KUMI UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT: AGRICULTURE
TASK: COURSE WORK
NAME: ENYIDU ISAAC
REG NO:20/U/013/BAG/FT
LECTURER: OMODING JACOB

QUESTIONS

1. With specific examples and types, discuss in details the

following in aquaculture production:

i. Fish reproduction and breeding

ii. Fish reproduction patterns

b) Discuss the factors affecting fish breeding and production

c) Explain the principles of fish management

QUESTION 1
Fish reproduction and breeding
Fish reproduction is a fundamental process in aquaculture production. For many years, the
farming of fish for commercial purposes has relied on natural reproduction. However, the
increasing demand for fish has led to the development of different breeding techniques to
increase productivity while reducing dependence on wild fish stock.
Fish reproduction can be classified into two categories: external and internal fertilization.
External fertilization happens when eggs and sperm are released into the water, and
fertilization takes place externally. This type of fertilization often occurs in fish like salmon,
trout, and tilapia. Internal fertilization happens when a male fish releases sperm into a
female's body. This type of fertilization is more common among live-bearing fish like
swordfish, sharks, and different species of the guppy.
Fish breeding is the act of producing young ones from parent brood fish this ensures species
continuity and survival. in aquaculture fish breeding is a very important activities ensuring
the availability of fingerlings for the stocking of ponds, pens, tanks and cages.
Fish breeding techniques can be broadly categorized into three classes: natural breeding,
selective breeding, and genetic engineering.
Natural Breeding
Natural breeding involves the use of parent fish of the same species in an environment that
mimics a natural ecosystem to allow for natural breeding. The process requires a thorough
understanding of the fish's natural environment—their reproductive habits and spawning
times. The farmers recreate the favourable environmental factors to simulate the fish's natural
habitat that encourages them to breed and mature.
Examples of fish that use natural breeding include salmonids like chinook and coho salmon.
The fish are often placed in natural streams with favourable water temperatures. The fish
spawn naturally in the streambeds and are then netted before their fry can swim away.
Selective Breeding
Selective breeding involves choosing individuals with desired traits for reproduction to
produce offspring with the same unique qualities. The process requires careful observation of
the fish over long periods, and it can take a few generations to achieve the desired result. The
goal of selective breeding is to increase productivity and yield, which is achieved by selecting
parent fish with desirable traits such as faster growth, better disease resistance, or improved
meat quality.
Examples of fish that use selective breeding include the tilapia, which has been selectively
bred for faster growth, higher resistance to disease, and improved taste. This type of breeding
is widespread and has been widely used with great success in many other commercially
farmed species like carp and trout.
Genetic Engineering
Genetic engineering involves manipulating the genetic makeup of fish to produce desired
traits. The process involves changing the fish's DNA to produce offspring with desirable
traits. Genetic engineering allows for more precise breeding, resulting in faster-developing
fish that are larger and healthier than those produced by selective breeding.
Examples of fish that can be genetically engineered include salmonids like Atlantic salmon.
The fish are engineered to grow faster than their wild counterparts and require less food to
reach maturity, reducing the cost of production. The process has been met with scepticism,
and the safety of genetically-engineered fish has been questioned.

In conclusion, fish breeding is an essential process in aquaculture production. The process is

complex and requires an in-depth understanding of the fish's natural environment, habitat,
and reproductive habits. Different techniques are used to improve productivity and yield,
including selective breeding, genetic engineering, and natural breeding. While they have their
advantages and disadvantages, the techniques have resulted in an increase in fish production
and a decrease in the dependence on wild fish stock.
QUESTION 1
Fish reproduction pattern
Fish reproduction patterns vary widely among different species. Some common patterns
include:
Spawning: Many fish species reproduce through spawning, which involves the release of
eggs and sperm into the water where fertilization takes place. This can be done externally or
internally, depending on the fish species. Many marine and freshwater fish follow this
pattern.
Viviparity: Some fish species give birth to live young. These fish are referred to as
viviparous and carry the embryos within their bodies until they are fully developed. Some
examples of viviparous fish include some sharks, rays, and live-bearing fish such as guppies
and mollies.
Oviparity: In oviparous fish, the eggs are laid outside the body and then fertilized by the
male. The embryos then develop outside of the mother's body. This is the most common
method of reproduction among fish species.
Hermaphroditism: Some fish species are hermaphroditic, meaning they possess both male
and female reproductive organs. These fish can produce both eggs and sperm, and some can
even fertilize themselves. Examples of hermaphroditic fish include clownfish and some
species of wrasses.
Asexual reproduction: It is exceedingly rare for fish to reproduce asexually, but it has been
observed in some species of sharks and in the Amazon molly, a freshwater fish. Asexual
reproduction involves the development of offspring from unfertilized eggs.
QUESTION (b)
Factors affecting fish breeding and production
Physical Factors
Physical factors have a significant impact on fish breeding and production. These include
temperature, water flow, water hardness, dissolved oxygen, and light intensity.
Temperature affects the growth rate and breeding cycle of fish. Water temperatures that are
too low or too high prevent fish from breeding and affect their growth. Water flow and
turbulence are essential for the transfer of oxygen and other nutrients to the eggs and fry. A
decrease in water flow can cause stagnation, leading to the death of fish and invertebrates.
Water hardness affects fish reproductive success as it can affect egg and larval survival.
Dissolved oxygen is essential for the respiration of fish and other aquatic organisms. High
light intensity can cause physical stress on fish and reduce algae production, affecting the
food chain.
Chemical Factors
Chemical factors like ammonia, nitrites, phosphates, and nitrates have a significant impact on
fish breeding and production. Ammonia and nitrites are toxic substances that affect the
growth rate and survival of fish and other aquatic animals. Phosphates and nitrates are
essential nutrients for algae growth and can cause an overproduction of algae, reducing
oxygen concentration in the water.
Biological Factors
Biological factors include parasites, pathogens, and predators that can decimate fish
populations. These factors affect the health and survival of fish, and it is essential to manage
them to prevent losses in production.
Environmental Factors
Environmental factors like weather patterns, salinity, and pH levels can affect fish breeding
and production. Changes in weather patterns can cause fluctuations in water levels, changes
in temperature and dissolved oxygen levels. Salinity affects the survival and growth of fish
that are sensitive to changes in water salt concentration. pH levels determine the acidity or
alkalinity of water, and fish require optimal pH levels to survive.
Cultural Factors
Cultural factors affect fish breeding and production, including culture systems like flow
through, recirculating systems, and pond management. Culture systems affect water quality,
feeding, and maintenance practices, which significantly impacts the growth and survival of
fish. Proper pond management is essential in preventing the accumulation of waste and the
growth of harmful microorganisms.
Other factors include;
Reproductive biology: Fish have complex reproductive physiology and behaviour that can
be difficult to manipulate in a controlled environment. Breeding programs must consider
factors like spawning behaviour, egg fertilization rates, and embryo development.
Genetic variability: Fish populations can have high levels of genetic variability, which can
make it difficult to maintain a specific trait or characteristic in a breeding program.
Inbreeding and genetic drift can also lead to reduced breeding success and health problems.
Disease: Fish can be susceptible to a wide range of diseases that can have a significant
impact on their breeding performance. Genetic selection for disease resistance can help to
improve breeding success in some species.
Regulatory challenges: Depending on the country of origin, there may be strict regulations
surrounding the breeding and sale of certain fish species, particularly those that are invasive.
Meeting regulatory standards can be a time-consuming and challenging process for breeders.
Animal welfare concerns: Fish breeding can raise animal welfare concerns, particularly in
intensive farming systems. Breeding programs should consider the ethical implications of
their work, such as ensuring that fish are not subjected to unnecessary suffering or stress.
Research and development costs: Developing an effective breeding program requires
extensive research and development work, which can be costly and time-consuming.
Investment in technology and innovation is necessary for long-term success.
Inadequate funding: There is an inadequate fund to support the construction of fish ponds
that are expensive and to buy feeds for the fish.
Limited knowledge: This results due to inadequate field extension officers that could give
the necessary information and advice on fish rearing.
Inadequate hatcharies.There is a problem of inadequate hatcheries for fingerlings which are
used for re-stocking. There are several factors that affect fish breeding and production, which
include physical, chemical, biological, environmental, and cultural factors. These factors
affect breeding and production in different ways, and a deep understanding of them is
essential to maximize productivity in aquaculture.
In conclusion, physical, chemical, biological, environmental, and cultural factors play a
significant role in fish breeding and production. The management of these factors is essential
in maximizing fish productivity and minimizing losses in aquaculture. A deep understanding
of these factors is critical for aquaculture farmers to achieve optimal production and
minimize losses.

QUESTION (C)
Principles of fish management
Fish management consists of following principles:
Water Quality Management: Proper monitoring and management of water quality is
essential for the health and growth of fish. It involves maintaining optimal levels of dissolved
oxygen, pH, temperature, and nutrient levels in the water.
Fish Health and Disease Prevention: Fish farming requires proper management of fish
health and disease prevention. It includes proper handling, feeding, vaccination, and control
of parasites and pathogens that may harm the fish.
Feeding Management: Fish farmers must formulate a balanced diet for the fish, which meets
their nutritional needs for optimal growth and health. Feeding must be done regularly and
monitored closely to avoid overfeeding or underwatering.
Environmental Impact Management: The farming of fish should not negatively impact the
environment. Controlling the impact includes proper waste management, reducing the risk of
disease transmission from farmed fish to wild fish, and minimizing the use of chemicals and
antibiotics in farming.
Genetics and Breeding Management: Selective breeding can improve desirable traits in
farmed fish such as growth rate, disease resistance, and feed conversion efficiency. Fish
farmers must follow good breeding practices, including proper brood stock management, to
improve the productivity and quality of farmed fish.
Economic and Financial Management: Fish farming is a business, and proper management
of financial resources is paramount to success. Farmers must adopt sound business practices,
including proper accounting, marketing, and risk management to ensure profitability.
REFERENCES

1. Alam Shamsul. 2000. Production, accessibility and consumption patterns of

aquaculture products in Bangladesh. Report submitted to ICLARM, Penang,
Malaysia.
2. Bhatta, Ramachandra. 2000. Production, accessibility and consumption patterns of
aquaculture products in India. Report submitted to ICLARM, Penang, Malaysia.

3. Ahmed, M. 1997. Policy issues deriving from the scope, determinants of growth, and
changing structure of supply of fish and fishery products in developing countries.
Paper presented at the International Consultation on Fisheries Policy Research in
Developing Countries: Issues, Priorities and Need. Hirtshals, Denmark, 2-5 June
1997.

4. Ahmed, M, Rab, M.A., & Bimbao, M.P. 1995. Aquaculture technology adoption in
Kapasia Thana, Bangladesh: some preliminary results from farm record-keeping
data. ICLARM Tech. Rep., No. 44. Philippines: ICLARM. 43 p.

5. Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources. 1994. 1993 Philippine Fisheries Profile.
Department of Agriculture, Government of Philippines, Manila.

6. Bouis, H. 1991. Food demand elasticities by income group by urban and rural
populations for the Philippines. International Food Policy Research Institute,
Washington D.C.