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BA (JMC) 306 SIXTH SEMESTER

ENVIRONMENT COMMUNICATION

UNIT II: [ECOSYSTEM AND MEDIA]

1. ECOSYSTEM: CONCEPT, STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
2. ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION: TYPES AND STAGES
3. BIODIVERSITY: DEFINITION AND CONCEPT
A) THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY (GLOBAL, NATIONAL & LOCAL): HABITAT
LOSS, POACHING OF WILDLIFE, MAN – WILDLIFE CONFLICTS
B) ENDANGERED AND ENDEMIC SPECIES OF INDIA
4. ROLE OF MULTI – MEDIA IN SENSITISING MASSES TOWARDS
ECOSYSTEM

ECOSYSTEM: CONCEPT, STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

An organism is always in the state of perfect balance with the environment. The
environment literally means the surroundings.

The environment refers to the things and conditions around the organisms which
directly or indirectly influence the life and development of the organisms and their
populations.

“Ecosystem is a complex in which habitat, plants and animals are considered as one
interesting unit, the materials and energy of one passing in and out of the others” –
Woodbury.

Organisms and environment are two non-separable factors. Organisms interact with
each other and also with the physical conditions that are present in their habitats.

“The organisms and the physical features of the habitat form an ecological complex or
more briefly an ecosystem.” (Clarke, 1954).

The concept of ecosystem was first put forth by A.G. Tansley (1935). Ecosystem is the
major ecological unit. It has both structure and functions. The structure is related to
species diversity. The more complex is the structure the greater is the diversity of the
species in the ecosystem. The functions of ecosystem are related to the flow of energy
and cycling of materials through structural components of the ecosystem.

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According to Woodbury (1954), ecosystem is a complex in which habitat, plants and
animals are considered as one interesting unit, the materials and energy of one passing
in and out of the others.

According to E.P. Odum, the ecosystem is the basic functional unit of organisms and
their environment interacting with each other and with their own components. An
ecosystem may be conceived and studied in the habitats of various sizes, e.g., one
square metre of grassland, a pool, a large lake, a large tract of forest, balanced
aquarium, a certain area of river and ocean.

All the ecosystems of the earth are connected to one another, e.g., river ecosystem is
connected with the ecosystem of ocean, and a small ecosystem of dead logs is a part of
large ecosystem of a forest. A complete self-sufficient ecosystem is rarely found in
nature but situations approaching self-sufficiency may occur.

Structure of Ecosystem:

The structure of an ecosystem is basically a description of the organisms and physical

features of environment including the amount and distribution of nutrients in a particular
habitat. It also provides information regarding the range of climatic conditions prevailing
in the area.

From the structure point of view, all ecosystems consist of the following basic
components:

1. Abiotic components

2. Biotic components

1. Abiotic Components:

Ecological relationships are manifested in physicochemical environment. Abiotic

component of ecosystem includes basic inorganic elements and compounds, such as
soil, water, oxygen, calcium carbonates, phosphates and a variety of organic
compounds (by-products of organic activities or death).

It also includes such physical factors and ingredients as moisture, wind currents and
solar radiation. Radiant energy of sun is the only significant energy source for any
ecosystem. The amount of non-living components, such as carbon, phosphorus,

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nitrogen, etc. that are present at any given time is known as standing state or standing
quantity.

2. Biotic Components:

The biotic components include all living organisms present in the environmental system.

From nutrition point of view, the biotic components can be grouped into two
basic components:

(i) Autotrophic components, and

(ii) Heterotrophic components

The autotrophic components include all green plants which fix the radiant energy of sun
and manufacture food from inorganic substances. The heterotrophic components
include non-green plants and all animals which take food from autotrophs.

So biotic components of an ecosystem can be described under the following three

heads:

1. Producers (Autotrophic components),

2. Consumers, and

3. Decomposers or reducers and transformers

The amount of biomass at any time in an ecosystem is known as standing crop which is
usually expressed as fresh weight, dry weight or as free energy in terms of
calories/metre.

Producers (Autotrophic elements):

The producers are the autotrophic elements—chiefly green plants. They use radiant
energy of sun in photosynthetic process whereby carbon dioxide is assimilated and the
light energy is converted into chemical energy. The chemical energy is actually locked
up in the energy rich carbon compounds. Oxygen is evolved as by-product in the
photosynthesis.

This is used in respiration by all living things. Algae and other hydrophytes of a pond,
grasses of the field, trees of the forests are examples of producers. Chemosynthetic
bacteria and carotenoid bearing purple bacteria that also assimilate CO2 with the
energy of sunlight but only in the presence of organic compounds also belong to this
category.
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The term producer is misleading one because in an energy context, producers produce
carbohydrate and not energy. Since they convert or transduce the radiant energy into
chemical form, E.J. Kormondy suggests better alternative terms ‘converters’ or
‘transducers’. Because of wide use the term producer is still retained.

Consumers:

Those living members of ecosystem which consume the food synthesized by producers
are called consumers. Under this category are included all kinds of animals that are
found in an ecosystem.

There are different classes or categories of consumers, such as:

(a) Consumers of the first order or primary consumers,

(b) Consumers of the second order or secondary consumers,

(c) Consumers of the third order or tertiary consumers, and

(d) Parasites, scavengers and saprobes.

(a) Primary consumers:

These are purely herbivorous animals that are dependent for their food on producers or
green plants. Insects, rodents, rabbit, deer, cow, buffalo, goat are some of the common
herbivores in the terrestrial ecosystem, and small crustaceans, molluscs, etc. in the
aquatic habitat. Elton (1939) named herbivores of ecosystem as “key industry animals”.
The herbivores serve as the chief food source for carnivores.

(b) Secondary consumers:

These are carnivores and omnivores. Carnivores are flesh eating animals and the
omnivores are the animals that are adapted to consume herbivores as well as plants as
their food. Examples of secondary consumers are sparrow, crow, fox, wolves, dogs,
cats, snakes, etc.

(c) Tertiary consumers:

These are the top carnivores which prey upon other carnivores, omnivores and
herbivores. Lions, tigers, hawk, vulture, etc. are considered as tertiary or top
consumers.

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(d) Besides different classes of consumers, the parasites, scavengers and saprobes are
also included in the consumers. The parasitic plants and animals utilize the living
tissues of different plants and animals. The scavengers and saprobes utilize dead
remains of animals and plants as their food.

Decomposers and transformers:

Decomposers and transformers are the living components of the ecosystem and they
are fungi and bacteria. Decomposers attack the dead remains of producers and
consumers and degrade the complex organic substances into simpler compounds. The
simple organic matters are then attacked by another kind of bacteria, the transformers
which change these organic compounds into the inorganic forms that are suitable for
reuse by producers or green plants. The decomposers and transformers play very
important role in maintaining the dynamic nature of ecosystems.

Function of Ecosystem:

An ecosystem is a discrete structural, functional and life sustaining environmental

system. The environmental system consists of biotic and abiotic components in a
habitat. Biotic component of the ecosystem includes the living organisms; plants,
animals and microbes whereas the abiotic component includes inorganic matter and
energy.

Abiotic components provide the matrix for the synthesis and perpetuation of organic
components (protoplasm). The synthesis and perpetuation processes involve energy
exchange and this energy comes from the sun in the form of light or solar energy.

Thus, in any ecosystem we have the following functional components:

(i) Inorganic constituents (air, water and mineral salts)

(ii) Organisms (plants, animals and microbes), and

(iii) Energy input which enters from outside (the sun).

These three interact and form an environmental system. Inorganic constituents are
synthesized into organic structures by the green plants (primary producers) through
photosynthesis and the solar energy is utilized in the process. Green plants become the
source of energy for renewals (herbivores) which, in turn become source of energy for
the flesh eating animals (carnivores). Animals of all types grow and add organic matter
to their body weight and their source of energy is complex organic compound taken as
food.

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They are known as secondary producers. All the living organisms whether plants or
animals in an ecosystem have a definite life span after which they die. The dead organic
remains of plants and animals provide food for saprophytic microbes, such as bacteria,
fungi and many other animals. The saprobes ultimately decompose the organic
structure and break the complex molecules and liberate the inorganic components into
their environment.

These organisms are known as decomposers. During the process of decomposition of

organic molecules, the energy which kept the inorganic components bound together in
the form of organic molecules gets liberated and dissipated into the environment as
heat energy. Thus in an ecosystem energy from the sun, the input is fixed by plants and
transferred to animal components.

Nutrients are withdrawn from the substrate, deposited in the tissues of the plants and
animals, cycled from one feeding group to another, released by decomposition to the
soil, water and air and then recycled. The ecosystems operating in different habitats,
such as deserts, forests, grasslands and seas are interdependent on one another. The
energy and nutrients of one ecosystem may find their way into another so that ultimately
all parts of the earth are interrelated, each comprising a part of the total system that
keeps the biosphere functioning.

Thus the principal steps in the operation of ecosystem are as follows:

(1) Reception of radiant energy of sun,

(2) Manufacture of organic materials from inorganic ones by producers,

(3) Consumption of producers by consumers and further elaboration of consumed

materials; and.

(4) After the death of producers and consumers, complex organic compounds are
degraded and finally converted by decomposers and converters into such forms as are
suitable for reutilization by producers.

The principal steps in the operation of ecosystem not only involve the production,
growth and death of living components but also influence the abiotic aspects of habitat.
It is now clear that there is transfer of both energy and nutrients from producers to
consumers and finally to decomposers and transformers levels. In this transfer there is
a progressive decrease of energy but nutrient component is not diminished and it shows
cycling from abiotic to biotic and vice versa.

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The flow of energy is unidirectional. The two ecological processes—energy flow and
mineral cycling which involve interaction between biotic and abiotic components lie at
the heart of ecosystem dynamics. The principal steps and components of ecosystem
are illustrated in this figure.

Different components of ecosystem

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION: TYPES AND STAGES

As you develop and grow there are certain predictable changes that will occur, and they
usually happen in a specific order. As a baby, you first learn to roll over, then crawl, then
walk. You also learn new skills such as how to feed yourself and how to talk, but each
skill you learn builds on those learned before it. Your body also changes as you grow
taller, your muscles and bones develop, your hair grows longer, etc.

Meaning of ecological succession

Ecological Succession: the series of changes in an ecosystem when one community is

replaced by another community as a result of changes in biotic and abiotic factors

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Can regenerate a damaged community

Can create a community in a previously uninhabited area

Occurs in all types of ecosystems (forests, ponds, coral reefs, etc)

Ecological Succession Defined

Ecological succession is the same idea. It is the observed changes in an ecological

community over time. These changes are fairly predictable and orderly. Within an
ecological community, the species composition will change over time as some species
become more prominent while others may fade out of existence. As the community
develops over time, vegetation grows taller, and the community becomes more
established.

Ecological Succession is a general process which refers to the gradual change in

condition of environment and the replacement of older species with newer ones.

CHARACTERISTIC OF ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION:

It is a systematic process which involves change in species structure.

The changes are directional and take place as a function of time.

The succession occurs due to the changes in physical environment and population of
species.

The changes are predictable. The process of succession is self going, stake and
biologically feasible.

The change also occurs due to population explosion of the species.

TYPES OF ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION:

Primary Succession:

Primary Succession: the process of creating and developing an ecosystem in an area

that was previously uninhabited

Examples of uninhabited areas:

 Sides of volcanoes
 Sites of glacier recession

1) Occurs in areas with no soil

 Is a very slow process

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 The process of primary succession starts with the arrival of living things such as
lichens and mosses that do not need soil to survive

 These first species are called pioneer species

 Pioneer species: the first organisms to live in a previously uninhabited area

1) Pioneer species move into an unoccupied area

 The pioneer species help create soil by breaking down the rock particles into
smaller and smaller pieces
 As lichen and mosses die, they decompose and add small amounts of nutrients
to the rock particles, creating soil
 During this early stage of succession there are not many habitats so not many
organisms are found in the environment

Once there is enough soil and nutrients, small plants such as flowers, ferns, and
grasses grow

 These plants help to further break down the rocks and add nutrients to the soil
when they die and decompose

The small plants create habitats for small animals like insects and small mammals

 Over time, as animals die and decompose, their bodies add nutrients to the soil
allowing larger plant species to populate the area
 Larger animals follow the larger plants

 Eventually, a mature community is formed, this mature community is called a

climax community
 A climax community is a community that is able to maintain itself for long
periods of time with few changes in the species that populate it

DEF: 1. Primary succession is the colonization of new sites by communities of

organisms. It often occurs after a devastating event has wiped out the organisms that
lived in the area, or with the creation of a new habitat.

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2. It is the initial development of an ecosystem. When a community begins 2develop on
a site that is previously unoccupied and then the progression from one biotic community
to the next is termed as primary succession.

3. It is characterised as initial stage of development of an ecosystem which begins with

the creation of a community on such a location which was previously unoccupied by
living organism. E.g., Formation of certain type of forests of dried lava.

2. SECONDARY SUCCESSION:

the process of repairing a damaged ecosystem

 Occurs in areas where the soil was left intact

Examples of events that damage ecosystems:

 Natural disasters
 Human activities
 Death of organisms

 Is typically a much faster process than primary succession because there

is already soil

 Secondary succession is a never ending process

 Any disturbance in an ecosystem results in secondary succession starting over

 If an ecosystem is frequently disturbed it will not be able to support large trees

and animals so it will consist of the animals typical of the early stages of
succession

DEF: 1. It is characterised as a stage of re establishment of an ecosystem which

existed earlier but was destroyed due to some natural calamities like fire, flood, etc.
Such re establishment occurs due to the presence of seeds and organic matte’ of
biological community in soil. E.g., Vegetation grows once again which was destroyed
due to flood.

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2. Secondary succession occurs when an area that has previously had an ecological
community is so disturbed or changed that the original community was destroyed, and a
new community moves in. This is more common than primary succession and is often
the result of natural disasters such as fires, floods, and winds, as well as human
interference such as logging and clear-cutting.

3. Autotrophic succession:

When the population of autotrophs (plants) dominate the population of heterotrophs, the
succession caused is known as autotrophic succession.

4. Heterotrophic succession:

It is characterised by early dominance of heterotrophs like bacteria, fungi and some

animals in an organic environment. Since the environment is dominated by heterotrophs
the succession is called heterotrophic succession.

5. Autogenic succession:

Due to the continuous interaction of community with environment, there happens a

modification of the later. Such a modification of environment causes the replacement of
an old community by a new one, which is known as autogenic succession.

6. Allergenic succession:

When the replacement of a community is caused by any other external condition and
not by the existing organisms, the course of succession is known as allogeneic
succession.

7. Habitat Succession:

Successions are also named differently basing upon the type of habitat from which the
phasic replacement starts.

(a)Hydrosere:

The succession starting from aquatic habitat is known as “Hydrach” and the series of
changes occurring in the vegetation of hydrarch are called ‘Hydrosere’.

(b) Mesarch:

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The succession starting from a habitat where adequate moisture condition are present.

(c) Halosere:

The succession occurring at saline water or soil is known as holosere.

(d) Xerosere:

Succession taking place in xeric havitat like sand or rocks where moisute is present at
minimal amount is known as xerosere. Xeroseres can further be subdivided into:

(i) Psammosere:

Where the succession starts on sandy habitat.

(ii) Lithosere: Where the succession starts on the surface of rocks.

(e) Oxylosere:

The succession starting on acidic soils in known as oxylosere.

CAUSES OF ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION:

Following are the causes of ecological succession:

1. INITIAL CAUSES:

Causes those are responsible for the destruction existing habitat. Such occurrences
happen due to the following factors:

(a) Climatic Factor:

Such as wind, deposits, erosion, fire etc.

(b) Biotic Factor: Such as various activities of organisms.

2. CONTINUING CAUSES:

Causes those are responsible for changes in population shifting features of an area.
Such factors are:

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(a) Migration for safety against outside aggregation.

(b) Migration due to industrialization and urbanization.

(c) As a reactionary step against local problems.

(d) Feeling of competition

3. STABILISING CAUSE:

Causes which bring stability to the communities. Such factors are:

(a) Fertility of land

(b) Climatic condition of the area

(c) Abundance of availability of minerals etc.

The process of succession takes place in systematic sequential order having following
steps:

 Nudation: It is the development of a bare area without any life form.

 Invasion: It is achieved through dispersal or migration when a species

establishes itself over a bare area. When the growth and reproduction starts these
pioneer species increase in number and form groups or aggregates.

 Competition and co-action: There is competition both inter-specific i.e., between

organisms of different species and intra specific i.e., within organisms of same species
for nutrients, space etc. co-action is the influence they have on each other.

 Reaction: Due to competition and co-action there is modification of the

environment which has a strong influence on the physical environment and is referred to
as reaction

 Stabilization: The formation of the climax ecosystem which is in equilibrium with

the environment is referred to as stabilization.

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Factors of ecological succession:

 Topographic factor: volcanic eruption, landslides

 Climatic factor: drought, forest fire
 Biotic factor: overgrazing, industrial activities

CAUSES OF SUCCESSION:

A number of causes induce together the process of succession.

Some important causes may be outlined as below:

(i) Climatic Causes:

The climatic causes include temperature, rainfall, light intensity, gaseous composition,
wind etc.

(ii) Biotic Causes:

In a community, there is competition amongst different members for their existence. In

such a process, some of the members are not found suitable and thus are gradually
replaced by new ones.

(iii) Ecesis Causes:

The soil condition is also changing by the process of invasion, migration, competition
and reaction of the Population.

(iv) Stabilising Causes:

Succession is taking place in order to attain the climax stage.

CHARACTERISTICS:

Ecological succession has the following characteristics:

(1) It results from modification of the physical environment of the community.

(2) It is an orderly process of community development.

(3) It involves changes in species structure and it increases diversity of species.

(4) Nutrient variation determines the settlement of new community.

(5) Succession cumulates in a stabilized ecosystem.

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Stages

When succession first begins, pioneer species are the first to colonize the new area.
Pioneer species are usually fast-growing, opportunistic, and able to disperse easily.
These are called r-selected species. These are things like bacteria, moss, insects, and
smaller plants.

(1) Nudation:

It is a process of developing a bare area without any form of life for the arrival of new
species. The causes of nudation may be:

(a) Topographic:

The existing community may disappear due to soil erosion (by gravity, water or wind),
land slide, volcanic activity etc.

(b) Climatic:

The existing community may be destroyed due to storm, fire, frost, drought.

(c) Biotic:

The community may also be destroyed by anthropogenic activities like destruction of

forest, destruction of grass land etc. Besides, diseases induced by bacteria and virus
can also destroy the population.

(2) Invasion:

The successful establishment of a species in a bare area is called as invasion. This

process of establishment is completed in three successive steps:

(a) Migration (dispersal):

The seeds, spores or other progagules of the species are brought to the bare area by
the agents like air, water etc.

(b) Ecesis (Establishment):

The process of successful establishment (germination and growth) of the species in the
new area as a result of adjustment with the prevailing conditions is known as ecesis.

(c) Aggregation:

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After ecesis, the individuals of species increase their number by reproduction and thus,
are aggregated in a particular area.

(3) Competition and Coaction:

As the species aggregate at a limited space, there happens competition (inter as well as
intra specific) mainly for space and nutrition. Secondly the life process of one individual
is affected by the surrounding species in various ways which is known as coaction. The
species which are found unable to compete with others in the existing environment get
discarded.

(4) Reaction:

The species present in an environment constantly interact with it there by causing its
modification. The mechanism of the modification of the environment through the
influence of living organisms on it, is known as reaction.

Reaction induces changes in soil composition, water content and light organisms on it
and is known as reaction. Reaction induces changes in soil composition, water content,
light condition, temperature etc. Due to drastic modifications of the environment/ it may
not be suitable for the existing community.

Hence, the existing community may be replaced by another community. The whole
sequence of communities that substitute one another in the given area is known as sere
and the various communities constituting the sere are known as seral communities or
seral stages.

(5) Stablisation (Climax):

At last a final or terminal community is established. Which is stabilized for a longer

period of time and which can maintain an equilibrium with the environment of that area.
This community is known as climax community and the stage is as climax stage.

BIODIVERSITY: DEFINITION AND CONCEPT

Biodiversity, besides its ecological significance provides a socio-economic and

monetary asset to the nation.

Human society depends on biological resources, their diversity and the ecosystems
that sustain them to provide essential goods and services.

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Concept of Biodiversity:

It has been estimated that more than 50 million species of plants, animals and
micro-organisms are existing in the world. Out of these, about 1.4 million species
have been identified so far. Each species is adapted to live in specific environment,
from mountain peaks to the depth of seas, from polar ice caps to tropical rain forests
and deserts. All this diversity of life is confined to only about one kilometer thick layer
of lithosphere hydrosphere and atmosphere which form biosphere.

Though the study of environment and ecology is quite old, the term biodiversity has
been introduced by Walter Rosen in 1986. Biological diversity or Biodiversity is defined
as the variety and variability among the living organisms and the ecological complexes
in which they occur.

It refers to the variability’s among species of plants, animals and microorganisms;

ecosystems; ecosystem including terrestrial, aerial, marine and other aquatic system
and ecological complexes of which they are part. In simpler terms, biodiversity is the
assemblage of different life forms (Fig. 19.1).

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If reflects the number of different organisms and their relative frequencies in an

ecological system. It includes the organisation of organisms at many levels ranging from
complete ecosystems to the chemical components that form the molecular basis of
heredity. Thus, biodiversity is sum of all the genes, varieties, species, populations in
different ecosystems and their relative abundance.

Scientists are aware of the immense potentials of various life-forms existing on the
earth. Our planet’s requirements and services depend mainly on the biological
resources. Biological resources not only provide us nourishment, clothing, housing, fuel
and medicine but also meet our several other requirements. Therefore the knowledge of
biodiversity is of immense utility in planning sustainable livelihood and conserving the
natural resources.

Significance of Biodiversity:

Biodiversity, besides its ecological significance provides a socio-economic and

monetary asset to the nation. Human society depends on biological resources, their
diversity and the ecosystems that sustain them to provide essential goods and services.

Values related to biodiversity can be grouped into three categories as below:

Productive use:

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This is assigned to the products that are commercially harvested for exchange in formal
markets and is, therefore, the only value of biological resources that is concerned in
national income. Biodiversity provides us many products, such as fuel, timber, fish,
fodder, skin, fruits, cereals and medicines. In 1994-95 the income from agriculture,
forestry and fisheries in India was nearly 30 per cent or 736.88 billion rupees.

Consumptive use:

Consumption value is related to natural products that are consumed directly, i.e., the
goods which do not come under normal circulation of trade. For example, a significant
number of such non-timber forest products as soft broom grass and cane come under
this category.

Indirect use:

Indirect use of biodiversity is of much significance because this value is related primarily
with functions of ecosystem and is concerned with national accounting systems. They
may provide us indirect benefits as non-consumptive values. Maintenance of ecological
balance, conservation of natural resources and prevention of soil erosion may be
considered as the examples of indirect use of biodiversity.

Types of Biodiversity:

Biodiversity is of three types:

1. Species diversity

2. Genetic diversity

3. Ecological diversity

1. Species Diversity:

According to Biological Species Concepts (BSC), species is a basic unit of classification

and is defined as a group of similar organisms that interbreed with one another and
produce offspring’s and share a common lineage. Species diversity refers to biodiversity
at the most basic level and is the ‘variety and abundance of different types of individuals
of a species in a given area’. It includes all the species on Earth, ranging from plants
such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms,
angiosperms and all the species of animals including unicellular protozoans to
mammals.

Certain regions support a more diverse populations than others. Regions that are rich in
nutrients and have well balanced climatic factors, such as moderate temperature,

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proper light and adequate rainfall, show high degree of diversity in their life forms. The
tropical areas support more diverse plant and animal communities than the desert and
polar areas, as for examples, tropical forest has a higher species diversity as compared
to a timber plantation. The regions that are rich in species diversity are called hotspots
of biodiversity.

2. Genetic Diversity:

‘Genetic diversity pertains to the range of diversity in the genetic resources of the
organisms’. Every individual member of a plant or animal species differs from other
individuals in its genetic constitution. Each individual has specific characters, which is
due to the genetic makeup or code. The genes present in the organisms can form
infinite number of combinations that causes genetic variability.

Thus, we find that each human, who is representative of the same species, i.e. Homo
sapiens, is distinct from another. Similarly, there are many varieties within the same
species such as rice, wheat, apples, mangoes, etc. that differ from one another in
shape, size, colour of flowers and taste of fruits and seeds due to the variations at the
genetic level.

The term ‘gene pool’ has been used to indicate the genetic diversity in the different
species (Fig. 19.2). This also includes the diversity in the wild species, which through
intermixing in nature over millions of years have given rise to newer varieties. The
domesticated varieties of agricultural crops and animals have also evolved from the wild
gene pool.

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The genetic variability is essential for healthy breeding population, the reduction in
genetic variability among breeding individuals leads to inbreeding which in turns can
lead to extinction of species. In the recent decades, a new science named
‘biotechnology’ has emerged. It manipulates the genetic materials of different species
through various genetic re-combinations to evolve better varieties of crops and domestic
animals.

3. Ecological/Ecosystem Diversity:

Each ecosystem consists of organisms from many different species, living together in a
region connected by the flow of energy and nutrients. The Sun is the ultimate source of
energy for all the ecosystems. The Sun’s radiant energy is converted to chemical
energy by plants. This energy flows through the different systems when animals eat the
plants and then are eaten, in turn, by other animals. Fungi and bacteria derive energy
from the decomposing dead organisms, releasing nutrients back into the soil as they do
so.

An ecosystem, therefore, is a collection of living components, like microbes, plants,

animals, fungi, etc. and non-living components, like climate, matter and energy that are

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connected by energy flow. Ecological diversity refers to the ‘variability among the
species of plants and animals living together and connected by flow of energy and
cycling of nutrients in different ecosystems or ecological complexes’. It also includes
variability within the same species and variability among the different species of plants,
animals and microorganisms of an ecosystem. Thus, it pertains to the richness of flora,
fauna and microorganisms with in an ecosystem or biotic community.

The richness of the biosphere in terms of varied life forms is due to the variations in the
ecosystems. The earth has a number of ecosystems like grasslands, forests, semi arid
deserts, marine, freshwater, wetland, swamp, marshlands (Fig. 19.3) etc. each one
having its distinct floral, faunal and microbial assemblages. Ecological diversity
represents an intricate network of different species present in local ecosystems and the
dynamic interaction among them. The ecological diversity is of great significance that
has developed and evolved over millions of years through interactions among the
various species within an ecosystem.

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Measuring Biodiversity:

There are various mathematical ways of measuring biodiversity, which calculate the
number of species diversity in different regions. The measure of diversity of species is
also known as species richness.

These are as follows:

Alpha diversity:

This is the diversity in species, i.e. the number of species within a community. This
depends on the interaction between the biotic and abiotic factors and also takes into
account immigration from other locations.

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Beta diversity:

This is the change in the composition of the species with reference to the changes in
the environment.

Gamma diversity:

This refers to the overall diversity and is applied to larger areas in which both alpha and
beta diversity are measured.

Value of Biodiversity:

Biodiversity is the most precious gift of nature the mankind is blessed with. The
uniqueness of our planet Earth is due to the presence of life manifested through the
diversity in flora and fauna. As all the organisms in an ecosystem are interlinked and
interdependent, the value of biodiversity in the life of all the organisms including humans
is enormous. Besides its ecological and environmental value, biodiversity has significant
socio-economic values as well.

The value of biodiversity can be grouped under the following heads:

Environmental Value:

The diverse group of organisms found in a particular environment together with the
physical and biological factors that affect them, constitute an ecosystem. Healthy
ecosystems are vital to life. The natural environment is responsible for the production of
oxygen, maintenance of water-cycle and other biogeochemical cycles.

The more a region is rich in terms of biodiversity, the better are the different cycles
regulated. For example, forests regulate the amount of carbon dioxide in the air by
releasing oxygen as a by-product during photosynthesis, and control rainfall and soil
erosion. As you are well aware, deforestation would further increase carbon dioxide in
the earth’s atmosphere leading to greenhouse effect and global warming.

This will cause irreparable damage to all organisms including mankind. Ecosystems
depend on the health and vitality of the individual organisms that compose them. As all
the organisms in an ecosystem are interdependent, removing just one species can
prevent the ecosystem from operating normally.

Consumptive Value:

This is related to natural products that are used directly for food, fodder, timber, fuel
wood, etc. Humans use at least 40,000 species of plants and animals on a daily basis.

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Many people around the world still depend on wild species for most of their needs like
food, shelter and clothing (Fig. 19.4 and Table 19.1). The tribal people are completely
dependent on the forests for their daily needs. Similarly, fishermen in the coastal areas
are dependent on the marine resources. The wood derived from the forests has been
used from the birth of civilization as fuel.

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Productive Use Value:

This is assigned to products that are commercially harvested and marketed. Almost all
the present day agricultural crops have originated from wild varieties. The
biotechnologists continuously use the wild species of plants for developing new, better
yielding and disease resistant varieties. Biodiversity represents the original stock from
which new varieties are being developed. Similarly, all our domesticated animals came
from wild-living ancestral species.

Through scientific breeding techniques animals giving better yield of milk, meat, etc. are
being developed. The commonly used animal products used by the modem society
come from the advances made in the fields of poultry farming, pisciculture, silviculture,
dairy farming, etc. Even the fossil fuels like coal and petroleum are the products of
biodiversity from the geological past. Most of the drugs and medicines used in the
present times are extracted from different plant parts.

Social Value:

The lifestyle of the ancient people was closely interwoven with their surroundings. The
life of the indigenous people in many parts of the world still revolves around the forests
and environment, even in the modem times. Many of them still live in the forests and
meet their daily requirements from their surroundings. Due to modernisation, their
habitats are being encroached upon and their very survival is at stake. It is ironic that
the societies, whose whole life is intricately associated with the forests, are now not able
to use the natural resources for their sustenance.

The biodiversity in different parts of the world has been largely preserved by the
traditional societies. Since the indigenous people always protect the forests for their
own benefit, the Government should formulate plans to involve such people for
environmental protection.

In ancient times, especially in India, the environment in totality i.e. flora, fauna, etc. were
held in high esteem. Trees like Peepal, Banyan and Tulsi are still worshipped. Ladies
offering water to Tulsi daily is considered good and there are festivals when ladies tie
sacred threads around Peepal and Banyan trees and pray for the welfare of their
families. Similarly, certain animals and birds were represented as vehicles of Gods and
were duly respected. Thus, the different facets of biodiversity were closely linked to the
social values in many regions.

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Ethical and Moral Values:

It is based on the principle of ‘live and let others live’. Morality and ethics teach us to
preserve all forms of life and not to harm any organism unnecessarily. Some people
take pleasure in the hunting of animals. People also sometimes degrade and pollute the
environment by their unethical actions.

Through proper education and awareness, the people’s conscience against such
practices must be raised. We may not be deriving direct benefits from many plants and
animals, but should they be harmed because of this? Each species has its own utility in
the world of biodiversity and has every right to live.

Aesthetic Value:

The beauty of our planet is because of biodiversity, which otherwise would have
resembled other barren planets dotted around the universe. Biological diversity adds to
the quality of life and provides some of the most beautiful aspects of our existence.
Biodiversity is responsible for the beauty of a landscape. Humans are also attracted
towards the biologically rich regions and nobody likes to live or visit a barren place.
People go to far off places to enjoy the natural surroundings and wildlife.

This type of tourism is referred to as eco-tourism, which has now become a major
source of income in many countries (Fig. 19.6). Eco-tourism includes visiting wildlife
sanctuaries, national parks, coral reefs, exotic islands, safaris and trekking in the
mountainous and forested areas. In some countries like Nepal, Bhutan, Kenya,
Rwanda, eco-tourism has now become the major source of foreign currency income.

In many societies, the diversity of flora and fauna has become a part of the traditions
and culture of the region and has added to the aesthetic values of the place. For
example, in India, the richness of flora and fauna are depicted in many paintings;
animals are represented as vehicles of Gods; the dances and festivals are intricately
associated with nature.

Optional Value:

This refers to the value of biodiversity that is yet unknown, but needs to be explored for
future possibilities and use. Scientists have discovered and named about 1.75 million
species, which is of utmost importance. We should preserve the entire world’s
biodiversity that can be used by the future generations.

THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY (GLOBAL, NATIONAL & LOCAL): HABITAT LOSS,

POACHING OF WILDLIFE, MAN – WILDLIFE CONFLICTS

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The fewer animals we have, the fewer humans we will have.

That's why biodiversity is important. The wide variety of species on Earth, whether
they're plants, animals or microscopic organisms, are vital to keep the world's many
ecosystems healthy, balanced and thriving — growing plants we can eat, trees we can
shade under, and landscapes to use for everything from vacations to computer
screensavers.

In other words, biodiversity ensures natural sustainability for all life on the planet —
think more abundant crops and fresher air, for example. More than 3 billion people
depend on marine and coastal biodiversity, while more than 1.6 billion people rely on
forests for their livelihoods. The loss of biodiversity affects the lives of more than 1
billion people living in drylands.

But there are a number of issues threatening our planet's biodiversity, from climate
change to invasive species. Below, we discuss some of the biggest threats facing
biodiversity today, as well as what the world can do (and is doing) to keep them in
check.

1. Climate change

Changes in climate throughout our planet's history have, of course, altered life on Earth
in the long run — ecosystems have come and gone and species routinely go extinct.

But rapid, manmade climate change speeds up the process, without affording
ecosystems and species the time to adapt. For example, rising ocean temperatures and
diminishing Arctic sea ice affects marine biodiversity and can shift vegetation zones,
having global implications.

Overall, climate is a major factor in the distribution of species across the globe; climate
change forces them to adjust. But many are not able to cope, causing them to die out.

What can we do? Individuals can take various steps to fight climate change, such as
reducing their carbon footprints, promoting education and contacting elected officials.
International governments and cities can lead the charge.

2. Deforestation and habitat loss

Deforestation is a direct cause of extinction and loss of biodiversity. An estimated 18

million acres of forest are lost each year, due in part to logging and other human
practices, destroying the ecosystems on which many species depend. Tropical

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rainforests in particular, such as the Amazon, hold a high percentage of the world's
known species, yet the regions themselves are in decline due to humans.

What can we do? The solutions to deforestation mostly lie in policy — companies and
corporations can adopt best practices and refuse to use timber and paper suppliers that
contribute to deforestation. In the same vein, conscious consumers can refuse to
patronize companies that do, and put pressure on retailers that employ unsustainable
manufacturing methods. Individuals can also participate in land preservation through
charities and private corporations. Ultimately, however, international governments need
to enact stronger, scientific forest protection laws.

3. Overexploitation

Overhunting, overfishing and over-harvesting contribute greatly to the loss of

biodiversity, killing off numerous species over the past several hundred years. Poaching
and other forms of hunting for profit increase the risk of extinction; the extinction of an
apex predator — or, a predator at the top of a food chain — can result in catastrophic
consequences for ecosystems.

What can we do? Conservation and continued awareness surrounding overexploitation,

especially poaching and overfishing, are key. Governments need to actively enforce
rules against such practices, and individuals can be more conscious of what they eat
and purchase. Other solutions, such as removing subsidies granted to large-scale
fisheries, can help, too.

4. Invasive species

The introduction of non-native species into an ecosystem can threaten endemic wildlife
(either as predators or competing for resources), affect human health and upset
economies.

What can we do? According to the National Wildlife Federation, solutions include
creating systems to prevent introduction of invasive species in the first place, effectively
monitoring for new infestations and swiftly eradication newly detected invaders. Some
scientists use more creative means, such as Google Street View.

5. Pollution

From the burning of fossil fuels (releasing dangerous chemicals into the atmosphere
and, in some cases, depleting ozone levels) to dumping 19 billion pounds of plastic into
the ocean every year, pollution completely disrupts the Earth's ecosystems. While it
may not necessarily cause extinction, pollutants do have the potential to influents
species' habits.

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For example, acid rain, which is typically caused by the burning of fossil fuels, can
acidify smaller bodies of water and soil, negatively affecting the species that live there
by changing breeding and feeding habits.

What can we do? The average person can do a number of things to fight atmospheric
and hydrologic pollution, such as recycling, conserving energy at home and using public
transportation. The Environmental Protection Agency has a helpful guide here.

POACHING OF WILDLIFE

Poaching is the illegal taking of wildlife, in violation of local, state, federal, or

international law. Activities that are considered poaching include killing an animal out of
season, without a license, with a prohibited weapon, or in a prohibited manner such as
jacklighting. Killing a protected species, exceeding one's bag limit or killing an animal
while trespassing is also considered poaching.

Key Takeaways: Poaching

• Unlike hunting, poaching is the illegal killing of wildlife.

• One of the most common drivers of poaching is the desire for rare animal products
such as ivory and furs.

• Poaching does not necessarily involve the killing of threatened or endangered animals.
Any animal can be poached if it is killed unlawfully.

People who poach do so for a variety of reasons, including for food, pleasure, and
trophies. In some areas, such as China, poaching is driven by demand for highly valued
animal products such as ivory and furs. In other places, poaching is driven by poverty or
disregard for hunting regulations.

One example of poaching is the taking of eggs from the nest of loggerhead turtles.
According to the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, loggerheads arrive
on Florida beaches in April and continue to arrive and lay eggs through September.
Anyone caught stealing these eggs and convicted may be sentenced up to five years in
federal prison and/or required to pay a $250,000 fine.

Effects of Poaching

One of the most dangerous and lasting effects of poaching is the decimation of native
animal populations. When a certain animal, such as the African elephant, is targeted by
poachers, it can take decades for the animal's population to recover. This, in turn,

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affects the ecosystem to which the animal belongs. A reduction in predators like tigers,
for example, may cause prey populations to grow out of hand, while a reduction in fruit-
eating mammals may affect seed dispersal, altering the fauna of an ecosystem.

Demand for elephant ivory has had negative effects in sub-Saharan Africa, where
poaching has increased since 2008. Between 2011 and 2017, for example, poachers in
Mozambique killed 90 percent of the country's elephants. In 2018, nearly 90 elephants
were found dead near a sanctuary in Botswana, which had recently ended a strict anti-
poaching policy. There were a few million elephants living in Africa in the early 1900s,
but today there are believed to be fewer than 700,000.

Africa's lion populations have also been affected by poaching. Since 1994, they have
been reduced by 42 percent, and the species is now "vulnerable to extinction." Some of
the decline is the result of habitat ross (which reduces access to prey), but much of it is
due to poaching and commercial hunting. In the early 1900s, there were about 200,000
lions living in Africa. As of 2017, scientists estimate that only about 20,000 remain.

Poaching does not only affect wildlife. Park rangers and game wardens are also victims
of violence. In Virunga National Park, an animal sanctuary in the Democratic Republic
of the Congo, more than 170 rangers have been killed between 1998 and 2018.

One of the misconceptions about poaching is that it must involve endangered animals.
This is not the case. In North America, for example, poaching can involve animals as
common as lobster. The big event known as "mini lobster season" takes place every
summer in the Florida Keys. During that time, which precedes commercial lobster
season, anyone can take to the water and snatch a spiny lobster from its "hide hole"
and toss it in a cooler. When it comes time to head back home, though, officers from the
Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission are sometimes present to inspect
the catch.

When an officer does an inspection, he uses a standard measuring device. Placing the
lobsters side by side on a table, he measures each one in the legally prescribed
manner, placing the device on the lobster's carapace to check the size. That state puts
a limit on the size of each lobster that can be taken during "mini lobster season."
According to this state mandate, a "lobster with a carapace or body measuring at least 3
inches would be 2-3 years old and old enough to have reproduced at least one season."
The penalty for taking such a lobster is a serious one: "Upon a first conviction, by
imprisonment for a period of not more than 60 days or by a fine of not less than $100
nor more than $500, or by both such fine and imprisonment."

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Many state wildlife management agencies have hotlines that the public can call to report
poaching. It's not always someone in uniform who will catch you, either—there are
undercover cops everywhere.

Hunting vs. Poaching

Unlike poaching, hunting—the killing of wild animals for food or sport—is protected by
law. In the United States, meat and sport hunting regulations vary from state to state. In
Montana, general deer hunting season takes place between October 20 and November
25. Hunting without a license or out of season is not permitted and is therefore
considered a form of poaching.

Hunting regulations ensure that hunting is done safely and responsibly, without causing
harm to threatened or endangered species and without affecting commercial and
recreational activity.

MAN - WILDLIFE CONFLICTS

Human-wildlife conflict (HWC) occurs when animals pose a direct and recurring
threat to the livelihood or safety of people, leading to the persecution of that
species. Retaliation against the species blamed often ensues, leading to conflict
about what should be done to remedy the situation.

Although this is not a new scenario — people and wildlife have coexisted for
millennia — it is one that is becoming much more frequent, serious and
widespread, and a global concern for conservation and development alike. HWC
affects most large carnivores, as well as many other species groups including,
but not limited to, elephants, pigs, deer, primates, sharks, seals, birds of prey,
crocodiles, rhinos, otters.

HWC also often severely impacts the livelihoods, security and wellbeing of the
people from whom we ask support for wider conservation goals, and affects
many nations trying to align with, and benefit from, conservation and
development programmes.

There are immense challenges in addressing HWC around the world, in

particular because underlying cultural, political and economic aspects that shape
these conflicts are often very complex and poorly understood. Indeed, HWCs are
in essence conflicts between stakeholders, and perhaps more accurately
presented as ‘human-human conflicts’. Sometimes several groups are also
involved, weighing in with a range of different interests and needs.

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In some cases, successes in species recovery have resulted in creating new

HWC, for example where carnivores have recovered in numbers and expanded
their range. Therefore, conservation strategies for conflict-prone species need to
consider not only current scenarios but also anticipate emerging conflicts in order
to ensure sustainable coexistence. A further challenge is that effective methods
of damage control (and indeed retaliation control) are often elusive. Even where
they do exist, they are often not implemented in a socially and financially
sustainable way.

Thus, HWCs are complicated and defy easy analysis and resolution. In some
cases, people tolerate extreme losses from the presence of wildlife despite living
in poverty, while others experience negligible economic losses but are unwilling
to accept the presence of the species under any condition. Further complicating
matters, this dramatic variation in tolerance is not predicted by factors such as
education or income levels, land ownership, species involved, or any other
obvious measurable characteristic.

Much research and collective experience across the world has shown that each
case of conflict is different from the next,
making it difficult to devise easily transferable solutions. Therefore,
interdisciplinary approaches are essential to understanding what a given conflict
is about, knowing what is needed for mitigation of a given conflict, and ensuring
access to the necessary skills and resources.

As countries increasingly grapple with this multi-faceted challenge, HWC is

beginning to appear in national policies and strategies for wildlife, development
and poverty alleviation. Almost every country in the world hosts some form of
HWC, and highly biodiverse developing countries particularly struggle with this
issue.

Efforts to address the obvious problems without fully considering the underlying
socio-political conflicts fuelling the situation often result in only temporary fixes or,
worse, exacerbating pre-existing tensions. Coordinated and collaborative
conservation actions are therefore required to deliver meaningful results and
allow communities to shift from conflict to coexistence with wildlife.

ENDANGERED AND ENDEMIC SPECIES OF INDIA

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India is home to different types of animals, birds and fishes which include some
important farm animals like goats, poultry, cows, buffaloes, pigs etc. The country is also
a habitat for wild animals like Bengal tigers, deer, wolves, pythons, Indian lions, bears,
snakes, monkeys, many types of bison, Asian elephants and antelope species. India is
one of the mega diverse countries out of a total of seventeen mega diverse countries in
the world. These seventeen mega diverse countries, including India, are the habitats of
around 60 – 70% of the world’s biodiversity. The Western Ghats, The Eastern
Himalayas and Indo–Burma are the three biodiversity hotspots out of total 34 in the
whole world.
India has 6.5% of the world’s total wildlife species according to a report which was
published by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) that includes
7.6% of all mammals and 12.6% of all bird species.
According a report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
Red List in 2014, 15 species of birds, 12 species of mammals, and 18 species of
reptiles and amphibians have joined the critically endangered list.

Why Critically Endangered?

According to IUCN Red List the critically endangered species are at a highest risk of
extinction. There are basically five ways to determine whether the particular species are
endangered or not.
• When the species have a limited geographical range.
• Very limited or small population of less than 50 adult individuals.
• Whether the population has decreased or will decrease by more than 80% for the last
three generations or 10 years.
• If the population is less than 250 individuals and is continuously declining at 25% for
the last one generation or three years.
• There is a high possibility of extinction in the wild.
Indian elephant, Bengal tiger, Indian lion, Indian Rhino, Gaur, lion tailed macaque,
Tibetan Antelope, Ganga river dolphin, the Nilgiri Tahr, snow leopard, dhole, black buck,
great Indian bustard, forest owlet, white – winged duck and many more are the most
endangered animals in India.

Reasons for Endangerment

1. Loss of habitat is one of the primary reasons for the endangerment of species.
Today, human intervention plays a major role in the destruction of the natural

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landscape. Human activities like removal of trees that provide both food and shelter for
innumerable number of species, mining and agriculture.

2. Over hunting and poaching has a very destructive and catastrophic effect on the
number of animals and fishes all over the world.

3. Pollution like air pollution, water pollution and waste pollution, especially in the form
of plastic plays a very dominant role in the endangerment of animal species. Pollution
not only causes health hazards for humans, but it affects the animals also.

4. In a robust and hearty environment there is always an accurate balance between the
number of predators and their prey animals. The predators who are natural enemies of
their prey animals choose the old and sick preys as they cannot keep up with their
group. In this scenario the relationship between them is totally healthy as the predators
only eat these prey animals that are already nearing the end of their life. But the
problems become more apparent when the predators wander in such an area where
they will get only a few numbers of their prey animals.

5. To save the animals from poaching and hunting they are often kept in a sanctuary
and shelter. Though for some animals it has proved to be very much beneficial, there
are other animals too who suffer and are in trouble for being endangered. The main two
reasons are overcrowding and overgrazing. Usually there are too many animals that are
enclosed in small areas. These animals often eat the same grass and trees in a limited
area whereas in natural surroundings the grazing animals keep on changing the
landscape while eating and keep on moving for most of the time. But in an enclosed and
small area they eat from the same plants repeatedly which finally destroys the plants
due to overstress.

Few Ways to Save Endangered Animals

• If pollution can be controlled all across the globe then it can have a major positive
impact on animals, fish and birds all over the world.

• To save the endangered animals from extinction, a number of breeding programmes

have been introduced. The government, NGOs and the other corporate bodies should

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come forward for this noble cause as this programme involves dedicated and special
people and of course a lot of money

• Reintroducing the endangered animals to the wild once their numbers increase has
become successful in some cases though all species have not done well.
• If hunting and poaching can be controlled then there can be a significant change in the
numbers of the endangered animals.

Steps Taken by the Government for Wildlife Protection

• All the states, excluding Jammu and Kashmir (it has its own Act), adopted Wildlife
(Protection) Act in 1972 which prohibits any type of trade for endangered and rare
species.
• The Central Government provides every type of financial assistance to the State
Governments for the conservation and protection of the endangered species.

• National ban was imposed on tiger hunting in 1970 and Wildlife Protection Act became
effective in 1972. According to the latest tiger census (2015), there is an overall
increase of 30% in tiger population. In 2010, there were 1700 tigers left in India
according to tiger census which has gone up to 2226 tigers in 2015.

• Innumerable numbers of National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, Parks etc have been
established by the government.

• In 1992, Central Zoo Authority (CZA) was initiated for the supervision of the
management of zoological parks in the country.

• In 1996, the Wildlife Advisory Committee and Wildlife Institute were established for
seeking advice on different features of Wildlife conservation and matters related to it.
There are several other initiatives which have been taken up by the government to save
the endangered species of India.

India is part of five main International Conventions which are associated to wildlife
conservation. They are (i) Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
(CITES), (ii) Coalition Against Wildlife Trafficking (CAWT), (iii) International Whaling
Commission (IWC), (iv) United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

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– World Heritage Committee (UNESCO – WHC) and (v) the Convention on Migratory
Species (CHS).
Numerous positive steps are being taken for saving the endangered species of India.
But that is not enough. There is a dire need for more NGOs and the private corporate
sectors to come forward for this noble cause.

ENDEMIC SPECIES OF INDIA

Endemic species is that ecological state of a species where a species is unique to a

defined geographical location.

What is Endemic Species?

Endemic species are those that are found in just one region and nowhere else in the
world. For example, kangaroos are originally endemic to Australia and are found
nowhere else in the world. The cases where they have been spotted outside their
natural habitat is due to humans introducing them when the animal was in captivity.

There are also other marsupials that are endemic only to Australia and its surrounding
islands. The Tasmanian Tiger is one such animal that was endemic to Australia,
Tasmania and New Guinea. But now, it is extinct.

One tends to adapt themselves to their surroundings, climate, habitat and other
variations. After which it becomes difficult to uproot ourselves and settle elsewhere. All
living species, human, plants, animals, and birds have a habit of making home and
finding it difficult to leave when the time calls for it. The ones which do not leave the
area become endemic to that region.

Endemic species are those which are only found in a given region or location and
nowhere else in the world. So the region which the species is endemic to ends up being
called the “endemic site”, a “national endemic”, a “geographical range endemic”, or a
political region endemic depending on the location.

But as we see endemic plants and animals are unique to a particular geographical
region; they are incredibly unique and more vulnerable to extinction. As a result, special
efforts are required to conserve them.

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Endemic Species of India
A list of the endemic species of India is mentioned below:

Asiatic Lion, Gir Forest

Asiatic Lion is also known as the Indian Lion and can be only found in and around Gir
Forest National Park of Gujarat. These are listed as endangered species. These are
one of the five big cats found in India, the others being Indian Leopards and Bengal
Tigers.

Kashmir Stag, Kashmir Valley

Also known as Hangul, Kashmir Stag is found in the dense forests of Dachigum
National Park, Kasmir Valley and Chamba district, Himachal Pradesh.

Lion-Tailed Macaque, Western Ghats

It is the rarest and the most threatened and endangered primate species found only in
the Western Ghats of Southern India.

Purple Frog, Western Ghats

The purple frog, also known as Pignose frog is only found in the rainforests of western
ghats in India. It spends most of its life underground.

Sangai Deer, Loktak Lake

It is also known as Brow Antlered Deer exclusively found in Keibul Lamjao National
Park of Manipur. This park is a marshy wetland located in the southern parts of Loktak
lake.

Nilgiri Tahr, Nilgiri Hills

It is a wild sheep species, endangered and endemic to the Nilgiri Hills of Western Gats.

Other endemic species of India include:

 Pygmy Hog, Assam

 Bronzeback Vine Snake, Western Ghats
 Nilgiri Blue Robin, Nilgiri Hills
 Malabar Civet, Western Ghats

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 Anaimalai Gliding Frog, Anaimalai Hills
 Namdapha Flying Squirrel, Arunachal Pradesh
 Indian Giant Squirrel
 Bonnet Macaque

Examples of Endemic species

There are several ways in which a species may come to be endemic to a particular
area. A broadly distributed population may disappear from several habitats due to
changes which have occurred in their natural habitat. The changes could be an influx of
predators, human activities, and climate changes.

All other species that were widely distributed around the world starts to die out until the
species becomes forcefully restrained to just one region.

For example, Endemic species, such as the tortoises of the Galápagos and the lemurs
of Madagascar can be found small islands. Big islands also provide the same isolation
but on a larger scale.

Antarctica Hawaii and Australia are all huge land masses where we can find a lot of
endemic species. Kangaroos, koalas, and polar bears are all endemic to these places.

In the case of endemic plants, sometimes species become endemic due to habitat
destruction as discussed above.

The Redwood Forest on the West Coast of the United States has become endemic as it
is now almost entirely limited to California. While there was a time when Redwoods
used to cover much of the United States but have been destroyed by logging and are
now limited to a small conservation area.

Diseases, on the other hand, can also be endemic. An endemic disease may be
geographically isolated or it may be isolated to a certain group. Malaria is an example of
an endemic disease because it is mostly limited to small pockets of infection in Africa.

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To learn more about what is endemic species, endemic species of India, and examples
of endemic species, keep visiting BYJU’S website or download BYJU’S app for further
reference.

Frequently Asked Questions

What are endemic species?

Endemic species are plant and animal species that are found in a particular
geographical region and nowhere else in the world. Some species are endemic to a
continent while the others can be endemic to an island. For eg., Lemurs of Madagascar
and Tortoises of Galapagos.

Name some endemic species of India.

Asiatic Lion in Gir Forest, Lion-tailed Macaque in Western Ghats of India, Nilgiri Tahr,
Malabar large spotted civet, Nilgiri Blue Robin, Jerdon’s Corser, Nilgai, Nicobar
megapode are some of the species of animals endemic to India.

Name some plant species that are endemic.

Some of the endemic plant species include- Nevada primrose, Waxflower, Pennell’s
whitlowgrass, Intermountain wavewing, Mt. Wheeler sandwort, etc.

What is the difference between endemic and exotic?

Endemic species are the ones that belong to a particular area, whereas, exotic species
are those which belong to some other region but are introduced in a foreign region.
Endemic species are restricted to a particular area whereas exotic species are not.

How are native species different from an endemic species?

A native species is not necessarily restricted to its native area. It may be found in the
other areas of the world as well. On the contrary, the endemic species is specific to a
particular region and is found nowhere else.

What is the main risk associated with endemic species?

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The main risk associated with endemic species is that they are more vulnerable to
extinction. Since they are rare, the destruction of their habitats due to human activities
would reduce their population drastically.

How are endemic species important?

The endemic species are important to maintain a balance in the ecosystem. A balanced
ecosystem purifies the environment and provides us with fresh air to breathe. When an
endemic plant species becomes extinct, it takes with it around 10 to 30 endemic animal
species. They are a focus for the conversation of biodiversity.

What do you mean by endemism?

Endemism is the condition of being endemic or being restricted to a particular

geographical region. It described the distribution of a group of species.

ROLE OF MULTI – MEDIA IN SENSITISING MASSES TOWARDS ECOSYSTEM

The role of media is very important in shaping public awareness about environment
awareness i.e. global climate change and associated actions. When we discuss the role
of media, we focus on three key issues- to inform, to educate and to entertain.
The different media sources considered can be categorized as:
(a) Mass media (radio, television, newspaper, magazines, etc.)
(b) Institutional media (school, government officials or village leaders, etc.)

(a) Mass Media

Environmental Awareness Created by Mass Media : One of the most effective way
of getting the message across to the largest possible audience in a country as vast and
diverse like India is through mass media, including television and the English and
vernacular press. media plays a vital role in creative awareness or questions. Both
these media have the potential of being extremely effective tools for environmental
communication, but have not been sufficiently exploited for this purpose so far. Most
environmental documentaries shown on TV today attract few viewers because of the
academic or pedantic manner in which they are presented. Similarly, although many
English newspapers are now carrying more and more features on environmental issues,

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they are usually superficially researched and poorly written. Vernacular papers still carry
very little or no environmental news. Newspaper, radio and television are the most
widely and frequently used modern mass media in India .

Print Media (Newspapers) : Print media, which is still dominant and most influential
compared to electronic media can play a big role in environmental protection.
Environmental reporting can contribute a lot for awareness. The concept of
environmental protection is a reality pertaining to livelihoods. A few print and broadcast
media had offered columns and feature programs on the environment. But the overall
coverage is quite primitive and limited. Environmental reporting is a focused subject
now. A media person can give general knowledge about waste concerning the
environment.

Since independence, the number of Indian newspapers has multiplied several folds. In
the 1950s 214 daily newspapers were published in the country. Out of these, 44 were
English language dailies while the rest were published in various regional and national
languages. This number rose to 2,856 dailies in 1990 with 209 English dailies. The total
number of newspapers published in the country reached 35,595 newspapers by 1993
(3,805 dailies). Today Indian newspapers are brought out in more than 93 languages
and dialects. With an average of about 50 minutes the daily amount of time spent on
reading the newspaper, “the backbone of news” in India, is considerably high.

After "Times of India‟ abandoned its weekly column, none of India ‟s daily newspapers
has a regular column on environmental news. The focus is mainly on local and national
issues like air, water and noise pollution as well as deforestation. In contrast to that
global environmental problems are mentioned very rarely. A slight tendency towards a
motivational coverage of environmental issues can be observed in the regional
language newspapers, e.g. when enlightening farmers on the negative consequences of
the use of pesticides.

Roughly, it can be said that India's most important newspapers like The Times of India,
The Hindu, Hindustan Times and The Indian Express have an article on environmental
issues at least every second day with Times of India doing the best job in terms of
frequency. There are many environment journalists who have chosen their subject out
of true commitment. Second, the issue of environment is competing with all the other

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issues covered in the newspapers whereby the most severe selection criterion is the
news worthiness of an issue. The interest of the reader as far as news on environment
is concerned is supposed to be still fairly low by the editors. Nevertheless all of the
interviewed editors and journalists felt that there has been an increase in the number of
articles on environment both due to a higher awareness and interest of their readers
(this is especially true for the younger generation) and the visible deterioration of the
state of nature.

Awareness campaign by Newspapers : Dainik Bhaskar campaign- Daink Bhaskar a

leading hindi newspaper of India started „Jal Bachao Abhiyan ‟ among its readers in
different states and it had a great impact on readers. "Jal Satyagrah ‟ initiative is being
organised for a decade in the month of April and May by Dainik Bhaskar as a special
drive in summers. The objective of the campaign is to create awareness and invoke
individuals to 'Save Water'. The campaign encourages people to take a pledge;
inducing them to save 15% water in their daily usage.

The initiative received "Award of Honor" from Pawan Kumar Bansal, Union Cabinet,
Minister of Parliamentary Affairs and Water Resources. To promote this cause the
group, undertook various activities and organised a conference with experts from
UNICEF, UNESCO and International Commission for Irrigation and Drainage. The
initiative reaches out to individuals via ads, full page editorial content on ways to save
water. In the next stage of Jal Satyagraha Campaign a detailed coverage was carried
out in all editions under a central plan, in which awareness on scarcity of water and
solution to it were covered. It included coverage on demand and supply of water at city
level, need of long term planning to meet the water demand, condition of water network
in cities need of its maintenance and cleaning and maintenance of ponds, wells and
baories. Neha Mawani associated with this Campaign says, Water is precious and
nature has been more than bountiful on India. But today conditions are different. Most of
the lakes, rivers, wells and old baories are drying. We have used this most precious gift
of nature recklessly by not giving a thought on recharge and maintenance of water
resources.

Radio : Radio is cheap and easily accessible medium. Its signals cover almost the
whole country. However, on average there are only 4.4 radio/transistors sets per 100

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person. 80% of which are in urban homes Only about six million sets left with 525
million rural population. Furthermore the frequency of listening to the radio is relatively
low: only 35% of the interviewees declared to listen to the radio regularly, most of them
ranking between half an hour and two hours per day. In addition to the relatively small
number of people listening to the radio the role of radio in creating environmental
awareness cannot be considered an important one due to the fact that there are only
very few regular environmental programs, although there is an instruction by Supreme
Court for all media that programs on environment should be regularly broadcast. On the
national level of broadcasting news on environment are very scarce. If news on
environment are broadcast this is most often at the regional level. In short, radio is well
below its potential in creating environmental awareness and over the last few years no
increase in broadcasts on environment has been observed.

Television : India has more than 150 million TV homes, of which 25% use direct-to-
home satellite and 51% receive cable TV. A TV digitisation drive is under way. There
are nearly 800 licensed satellite TV stations. Around half of these are news-based
outlets, and news programmes often outperform entertainment output. Doordarshan,
the public TV, operates multiple services, including flagship DD1, which reaches some
400 million viewers. Multichannel, direct-to-home (DTH) satellite TV is a huge hit. Major
platforms Dish TV, Tata-Sky, Sun Direct, Big TV and Airtel Digital TV have millions of
subscribers. State-owned Doordarshan Direct runs a free-to-air DTH service.

The Above data shows that media sensation has spread and spreading rapidly.
Television has become a new status symbol even in remote villages. A further
advantage of television as an educational media is that it is helpful in teaching practical
work. A televised presentation can be as clear as a face-to-face demonstration. With an
average amount of 138 minutes spent on watching television per day and more than
50% out of all the interviewees watching television two to three hours per day, television
dominates newspaper and radio not only in the frequency of usage, but also in the
amount of time spent on it. Discovery Channel, National Geographic Channel and
Animal Planet channel are presenting wildlife and drawing common men ‟s attention on
environment. A definite obstacle for environment playing an even more prominent role
in media is commercialization. Since many editors feel that “you can get no money out
of environment”, environment is not an agenda.

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Awareness campaign : The nation's leading tv channel group NDTV has launched a
unique campaign in April 2008 NDTV Toyota green campaign. This constant 24-hour
program has stars and celebrities participating in this program. It was an effort in
creating awareness for environmental issues among people. The campaign started The
Nobel laureate Dr. R.k. Pachauri,Jairam Ramesh (honorable former minister of India,
forest and environment) and many film stars.

A first-of-its-kind award in India, Green Awards aim to recognise excellence in all

sections of the society Rural, Urban, Corporate, Domestic, Educational Institutions and
Resident Welfare Associations. Godrej Group, along with NDTV, recently launched
India's first-of-its-kind environment-based reality show – "Green Champion ‟. Godrej
Green Champion will focus on raising awareness of issues that plague our environment.
This reality show will emphasize that the future of our nation lies in the hands of the
youth. It will bring to the fore key environmental issues and highlight the positive impact
created by even the smallest of "green‟ changes.

Zee Media Corporation Ltd, launched the fourth edition of India ‟s biggest environment
awareness initiative „My Earth My Duty‟. My Earth My Duty has proven to be an
essential platform provided by an Indian media house in bringing behavioral change in
Indian citizenship, especially youth. The initiative has been able to sensitize and
encourage people to take adequate steps to conserve the Earth and more so for our
children and grandchildren.

Zee Media has partnered with Ministry of Youth – National Service Scheme (NSS) and
Nehru Yuva Kendra Sangathan, Para-military forces-Border Security Force, Indo-
Tibetan Border Police, Central Reserve Police Force, ETF, Brahm Kumari Samaj,
Centre for Media Studies and others to maximize the reach and impact of the initiative.

From the issues like pollution to the climate change, the media had been playing a vital
role in creating awareness and raise issues to the pertaining topic of environment. The
media has been pivotal in covering the entire country of India in raising environment
issues like drought in Gujarat, Air pollution in Delhi, Ground water level depletion in
Chennai and pollution from coal mines in Jharia, west Bengal. It is still to be confirmed
that the role of mass media is one of the most important factors underlying the
knowledge of environmental problems: This can only be true on the conditions that first,

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mass media are accessible to large proportions of the population, second, are spending
some time on environmental issues and third, people are interested in information on
ecological issues provided by the media so that they view or listen to the corresponding
programs as well as read newspaper articles or other written publications dealing with
environmental issues.

New Media ( Social Media and Internet ) : There is a growing population of the young
that are ardent users of new media platforms. With Facebook or Twitter, youths today
are very much connected with each other and other global/local issues through the
internet. Social media platforms are also utilized by industry and government agencies
as a preferred tool of communication with the general public.

The number of internet users in India has reached 354 million by the end of June 2015.
The latest figure indicates that India has more internet users than the population of the
US and become the second largest country by the number of internet users after China.
According to the report published by the Internet And Mobile Association Of India
(IAMAI), the internet users in India has grown 17% in the initial 6 months of this year
(2015), adding 52 million new users.

India Water Portal is a website that shares knowledge and builds communities around
water and related issues in India. Managed by Arghyam, the Portal has become a
valuable archive of resources, working papers, reports, data, articles, news, events,
opportunities and discussions on water.India Water Portal is a platform that empowers
the youth to share experiences and solutions, talk to experts, join conversations and
learn about the work that others are doing to conserve our fast depleting water
resources.

Institutional Media
At present environmental education has become an integral component of National
Policy on Education for the first time after independence. Now environment science has
become a compulsory subject in school and college education. The policy states "there
is a need to create consciousness of the environment which must permeate all ages
and all sections of the society beginning with the child. Environmental consciousness
should inform teaching in schools and colleges and should be integrated in the entire
education process".

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Although there was no separate environmental education policy and plan of action
either at the Union or the State levels, environmental education had been influenced by
politics and plans of other sectors and strategies of environmental education have been
outlined stage-wise and subject-wise in the National Curriculum Frame Work. By
scanning the curriculum evidence has been found that environmental education
concepts in terms of awareness and knowledge seem to be adequately covered, while
the development of skills for the study of environment and environmental ethics,
attitudes and actions need strengthening (Bandhu, 1999).

The most recent developments are the introduction of Environmental Science as

compulsory course for all the undergraduates after the invention of Supreme Court and
the introduction of Environmental Studies as a curricula area at primary stage.
Environmental Studies combines science with social studies and environment and
stresses the link between teaching and the immediate environment of the child.
Although the introduction of Environmental Studies in primary stage should definitely be
welcomed, since it motivates children at an early age to deal with problems of
environmental pollution, it is too early to evaluate how successful a subject like
Environmental Studies can be in creating environmental awareness and altering the
behavior of the children in an more environmentally friendly way. The problem
environmental studies has to face is a lack of teachers that are competent to teach
environmental issues. At the upper levels, environmental concepts are extensively
covered in other subjects like science, geography, economics and sociology, but there
is no special subject focusing on environment and hence no specific grade for
knowledge on environmental issues. Through all levels there should be a stress on local
or national environmental problems. Recent developments in the education at Indian
schools like the introduction of Environmental Studies definitively prove that as far as
educational policy is concerned there is an understanding for the importance of
promoting environmental issues. The introduction of Environmental Studies as an
independent subject is an example for the upgrading of environmental issues and will
enable teachers to address ecological subjects more extensively and effectively.

Level of Environmental Awareness

After discussing the most important factors in creating environmental awareness, their
potentials and weaknesses as well as looking at their specific presence in India, the

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next paragraph will focus on the resulting actual level of environmental awareness.
Although more than tree third of the interviewees claimed to feel that environmental
pollution is an extremely urgent problem, their confidence in this belief weakened when
comparing the priority of environmental pollution with other problems Indian society has
to face. It is striking that people do think of the problems mentioned above as
interrelated, but do not see the connection between environmental destruction and
many of India's urgent problems. This is probably one reason for the fact that priorities
are generally not set on environment. An education policy launched on arising a higher
level of environmental awareness should stress addressing the causal relationship
between destruction of environment on the one hand and social as well as health
problems on the other hand and should point at the fact that especially the poorer, less
educated people are exposed to environmental pollution. Making people aware of the
relatedness of environmental and social problems could push the issue of environment
more towards the top of the agenda.

If we talk about the most recent event in India „Svachha Bharat Abhiyan ‟ by the
government of India is perfect example, credit of it ‟s success goes to proper media
attention and this attention has spread awareness among citizens across the country.
Same phenomena goes with the “Maryada Abhiyan” by Hindustan Zinc which is an
integrated part of Svachh Bharat abhiyan aimed at Constructing toilets in the country
and set the country free from open air toilet. The Internet as a Source for Environmental
Information The Internet's wide reach and accessibility make the best source for the
people all over the world to find information about climate change, environmentalism,
and how to be green. The Internet is more convenient for getting news.

Pointing a browser to any of the many Internet news sites that are online will bring up all
of the latest headline news stories as well as many others organized by topic. Internet is
not limited to computers only. One can access internet anytime anywhere with a fast
pace speed on a 3G or 4G connection. Youtube, Vimeo etc. video websites are a rich
source of information. Just one touch on your smartphone and the world will be on your
phone. Thus these advanced technologies have strengthened the environment
consciousness.

CONCLUSIONS:

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The role of the media to raise the community concerns and commitment for social and
environmental issue is a very critical one. Awareness creation for the protection of the
environment and the sustainable use of finite resources are matters that directly
concern each citizen. The media can be an instrument in breaking the silence that
surrounds the environmental problems and in creating an environment that encourages
discussions of how the community can participate and change their behavior. It is truly
crucial to raise public awareness of environmental issues. Media's efforts to sensitize
the public about environment issues and its continuing central role in the struggle
against the cause of environmental problems are indispensable. However, the level of
involvement of the media in the country to address environmental challenges is only
event based. Environmental issues have not yet reached a stage where they are the
media's prime agenda. The media fails to take a creative approach in producing stories
about environmental protection and gives insufficient attention to environmental
degradation and its consequences. The media does not seem to be in a position to
create environmental awareness to the public in a given geographical area. The major
media focus even now is on issues that take place around the big cities, there is no
diversified community media at grass root level. Furthermore, the media does not give
fair and optimal space and time to environmental issues. No detailed studies to
ascertain the role of the media in environmental awareness issues have been done
unlike other development and political issues. Even though some activities undertaken
so far are positive, the work done to date in the study area is very inadequate compared
to the consequences of environmental challenges.

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