CHAPTER THREE

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN LEARNING

3.1 Types of individual differences
Concept of individual difference in learning
It is also sometimes called Differential Psychology because researchers in this area study
the ways in which individual people differ in their behavior. Individual variation is a
universal phenomenon. It is said that no two individuals are exactly alike they differ from
each other in some way or the other. Such a similarity or difference between persons
reveals individual differences in the early 1800s. Individual differences are the more-or-
less enduring psychological characteristics that distinguish one person from another and
thus help to define each person's individuality. Among the most important kinds of
individual differences are intelligence, personality traits, and values. Individual
differences stand for the variation or deviations among individuals in regard to a single
characteristic or number of characteristics.
It stands for those differences that in their totality distinguish one individual from another.
So, we can say that individual differences are the differences among humans that
distinguish or separate them from one another and makes one a single unique individual.
Causes of Individual Differences:
Heredity, Environment, Sex, Age, Education, Self, Culture, Abnormality etc.
Kinds of individual differences:
1. Visual and Hearing problems
2. Learning disabilities
3. Gifted and talented
1. Visual and Hearing problems
Visual impairment can limit people's ability to perform everyday tasks and can affect
their quality of life and ability to interact with the surrounding world. Blindness, the most
severe form of visual impairment, can reduce people's ability to perform daily tasks, and
move about unaided.
Visual impairment can affect:
 The child's development of mental processes such as conceptual thought, logical
memory, and language.
 His/her perception of the immediate environment, objects, learning resources and
other people.
 The time needed to take in information or perform tasks.
  His/her ability to detect non-verbal clues, facial expressions, posture, body
language, and spatial arrangements (height, width, length and shape), resulting in
a delay in building up an understanding of objects or situations from separate
components.
 The child's awareness of his/her own non-verbal gestures and expressions on
others.
There are four major ways in which hearing loss affects children:
1. It causes a delay in the development of receptive and expressive communication skills
(speech and language).
2. The language deficit causes learning problems that result in reduced academic
achievement.
3. Communication difficulties often lead to social isolation and poor self-concept.
4. It may have an impact on vocational choices.
2. Learning disabilities
A learning disability is a neurological disorder. In simple terms, a learning disability
results from a difference in the way a person's brain is "wired." Children with learning
disabilities are as smart as or smarter than their peers. They may have difficulty reading,
writing, spelling, and reasoning, recalling, and/or organizing information if left to figure
things out by themselves or if taught in conventional ways.
Common learning disabilities
Dyslexia – a language-based disability in which a person has trouble understanding
written words. It may also be referred to as a reading disability or reading disorder.
Dyscalculia – a mathematical disability in which a person has a difficult time solving an
arithmetic problem and grasping math concepts.
Dysgraphia – a writing disability in which a person finds it hard to form letters or write
within a defined space.
Auditory and Visual Processing Disorders – sensory disabilities in which a person has
difficulty understanding language despite normal hearing and vision.
Nonverbal Learning Disabilities – a neurological disorder that originates in the right
hemisphere of the brain, causing problems with visual-spatial, intuitive, organizational,
evaluative, and holistic processing functions.
3. Gifted and Talented
'Gifted and Talented' describes children with the ability or potential to develop
significantly ahead of their peers: 'gifted' learners are those with abilities in one or more
academic subjects, such as mathematics or English.
Gifted means a child has the potential for high ability in a certain area
Talented means they can demonstrate outstanding performance or achievement.
Qualities of the gifted and talented
 They learn more quickly and independently than most students their own age.
 They often have a well-developed vocabulary, as well as advanced reading and
writing skills.
 They are very motivated, especially on tasks that are challenging or difficult.
 They hold themselves to higher than usual standards of achievement.
Identifying Gifted Students
General Intellectual Ability, Specific Academic Aptitude, Creative and Productive
Thinking, Leadership Ability, Visual and Performing Arts, Psychomotor Ability, etc.
Six Strategies for Challenging Gifted Learners
1. Offer the Most Difficult First 2. Pre-Test for Volunteers 3. Prepare to Take It Up
4. Speak to Student Interests 5. Enable Gifted Students to Work Together
6. Plan for Tiered Learning
 CHAPTER FOUR:
PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

Definitions of learning
There are many definitions of learning. However, the most widely accepted definition
is the one given below.
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior occurring as a result of
experience or practice.
The above definition emphasizes four attributes of learning:
 Learning is a change in behavior
 This change in behavior is relatively permanent
 It does not include change due to illness, fatigue, maturation and use of
intoxicant.
 This permanent change in behavior is not because of biological factors (like
hormonal changes) that bring permanent changes in behavior; but because of
experience, or practice
 The learning is not directly observable but manifests in the activities of the
individual.

Characteristics of learning
Teachers and school administrative personnel need to have a good understanding of the
general characteristics of learning in order to apply them in school learning situation. If
learning is a change in behavior as a result of experience, and then instruction must
include a careful and systematic creation of those experiences that promote learning.
This process can be quite complex because, among other things, an individual's
background strongly influences the way that person learns.
Yoakman and Simpson (???) have described the following major important
characteristics of learning:
1. Learning is continuous modification of behavior throughout life
2. Learning is pervasive; it reaches into all aspects of human life.
3. Learning involves the whole person, socially, emotionally & intellectually.
4. Learning is often a change in the organization of experiences.
5. Learning is responsive to incentives
6. Learning is an active process
7. Learning is purposeful
8. Learning depends on maturation, motivation and practice.
9. Learning is multifaceted
Factors Affecting Learning
Some of the factors that affect learning are the following.
1. Motivation: The learner’s motivation matters the effectiveness of learning. The
stronger and clearer the motives for learning, the greater are the effort to learn. When
the motives of learning are high, the learner becomes enthusiastic.
2. Maturation: Neuro-muscular coordination is important for learning a given task.
Example, the child has to be mature before she/he is able to learn.
3. Health condition of the learner: The learner should be in a good health status to
learn.
Example- Sensory defects, malnutrition, toxic conditions of the body, loss of sleep
and fatigue hinder effective learning.
4. Psychological wellbeing of the learner: individual’s psychological states like
worries, fears, feelings of loneliness and inferiority hinders learning. Whereas self-
respect, self- reliance, and self-confidence are necessary for effective learning.
5. Good working conditions – absence or presence of fresh air, light, comfortable
surroundings, moderate temperature, absence of distractions like noise and learning aids
determine learning effectiveness.
6. Background experiences: having background experiences affect effectiveness of
learning. All related facts and understandings from a previously learned course should
be brought to new learning.
7. Length of the working period: Learning periods should neither be too short
nor too long. Long learning time sets fatigue and reduces effectiveness in learning.
Short learning time doesn’t allow adequate practice needed to master a learning task.
8. Massed and distributed learning: Learning that spreads across time with
reasonable time gaps brings better results compared with crammed learning that occurs
at once or within short span of time.
Theories of Learning and their Applications
Here in this section, you will learn about theories of learning with their possible
implications and applications. The theories in this section are Behavioral theories of
learning (Classical conditioning (Ivan, Pavlov) and Operant conditioning (B.F.
Skinner), Contiguity learning theory (E.R Guthrie), Connectionism learning theory
(E.L. Thorndike), Social Learning Theory, Cognitive Learning theory, Gestalt Theory
of Learning, Information processing theory and Constructivism.
Behavioral Theory of Learning
Behavioral theory of learning believes that learning occurs as a result of stimulus-
response associations. Behavioral theories emphasize observable behaviors, seek laws to
govern all organisms, and provide explanations which focus on consequences.
Behaviorists also differ among themselves with respect to their views about the role of
reinforcement in learning. There are two major behavioral theories of learning. They are
known as classical and operant Conditioning.
Classical Conditioning Theory

Classical conditioning focuses on the learning of making involuntary emotional or

physiological responses to stimuli that normally elicit no response; for example,
fear, increased heartbeat, salivation or sweating at the sight of a hyena. Through the
process of classical conditioning, humans and animals can be trained to act involuntarily
to a stimulus that previously had no effect - or a very different effect - on them. The
stimulus comes to elicit, modify the behavior of the learners in such a way as the
responses originally connected with a particular stimulus comes to be aroused by a
different stimulus.

Classical conditioning involves what are known as conditioned reflexes. An example

of this is a knee-jerk ‘reflex. This reflex isn’t controlled by the brain, but by the spinal
cord, and it is straight forward response to the stimulus. Another example of a reflex is
the production of saliva in a response to food when you are hungry, and it was this
response which Pavlov first investigated when he discovered classical conditioning.
Therefore, in short Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which a neutral
stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally
brings about that response.
Terminologies used in Classical Condition
To demonstrate classical conditioning, we must first identify stimuli and
responses. In addition, you must be well familiarized with the following basic terms of
classical condition: Neutral stimulus: A stimulus that, before conditioning, does not
naturally bring about the response of interest.
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular
response without having been learned.
Unconditioned Response (UCR): A response that is natural and needs no training (e.g.,
salivation at the smell of food).
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A once neutral stimulus that has been paired with an
unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused only by the
unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioned Response (CR): A response that, after conditioning, follows a
previously neutral stimulus (e.g., salivation at the ringing of a bell).

Hence, the theory of classical conditioning represents a process in which a neutral

stimulus, by pairing with a natural stimulus, acquires all the characteristics of natural
stimulus. It is also sometimes called substitution learning because it involves
substituting a neutral stimulus in place of natural stimulus. The theory states that the
responses originally made to unconditioned stimulus becomes associated with the
conditioned stimulus and what is learned is a conditioned stimulus - conditioned
response bond of some kind. To make this explanation clear, let us consider Pavlov ’s
experiment.
Figure. Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning Experiment.

In the above experiment the food was an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) - stimulus that
automatically produces an emotional or physiological response - because no prior
training or conditioning was needed to establish the natural connection between food
and salvation. The salivation was an unconditioned response (UCR) naturally occurring
emotional or physiological response again because it occurred automatically, no
conditioning required.

Using these three elements- the food, the salivation, and the bell sound -Pavlov
demonstrated that a dog could be conditioned to salivate after hearing the bell sound. He
did this by contiguous pairing of the sound with food. At the beginning of the
experiment, he sounded the bell and then quickly fed the dog. After Pavlov repeated
this several times, the dog began to salivate after hearing the sound but before receiving
the food. Now the sound had become a conditioned stimulus (CS) - stimulus that evokes
an emotional or physiological response after conditioning - that could bring forth
salivation by itself. The response of salivating after the tone was now a conditioned
response (CR) - learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.
Temporal relations and conditioning

There are several ways of arranging the temporal relationship between the presentation
of a CS & US.

In delayed conditioning, CS is presented a few seconds before the US occurs. delayed

conditioning is the most effective way to condition simple autonomic reflexes like
salivation.
In simultaneous conditioning, CS and US are presented at the same time.
In trace conditioning, the CS is presented for a brief period, on and off, and after some
time the US occurs.

In backward conditioning, US comes on and goes off before CS comes on. The general
consensus has been that backward conditioning is unreliable, and many researchers
question whether it occurs at all.
Principles of Classical Condition: The basic principles of classical conditioning
include the role of stimulus generalization, stimulus discriminations, extinction and
spontaneous recovery.
A. Stimulus Generalization and Stimulus Discrimination
Stimulus generalization is a process in which, after a stimulus has been conditioned to
produce a particular response, stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus begin to
produce the same responses. For example, a dog conditioned to salivate to a dinner bell
(CS) might also salivate to a door bell, a telephone bell.
Stimulus discrimination is the process of distinguishing two similar stimuli; the
ability to differentiate between stimuli. Example, the dog salivates only in response to
the dinner bell instead of the doorbell or the telephone bell.
B. Extinction and spontaneous recovery
In Pavlov ‘s procedure, if a CS is repeatedly presented without presenting the UCS
(meat), the CR will diminish and eventually stop occurring. This process is called
extinction. A dog that has learned to salivate to a dinner bell (CS) will eventually stop
doing so unless presentations of the dinner bell are periodically followed by
presentations of the UCS (meat). But extinction only inhibits the CR, it does not
eliminate it.
Spontaneous recovery is the reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after
a period of rest and with no further conditioning. For example, suppose you produce
extinction of the CR of salivation by no longer presenting the dog with meat after
ringing the dinner bell. If you rang the dinner bell a few days later, the dog would
again respond by salivating. In spontaneous recovery, however, the CR is weaker and
extinguishes faster than it did originally
Q. Suppose a one-year-old child is playing with a toy near an electrical out-let.
He sticks part of the toy into the outlet. He gets shocked, becomes frightened,
and begins to cry. For several days after that experience, he shows fear when his
mother gives him the toy and he refuse to play with it. What are the UCS?
UCR? CS? CR? Show in diagram their association into three stages of processes?
a) UCS
b) UCR
c) CS
d) CR
Educational implications of classical conditioning:
Students should experience academic tasks in contexts that cause or encourage pleasant
emotions. They should be able to feel enthusiasm, excitement, or enjoyment in their
learning context, rather than being in context that cause anxiety, disappointment, or anger.
Mathematics anxiety is an example of classical conditioning that can be mitigated with
classical conditioning
How fear of maths could be evoked.
Maths (NS) + nasty teacher(UCS)= fear of maths(UCR)
Maths(CS)=fear of maths(CR)
Classrooms should be attractive Learning should be fun
Difficult topics should be presented in easy steps Learning tasks should be presented in a
form that is interesting or ^pleasant to the learner and meet his interests. The teacher
should try to start from known to unknown, that is, establish an "association between
what the learner already knows and the new topic to be taught for meaningful learning to
take place. The feelings of anxiety associated with failure in school may create an
aversion to problem-solving situations outside the school. The principles of classical
conditioning can be used to develop favorable attitudes towards learning. Implications of
classical conditioning for teachers
Link learning with positive emotions. -Arrange repeated pairing of positive feelings with
certain kinds of learning, especially subjects that are anxiety provoking. Teach students to
generalize and discriminate appropriately. Poor performance on one assignment or test
does not mean that the student is a week student. Help students cope with classically
conditioned anxiety. Help students to relax when facing anxiety provoking situations.
. Operant/Instrumental Conditioning
Brainstorming Questions
Why do you think a child cries when feeling hungry? Or why do you think a
child learns to become aggressive?
What is the role of reward and punishment in learning?
Operant Conditioning is learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or
weakened, depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences. When we say that a
response has been strengthened or weakened, we mean that it has been made more or
less likely to recur regularly. An emphasis on environmental consequences is at the
heart of Operant Conditioning (also called Instrumental Conditioning). In operant
conditioning, the organism's response operates or produces effects on the environment.
These effects, in turn, influence, whether the response will occur again.
Unlike classical conditioning, in which the original behaviors are the natural,
biological responses to the presence of a stimulus such as food, water, or pain,
operant conditioning applies to voluntary responses, which an organism performs
deliberately to produce a desirable outcome. The term operant emphasizes this
point: The organism operates on its environment to produce a desirable result.
Operant conditioning is at work when we learn that toiling industriously can bring
about praise or that studying hard results in good grades. Besides, B.F Skinner, the very
renowned proponent of operant conditioning, argued that to understand behavior we
should focus on the external causes of an action and the action ‘s consequences. To
explain behavior, he said, we should look outside the individual, not inside.
In Skinner ‘s analysis, a response (operant) can lead to three types of consequences:
such as
a) A neutral consequence b) A reinforcement or c) punishment.
A Neutral Consequence that does not alter the
response.
A Reinforcement that strengthens the response or makes it more likely to recur. A
reinforce is any event that increases the probability that the behavior that precedes it
will be repeated. There are two basic types of reinforcers or reinforcing stimuli: primary
and secondary reinforcers.
Primary Reinforcers: Food, water, light, stroking of the skin, and a comfortable air
temperature are naturally reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs. They are,
therefore, known as primary reinforcers. Primary reinforcers, in general, have the ability
to strengthen a behavior without prior learning.
Secondary Reinforcers: Behaviors can be controlled by secondary reinforcers. They
reinforce behavior because of their prior association with primary reinforcing stimuli.
Money, praise, applause, good grades, awards, and gold stars are common secondary
reinforcers. Both primary and secondary reinforcers can be positive or negative.
Positive Reinforcement is the process whereby presentation of a stimulus makes
behavior more likely to occur again.
Negative Reinforcement is the process whereby termination of an aversive stimulus
makes behavior more likely to occur. The basic principle of negative reinforcement is
that eliminating something aversive can itself be a reinforcer or a reward. For
example, if someone nags you all the time to study, but stops nagging when you
comply, your studying is likely to increase- because you will then avoid the nagging.
This can be an example of what is called escape learning. In escape learning animals
learn to make a response that terminates/stops a noxious, painful or unpleasant stimulus.
Another kind of learning, which is similar, but not the same as escape learning is
Avoidance Learning, which refers to learning to avoid a painful, noxious stimulus prior
to exposure.
Schedules of Reinforcement
When a response is first acquired, learning is usually most rapid if the response is
reinforced each time it occurs. This procedure is called continuous reinforcement.
However, once a response has become reliable, it will be more resistant to extinction if it
is rewarded on an intermittent (partial) schedule of reinforcement, which involves
reinforcing only some responses, not all of them. There are four types of intermittent
schedules.
1. Fixed-Ratio Schedules: A fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement occurs after a
fixed number of responses. They produce high rate of responding. Employers often use
fixed ratio schedules to increase productivity. An interesting feature of a fixed ratio
schedule is that performance sometimes drops off just after reinforcement.
2. Variable-Ratio Schedule: A variable ratio schedule of reinforcement occurs after
some average number of responses, but the number varies from reinforcement to
reinforcement. A variable ratio schedule of produces extremely high steady rates of
responding. The responses are more resistant to extinction than when a fixed ratio
schedule is used.
3. Fixed Interval Schedule: A fixed interval schedule of reinforcement occurs
only if a fixed amount of time has passed since the previous reinforcer.
4. Variable Interval Schedule: A variable interval schedule of reinforcement occurs
only if a variable amount of time has passed since the previous reinforcer.

A basic principle of operant conditioning is that if you want a response to persist after it
has been learned, you should reinforce it intermittently, not continuously. Because the
change from continuous reinforcement to none at all will be so large that the animal
or person will soon stop responding. But if you have been giving the reinforcement
only every so often, the change will not be dramatic and the animal/ person will keep
responding for a while.
c) Punishment- is a stimulus that weakens the response or makes it less likely to
recur. Punishers can be any aversive (unpleasant) stimuli that weaken responses or
make them unlikely to recur. Like reinforcers, punishers can also be primary or
secondary. Pain and extreme heat or cold are inherently punishing and are therefore
known as primary punishers. Criticism, demerits, catcalls, scolding, fines, and bad
grades are common secondary punishers.
The positive-negative distinction can also be applied to punishment. Something
unpleasant may occur following some behavior (positive punishment), or something
pleasant may be removed (negative punishment).

The Pros and Cons of Punishment

Immediacy, consistency and intensity matter are important for effectiveness of
punishment. Immediacy – When punishment follows immediately after the behavior to
be punished. Consistency- when punishment is inconsistent the behavior being
punished is intermittently reinforced and therefore becomes resistant to extinction.
Intensity- In general terms severe punishments are more effective than mild ones.
However, there are studies that indicate that even less intense punishments are effective
provided that they are applied immediately and consistently. However, when punishment
fails:

1. People often administer punishment inappropriately or mindlessly. They swing in a

blind rag or shout things they do not mean applying. Punishment is so broad that it
covers all sorts of irrelevant behaviors.
2. The recipient of punishment often responds with anxiety, fear or rage. Through a
process of classical conditioning, these emotional side effects may then generalize to the
entire situation in which the punishment occurs- the place, the person delivering the
punishment, and the circumstances. These negative emotional reactions can create more
problems than the punishment solves. For instance, a teenager who has been severely
punished may strike back or run away. Being physically punished in childhood is a risk
factor for depression, low self-esteem, violent behavior and many other problems.
3. The effectiveness of punishment is often temporary, depending heavily on the
presence of the punishing person or circumstances
4. Most behavior is hard to punish immediately.
5. Punishment conveys little information. An action intended to punish may
instead be reinforcing because it brings attention.
Shaping
For a response to be reinforced, it must first occur. But, suppose you to train a child to
use a knife and a fork properly. Such behaviors, and most others in everyday life, have
almost no probability of appearing spontaneously. The operant solution for this is
shaping. Shaping is an operant conditioning procedure in which successive
approximations of a desired response are reinforced. In shaping you start by reinforcing
a tendency in the right direction. Then you gradually require responses that are more
and more similar to the final desired response. The responses that you reinforce on the
way to the final one are called successive approximations.
Brainstorming
Question
What implications do you think operant conditioning has in classroom learning?
Application of the theory of operant conditioning:
The two major applications of Operant Conditioning in our daily lives are:
1. Behavior Modification
Researchers working in the field of behavior modification consider that many emotional
and behavioral problems are caused by inadequate and inappropriate responses and
consequences. Operant conditioning gains significance, as it can, with the right, adequate
responses and consequences; induce a change towards the desired behavior,
2. Education
Operant conditioning can be applied in classrooms to improve the level of learning
among children in two ways:
a) Premack Principle
Named after the American psychologist David Premak, the Premack principle states that
a high-probability activity can be used to reinforce a low probability activity. In other
words, a more preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less preferred activity. For
example, adopting the Premack Principle, a teacher may choose to say: “If you all get
your assignment completed by this Friday, we can all go on a full day field trip on the
very next day, Saturday.” Here, the field trip is the more preferred activity, and is used as
a reinforcement to carry out the less preferred activity, which is the assignment.
b) Shaping
Shaping is a process of rewarding approximations of the desired behavior. When the child
takes time to learn and demonstrate a desired behavior, the process of learning in operant
conditioning can be shortened by rewarding an approximation of (something close or
similar to) the desired behavior.
For example, a teacher may have a student who never completes even 50% of his or her
homework. To better this scenario, he/she may set the desired target behavior at 100%
completion of given homework. However, the child can be rewarded for every successive
approximation to the target; say for 70% to start with, then 80%, followed by 90% and
finally 100% completion of the homework.
1. Conditioning study Behavior: Teaching is the arrangement of
contingencies of reinforcement, which expedite learning. For effective teaching,
teachers should arrange effective contingencies of reinforcement. Example: For Self-
learning of a student teacher should reinforce student behavior through variety of
incentives such as prize, medal, smile, praise, affectionate patting on the back or by
giving higher marks.
2. Conditioning and classroom behavior: During a learning process, children can
acquire unpleasant experiences. This unpleasantness becomes conditioned to the teacher,
subject and the classroom and learners begin to dislike the subject and the teacher.
3. Managing Problem Behavior: Operant conditioning is a behavior therapy technique
that shape student’s behavior. To do this, teachers should admit positive contingencies
like praise, encouragement etc. for learning. One should not admit negative
contingencies. Example punishment (student will run away from the dull and dreary
classes – escape stimulation.
4. Dealing with anxieties through conditioning: Through conditioning, fear, anxieties,
prejudices, attitudes, and perceptual meaning develops. Examples of anxieties that are
acquired through conditioning are signals on the road, siren blown during wartime, child
receiving painful injection from a doctor. Anxiety is a generalized fear response. To
break the habits of fear, a teacher can use desensitization techniques. That is, a teacher
can initially provide very weak form of conditioned stimulus. Gradually the strength of
stimulus should be increased.

5. Conditioning group behavior: Conditioning can make an entire group learn and
complete change in behavior with reinforcement. It breaks undesired and unsocial
behavior too. Example: Putting questions or telling lie to teachers will make teachers
annoyed. In such circumstances students learn to keep mum in the class. Asking
questions, active participation in class discussion will make the teacher feel happy –
interaction will increase and teaching learning process becomes more effective.
6. Conditioning and Cognitive Processes: Reinforcement is given in different form, for
the progress of knowledge and in the feedback form. When response is correct, positive
reinforcement is given. Example: A student who stands first in the class in the month of
January is rewarded in the month of December. To overcome this Program
instruction is used. In this subject matter is broken down into steps. Organizing in
logical sequence helps in learning.
Each step is built upon the preceding step. Progress is seen in the process of learning.
Immediate reinforcement is given at each step.
7. Shaping Complex Behavior: Complex behavior exists in the form of a chain of
small behavior. Control is required for such kind of behavior. This extended form of
learning is shaping technique.
Social Learning Theory (Observational Learning) Theory
Brainstorming
Question
 Who is the person that you admire the most?
 Why do you aspire to become like him/her?
 What do you do to become one? What do you feel if you manage to
become like your model?
According to psychologist Albert Bandura, a major part of human learning consists of
observational learning, which is learning by watching the behavior of another person, or
model. Because of its reliance on observation of others—a social phenomenon—the
perspective taken by Bandura is often referred to as a social cognitive approach to
learning (Bandura, 1999, 2004).
Bandura identifies three forms of reinforcement that can encourage observational
learning. First, of course, the observer may reproduce the behaviors of the model and
receive direct reinforcement. The reinforcement need not be direct - it may be vicarious
reinforcement as well. As mentioned earlier, the observer may simply see others
reinforced for a particular behavior and then increase his or her production of that
behavior. The final form of reinforcement is self-reinforcement or controlling your
reinforcers. This sort of reinforcement is important for both students and teachers.
We want our students to improve not because it leads to external rewards but
because the students value and enjoy their growing competence.
But social cognitive theorists believe that in human beings, observational learning
cannot be fully understood without taking into account the thought processes of the
learner. They emphasize the knowledge that results when a person sees a model-
behaving in certain ways and experiencing the consequences. Many years ago, Albert
Bandura and his colleagues showed just how important observational learning is,
especially for children who are learning the rules of social behavior.
Bandura mentions four conditions that are necessary before an individual can
successfully model the behavior of someone else:
1. Attention: the person must first pay attention to the
model.
2. Retention: the observer must be able to remember the behavior that has been
observed. One way of increasing this is using the technique of rehearsal.
3. Motor reproduction: the third condition is the ability to replicate the behavior
that the model has just demonstrated. This means that the observer has to be able to
replicate the action, which could be a problem with a learner who is not ready
developmentally to replicate the action. For example, little children have difficulty doing
complex physical motion.
4. Motivation: the final necessary ingredient for modeling to occur is motivation;
learners must want to demonstrate what they have learned. Remember that since these
four conditions vary among individuals, different people will reproduce the same
behavior differently.
Educational Implications of Social Learning Theory
What implications do you think social learning theory has in classroom learning?
Social learning theory has numerous implications for classroom use.
1. Students often learn a great deal simply by observing other people
2. Describing the consequences of behavior can effectively increase the appropriate
behaviors and decrease inappropriate ones. This can involve discussing with learners
about the rewards and consequences of various behaviors.
3. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new behaviors. Instead of
using shaping, which is operant conditioning; modeling can provide a faster, more
efficient means for teaching new behavior. To promote effective modeling a teacher
must make sure that the four essential conditions exist; attention, retention, motor
reproduction, and motivation.
4. Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors and take care that they do
not model inappropriate behaviors.
5. Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models. This technique is
especially important to break down traditional stereotypes.
6. Students must believe that they are capable of accomplishing school tasks. Thus, it is
very important to develop a sense of self-efficacy for students. Teachers can promote
such self-efficacy b y h a v i n g s t u d e n t s r e c e i v e c o n f i d e n c e building
m e s s a g e s , watch o t h e r s b e successful, and experience success on their own.
7.Teachers should help students set realistic expectations for their
academic accomplishments. In general, in my class, that means making sure that
expectations are not set too low. I want to realistically challenge my students.
However, sometimes the task is beyond a student's ability, example would be the cancer
group.
8. Self-regulation techniques provide an effective method for improving student behavior.
Cognitive Learning Theory
Both classical and operant conditionings have traditionally been explained by the
principle of contiguity i.e. the close association of events in time and space. Contiguity
has been used to explain the association of a conditioned stimulus and unconditioned
stimulus in classical conditioning and the association of a behavior and its consequences
in operant conditioning.
Cognitive learning may take two forms:
1. Latent learning
2. Insight learning (gestalt learning or perceptual learning) For half a century, most
American learning theories held that learning could be explained by specifying the
behavioral ABCs Antecedents (events preceding behavior), Behaviors, and
Consequences. In the 1940s, two social scientists proposed a modification they called
social learning theory. Most human learning, they argued, is acquired by observing other
people in social context, rather than through standard conditioning procedures. By 1960s
and 1970s, social learning theory was full bloom, and a new element had been added:
the human capacity for higher level of cognitive processing.
Its proponents agreed with behaviorists that human beings, along with the rat and the
rabbit, are subject to the laws of operant and classical conditioning. But, they opposed
that human beings, unlike the rat and the rabbit, are full of attitudes, beliefs and
expectations that affect the way they acquire information, make decisions, reason, and
solve problems. These mental processes affect what individuals will do at any given
moment and also, more generally the personality traits they develop.
Latent Learning
‘Latent ‘means hidden and thus latent learning is learning that occurs but is not evident in
behavior until later, when conditions for its appearance are favorable. It is said to occur
without reinforcement of particular responses and seems to involve changes in the way
information is processed. In a classic experiment, Tolman and Honzic (1930) placed three
groups of rats in mazes and observed their behavior each day for more than two weeks.
The rats in Group 1 always found food at the end of the maze. Group 2 never found food.
Group 3 found no food for ten days but then received food on the eleventh. The Group 1
rats quickly learned to head straight the end of the maze without going blind alleys,
whereas Group 2 rats did not learn to go to the end. But, Group 3 rats were different. For
ten days they appeared to follow no particular route. Then, on the eleventh day they
quickly learned to run to the end of the maze. By the next day, they were doing, as
well as group one, which had been rewarded from the beginning. Group three rats had
demonstrated latent learning, learning that is not immediately expressed. A great deal
of human learning also remains latent until circumstances allow or require it to be
expressed.
Insight Learning
It is a cognitive process whereby we reorganize our perception of a problem. It
doesn’t depend on conditioning of particular behaviors for its occurrence. Sometimes,
for example, people even wake up from sleep with a solution to a problem that they had
not been able to solve during the day.
In a typical insight situation where a problem is posed, a period follows during which no
apparent progress is made, and then the solution comes suddenly. What has been learned
in insight learning can also be applied easily to other similar situations.
Human beings who solve a problem insightfully usually experience a good feeling
called an 'aha' experience.
Summary
 Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior occurring as a result of
experience or practice.
 Learning is characterized by different issues like modification of behavior,
pervasive, active processes, purposeful, active processes, multifaceted, and the like.
 Learning has important principles that are categorized in to 8 different and valuable
 principles.
 Factors that affect learning of individuals include motivation, intelligence,
maturation, physical condition of the learner, good working conditions,
psychological wellbeing, background experience and length of the working period.
 In this unit, you have learned the viewpoints of different theories of learning that
have been attempted to explain the behavioral changes are acquired through learning
experiences.
 Classical Conditioning/Ivan Pavlov: -Emphasis on experiences especially the
association between stimulus and response
 Operant Conditioning/B.F. Skinner: - Emphasis on experiences, especially
reinforcement and punishment as determinants of learning and behavior
 Social Cognitive theories
Social Cognitive/Albert Bandura: Emphasis on interaction of behavior, environment,
and person (cognitive) factors as determinants of learning
 Cognitive theories: Include learning theories like latent and insight
learning theories.
Contiguity Theory (Edwin Guthrie)

 Guthrie’s contiguity theory specifies that “a combination of stimuli which has

accompanied a movement will on its recurrence tend to be followed by that
movement”. According to Guthrie, all learning was a consequence of association
between a particular stimulus and response. Furthermore, Guthrie argued that stimuli
and responses affect specific sensory-motor patterns; what is learned are movements,
not behaviors.
 In contiguity theory, rewards or punishment play no significant role in learning since
they occur after the association between stimulus and response has been made.
Learning takes place in a single trial (all or none). However, since each stimulus
pattern is slightly different, many trials may be necessary to produce a general
response. One interesting principle that arises from this position is called “postremity”
which specifies that we always learn the last thing we do in response to a specific
stimulus situation.
 Contiguity theory suggests that forgetting is due to interference rather than the
passage of time; stimuli become associated with new responses. Previous
conditioning can also be changed by being associated with inhibiting responses such
 as fear or fatigue. The role of motivation is to create a state of arousal and activity
which produces responses that can be conditioned.

Educational implication of Contiguity Theory

Contiguity theory is intended to be a general theory of learning, although most of the

research supporting the theory was done with animals. Guthrie did apply his framework
to personality disorders (e.g., Guthrie, 1938).
Example
The classic experimental paradigm for Contiguity theory is cats learning to escape from a
puzzle box (Guthrie & Horton, 1946). Guthrie used a glass paneled box that allowed him
to photograph the exact movements of cats. These photographs showed that cats learned
to repeat the same sequence of movements associated with the preceding escape from the
box. Improvement comes about because irrelevant movements are unlearned or not
included in successive associations.
Principles
1. In order for conditioning to occur, the organism must actively respond
(i.e., do things).
2. Since learning involves the conditioning of specific movements,
instruction must present very specific tasks.
3. Exposure to many variations in stimulus patterns is desirable in order to
produce a generalized response.
4. The last response in a learning situation should be correct since it is the
one that will be associated.
Connectionism learning theory (E.L. Thorndike)

Based on Thorndike, learning is phenomenon that grows associations between one event
to another events which is called as stimulus (S) with respond(R). Stimulus is a changing
of external environment that become sign to activate organism to react and act. And,
respond is behavior that is raised by stimulus. From experiment of hunger cat which is
putted in cage is known that in order to reach relation between stimulus and respond need
an ability to choose precious respond through trials and errors. Here, some experts call
Thorndike as Instrumental Conditioning. And the basic of learning is “trial and error
learning or selecting and connecting learning”. Therefore, learning theory which is said
by Thorndike is often called as connectionism or association theory. Because of this
contribution, Thorndike is known as pioneer in education psychology. One of the famous
of Thorndike experiments is hunger cats is putted in the cage which have automatic door,
it can be open and close if button which is located under cage is touched. In stage of
trials, cat tends to leave an unresolved behavior. Every respond makes a new stimulus,
then this new stimulus will make another respond, and it will happen repeatedly.
In this experiment, if out of cage is putted a food, then cat will try to reach it. Suddenly,
the cat touches the button of the cage, then the door will be open, and cat will run out and
eat the food. This experiment will be repeatedly done until ten till twelve times, then the
cat will touch the button deliberately if there is food outside of cage. Thorndike uses this
experiment repeatedly to same cat and same situation. Firstly, cat only go around a cage
and try to escape from the cage. A trial of escaping from the cat is a respond from the
stimulus; that is food. Finally, the cat will find a match respond (escaping) with the
stimulus (getting the food outside the cage). Thorndike said his theory in learning that
every creature in his behavior there is a correlation between stimulus and respond. In this
theory also said that person who master relations between stimulus and respond is person
who is succeed in his learning. And the way to build a relation between stimuli and
respond is done frequently. 4 In the theory of trial and error, is occurred to all organism
and if this organism is faced to new condition and situation, so this will be automatically
giving new respond (trial), because basically in every stimulus will be found a respond. If
those action need to produce a behavior or suitable action, then this action will be saved
in another mind of another organism. Therefore, the theory of trial and errors will
generate other respond to other stimulus and it will occur repeatedly.
Application of Thorndike theory to students learning
The things that must be considered in implicating Thorndike theory is the strong character
serve as a basis; those are: advance of environment’s effect, emphasize detail parts,
emphasize role of reaction., consider important mechanism how stimulus and respond
build a learning result, emphasize to role of previous ability acquirement, advance build a
habitual through training (exercise), repetition and expected learning result.
In Thorndike theory learning is oriented to result that can measured and observed, an
error must be fixed immediately, and repetition and exercise is used to make the behavior
become a habit. Result in application of behaviorist theory is forming an expected
behavior which the expected behavior can be strengthened positively.
And unexpected behavior can be deleted. In this case, evaluation and assessment are
based in the appearing behavior. The application of Thorndike behaviorist theory that is
wrong in learning situation can cause uncomforted learning to student like teacher as
central, authoritative, communicate in one way, and teacher determine what students
should learns. In this situation, students are passive, need a motivation from the outside
and much affected by the teacher. Students should listen carefully the explanation of the
teacher and memorize what they learn, and this learning is seen as effective ways in
teaching learning process. The used of punishment which is evaded in learning,
behaviorist expert precisely use it as most effective ways to discipline the students.
Application of Thorndike theory in learning consists of a practice value in learning
procedure like: first, before teacher starts to teach in class, students should be prepared in
mental firstly. Second, teachers do a regular test or exercise or drilling system. And third,
teachers give supervising, reward and praise to grow strategic effect for students. As a
consequence, for this theory, teacher should have behaviorism paradigm to arrange a
lesson material in order the purpose of learning can be mastered by students. Teacher
should not give a lecturing, but short and clear instruction which is followed by good
example. The lesson material is arranged hierarchically from simple one to the complex
one. The purpose of learning is divided into small parts which are signed by
accomplishment of specific skill. This Thorndike method is suitable with the acquirement
that needs practice and habitation contain element like: acceleration, spontaneity, reflex,
endurance and other. For example, the conversation of foreign language, typing, dancing,
computing, swimming, sport and etc. This theory is suitable for children which need
dominance from the adult’s role like imitating, habituating, and direct reward.
Gestalt Theory of learning

Gestalt psychology attempted to apply field theory from physics to the problems of
psychology. A field can be declined as dynamic, interrelated system, any part of which
influences every other part. The important thing about a field is that nothing in it exists in
isolation. Gestalt psychologist believed that whatever happens to a person influence
everything else about that person. For them, the emphasis is always on a totality or whole
and not on individual parts. Gestaltists believed that human behavior at any given time is
determined by total number of psychological facts being experienced at that time. A
psychological fact is anything of which a person is conscious like being hungry, a
memory of a past event. A person’s life space is the sum of all of these psychological
facts. Some facts exert a positive influence on person’s behavior and some a negative
influence. Totality of these facts determines the behavior of person at any given time.
Only those things consciously experienced can influence behavior. A change in any
psychological fact rearranges the entire life space. The causes of behavior are continually
changing, they are dynamic. The person exists in a continually changing field of
influence. This is the psychological field theory.
SUBJECTIVE AND OBJECTIVE REALITY-
What determines behavior? For the Gestalt theorists, it is consciousness or subjective
reality that determines behavior.
Things such as belief, values needs and attitude also embellish what we experience
consciously. It means that people in the same physical environment will vary in their
interpretation of that environment and different how they react to it. To clear this point,
Kofka distinguished between the geographical environment (objective or physical reality)
and the behavioral environment (subjective or psychological reality). Kofka believed that
to understand why people act as they do, it is more important to know their behavioral
environment than their geographical environment. Kofka said that we behave according
to what we believe to be true, not according to what is objectively true. So , we live and
act in our behavioral environment regardless of physical truth in the geographical
environment.
GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY ON REINFORCEMENT
Gestaltists emphasize on intrinsic reinforcement as opposed to extrinsic reinforcement.
Intrinsic reinforcement appears when learner gained an insight into the solution of the
problem. Unsolved problems create ambiguity or an organizational disbalance in the
student mind. Student confronts with the problem and seeks new information or rearrange
old information until he gain insight into the solution. The solution is as satisfying to the
problem solver. The reduction of ambiguity is the intrinsic reinforcement. Learning is
personally satisfying and no need to external reinforcements. The Gestalt-oriented
classroom would be characterized by a give-and-take relationship between students and
teacher.
The main principles of the Gestalt Theory
The main principles of the Gestalt Theory in Learning are:
1. Teachers should encourage their students to discover the relationship of the
elements that make up a problem
2. Incongruities, gaps, or disturbances are essential stimuli in the learning
process
3. Educational instruction should be based on the Laws of Organization
 Information processing theory Constructivism

Constructivism

The vision of constructivism is that the individual is active, not simply receiving stimuli
as touted in the behaviorist rubric. Constructivists would agree that individuals construct
their own understanding of the world, engaging, grappling, and trying to make sense of
things. Knowledge develops through the tasks and experiences of the learner.

Information Processing Theory

According to Schunk, information processing theorists have challenged the behaviorist

idea that all learning involves forming associations between stimuli and responses. This
assignment covers information processing from a human perspective and is based on the
assumption that learners are active seekers of information. Learning is an internal process,
not a reaction to a stimulus; it is the acquisition of mental representations.

To deepen your understanding, you are encouraged to consider the questions below and
discuss them with a fellow learner, a work associate, an interested friend, or a member of
your professional community.

Chapter Five: Motivation in learning

Meaning and purpose of motivation
Definition of motivation
The word motivation is derived from the Latin word ‘movere’ which means ‘to move’ or
‘to energize’ or ‘to activate’. Physiological or psychological factors that account for the
arousal, direction, & persistence of behavior. Motivation refers to the forces that initiate
and direct behavior, and the factors that determine the intensity and persistence of that
behavior. three components of motivation.
Activation/arousal: motivational state to engage in the work
Persistence: We do it no matter what Intensity: to what extent you are energized
Purpose of motivation
1. Biological Reasons Homeostasis: Maintaining internal equilibrium Physiological
drives: For proper temperature, water, food, sex, and to avoid pain 2. Social Reasons
Intrinsic: Take action because the act itself is rewarding Extrinsic: Take action because
the act is rewarded by outside factors
In Learning Context Purposes of Motivation
 To improve the efficiency of pupil as they work toward goals
 Help pupil take action
 Encourage pupil to engage in health-oriented behaviors
 Help pupil avoid unhealthy or maladaptive behaviors such as risk-
taking and addiction
 Help pupil feel more in control of their lives
 Improve overall well-being and happiness
 Direct behavior toward particular goals
 Lead to increased effort and energy
 Increase initiation of, and persistence in, activities
 Enhance cognitive processing
 Determine what consequences are reinforcing
 Lead to improved performance.

Theories of Motivation and Their Educational Implications

Behavioral Theories of Motivation
Learned motives

One of the most significant contributions that the learning approach has made to the study
of motivation is its emphasis on the ability of individuals to learn new motives. It has
been demonstrated that new motives may be acquired as a result of three learning
techniques: classical, instrumental, and observational learning.
Motivation in Classical conditioning
In classical conditioning, also called Pavlovian conditioning, a neutral stimulus gains the
ability to elicit a response as a result of being paired with another stimulus that already
causes that response. Such learning situations can then lead to changes in motivated
behavior. Pavlov, for example, showed that dogs would develop what appeared to be
neurotic behavior if they were required to make finer and finer discriminations between
stimuli in a classical conditioning discrimination experiment. The dogs became motivated
 to avoid the experiment room, were restless during the experimental session, and
sometimes bit the apparatus. The neurosis developed when the dogs were no longer able
to discriminate between the two stimuli presented to them. Later researchers have noted
that this motivational change may have resulted from a lack of predictability or control on
the part of the animal rather than from the classical conditioning process per se.

In 1920 the American psychologists John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner demonstrated
the development of an emotional response in a young boy using classical conditioning
techniques. The presentation of a white rat was paired with the striking of a steel bar,
which induced fear in the little boy. After only a few pairings, the white rat became
capable of inducing fear responses similar to those produced by striking the bar. This
early demonstration of learned emotional responses has suggested to psychologists that
many human motives may result from the accidental pairing of events. It has been
proposed that some fears, phobias, taste aversions, and even eating problems can result
from classical conditioning.

Motivation in operant learning theory

The second type of learning technique is instrumental learning, or conditioning, also
called operant conditioning. In this type of conditioning a response is followed by some
consequence which then changes the future probability of that response. For example,
instrumental conditioning appears to be one way in which aggressive motivation can be
changed. If an aggressive response by one child toward another child is followed by some
positive event such as the aggressor getting to play with a desired toy, then the motivation
to behave aggressively can be expected to increase in the future.
Concept Definition phrased in terms Definition phrased in Classroom example
of learning terms of motivation
Operant Behavior that becomes Behavior that suggests an Student listens to teacher’s
more likely because of increase in motivation comments during lecture or
reinforcement discussion
Reinforcement Stimulus that increases Stimulus that motivates Teacher praises student for
likelihood of a behavior listening
Positive Stimulus that increases Stimulus that motivates by Teacher makes encouraging
reinforcement likelihood of a behavior by its presence; an remarks about student’s homework
being introduced or added “incentive”
 to a situation
Negative Stimulus that increases the Stimulus that motivates by Teacher stops nagging student
reinforcement likelihood of a behavior by its absence or avoidance about late homework
being removed or taken
away from a situation
Punishment Stimulus that decreases the Stimulus that decreases Teacher deducts points for late
likelihood of a behavior by motivation by its presence homework
being introduced or added
to a situation
Extinction Removal of reinforcement Removal of motivating Teacher stops commenting
for a behavior stimulus that leads to altogether about student’s
decrease in motivation homework
Shaping Reinforcements for Stimuli that gradually shift Teacher praises student for
successive behaviors that gradually motivation toward a final returning homework a bit closer to
approximations resemble (approximate) a goal motivation the deadline; gradually she praises
final goal behavior for actually being on time
Continuous Reinforcement that occurs Motivator that occurs each Teacher praises highly active
reinforcement each time that an operant time that a behavioral sign student for every time he works for
behavior occurs of motivation occurs five minutes without interruption
Intermittent Reinforcement that Motivator that occurs Teacher praises highly active
reinforcement sometimes occurs sometimes when a student sometimes when he works
following an operant behavioral sign of without interruption, but not every
behavior, but not on every motivation occurs, but not time
occasion on every occasion

Motivation in Social/Observational learning

In the third type of learning technique, observational learning, or modeling, a new
behavior is learned simply by watching someone else behave. In a very real sense, such
learning is the ability to profit from another’s successes or mistakes. This type of learning
is important because the learning can occur without an individual ever having to perform
the behavior. Thus, watching another child put a finger in an electrical outlet and get
shocked is often enough to keep the observing child from behaving the same way.
Similarly, noticing that friends do well in school because they study hard may be a
sufficient stimulus to motivate students. Albert Bandura, an American psychologist,
proposed, and provided a wealth of support for, the observational learning of aggression
in humans. He showed that young children will mimic the aggressive responses they see
performed by adults. Such aggressive responses can potentially be learned by observation
of violent acts on television or in movies or by reading or hearing about violent behavior.
If the observed violent acts are further perceived to lead to desired goals, then the
observed aggressive behaviors may be utilized at some future date by the observer.

Incentive motivation

One area within the study of human motivation that has proved fruitful is research on
incentives. Incentive motivation is concerned with the way goals influence behaviour. For
example, a person might be willing to travel across the city to dine at a special restaurant
that served a favorite dish. On the other hand, that same person might not be willing to
travel the same distance to eat an ordinary frankfurter. The two meals have different
incentive values and motivate behavior to differing degrees.

It is often assumed that the stimulus characteristics of the goal are what produce the
goal’s motivating properties. Thus, the taste, smell, and texture of one food would
motivate behavior better than these qualities in another food. Unlike drives, which were
thought to be innate, incentives are usually considered to be learned. An individual is not
born preferring one goal over another, but rather these preferences develop as new goals
are experienced. Incentive motivation is not restricted to goals associated with the
primary motives of hunger, thirst, sex, or avoidance of pain. Indeed, one of the most
important aspects of this type of motivation is that any goal one seeks can motivate
behavior. For example, the goal of obtaining a high-paying job could serve as a strong
motivator for studying hard in school. Goals serving as incentive motivators do not even
need to physically exist at the time they activate behavior, such as might be the case for
someone who is motivated to get high grades now in order to eventually get into medical
school.
Motivation in Cognitive Learning Theory
Cognitive theories of motivation assume that behavior is directed as a result of the active
processing and interpretation of information. Motivation is not seen as a mechanical or
innate set of processes but as a purposive and persistent set of behaviors based on the
information available. Expectations, based on past experiences, serve to direct behavior
toward particular goals. Important concepts of cognitive motivation theory include
expectancy-value theory, drive reduction theory, attribution theory, cognitive dissonance,
self-perception, and self-actualization.
1. Cognitive dissonance
Cognitive dissonance occurs when there is an unresolved conflict in our mind between
two beliefs, thoughts or perceptions we hold about a given subject. Whenever you want to
change a student’s attitude, first identify the beliefs at the heart of that attitude; when you
have a fairly clear picture induce cognitive dissonance by producing powerful
information and arguments which counter those beliefs.
2.Drive reduction theory
This theory is center on the notion that we all have needs that we attempt to satisfy in
order to reduce the tension or arousal they cause. The internal stimuli these needs produce
are our main drives in life. Find out what drives your students, especially the difficult
ones. Instead of approaching the problem by ‘punishing’ them, have a one-on-one chat
with them and try to discover what is that they find fulfilling and see if you can find
opportunities in your lessons for them to enact their drives.
3.Attribution theory
When we make a mistake or ‘fail’ at something we tend to go through a two-step process.
We first experience an automatic response involving internal attribution (i.e. the error is
our fault); then a conscious, slower reaction which seeks to find an alternative external
attribution. When dealing with students who complain about not progressing because the
subject, skill or task is too hard for them, show them – where applicable – that the reasons
why they are not improving is not intrinsic in the nature of that subject, skill or task, but
has more to do with other factors under his/her control
4.Endowed progress effect
When people feel they have made some progress towards a goal, they will feel more
committed towards its achievement. Whatever the task you engage your students in,
ensure that they all experience success in the initial stages. This may call for two
approaches which are not mutually exclusive: (1) design any instructional sequence in a
‘stepped’ fashion, with ‘easy’ tasks that become gradually more difficult; (2) provide lots
of scaffolding (support) at the initial stages of teaching.
5.Cognitive Evaluation Theory
When looking at a task, we assess it in terms of how well it meets our need to feel
competent and in control. We will be intrinsically motivated by tasks we believe fall in
our current level of competency and ‘put off’ by those which we deem we will do poorly
at. We need to ensure that before engaging students in challenging tasks that they may
perceive as being beyond their levels of competence we prepare them adequately,
cognitively and emotionally.
6.Valence- Instrumentality- Expectancy (VIE) theory
Valence: what we think we will get out of a given action/behavior (what’s in it for me?).
Instrumentality: the belief that if I perform a specific course of action I will succeed
(clear path?). Expectancy: the belief that I will be definitely able to succeed (self-
efficacy). 1. Make clear to students why a specific outcome is desirable. 2. Provide them
with a clear path to get there. This may involve showing them a set of strategies they can
use. 3. Support their self-belief that the outcome can be achieved.