C a lc u la tio n in th e fie ld is n o t m a n d a to r y .
f ie ld
A f te r c o n to u ri n g , c a lc u la tio n c a n n o t b e Calculations can be checked as and when
6
checked. needed
1.5 Methods of interpolation of contours
For interpolating contour points between the two points any one of the following method
may be used:
I. Estimation
II. Arithmetic calculation
III. Mechanical or graphical method.
Estimation
The location or positions of contour points between ground points are estimated and the
contours are then drawn through them.
This method is rough and the accuracy depends on the skill and experience of the
surveyors. It is usually use for small scale map.
Arithmetic calculation
A civil engineer studies the contours and finds out the nature of the ground to identify.
Suitable site for the project works to be taken up.
By drawing the section in the plan, it is possible to find out profile of the ground along that
line. It helps in finding out depth of cutting and filling, if formation level of road/railway is
decided.
Intervisibility of any two points can be found by drawing profile of the ground along that
line.
The routes of the railway, road, canal or sewer lines can be decided so as to minimize and
balance earthworks.
Catchment area and hence quantity of water flow at any point of nalla or river can be found.
This study is very important in locating bunds, dams and also to find out flood levels.
From the contours, it is possible to determine the capacity of a reservoir.