BIOLOGY

TAXONOMY/CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS

Organism: Any living/ biological entity such as bacteria, fungus, plant or animals that are capable of growing and
reproducing are called organisms. An organism can consist of one cell (unicellular) or more cells (Multi cellular).
The unicellular organisms are usually microscopic while multicellular organisms are composed of millions of cells
(tissues). They can also have specific organs on body parts. Organisms are capable of stimuli reproduction growth
and development.
Type of organism –
• Prokaryotes – Organisms that lack true nucleus & well defined and developed organelles eg. Bacteria.
• Eukaryotes – Organisms having a defined nucleus and well-developed cell organelles eg. Human,
Plants.
Taxonomy is the branch of science that comprises of description, identification, nomenclature and classification of
organisms.

Classification: The scientific arrangement of organism into specific series of groups on the basis of therein
similarities & dissimilarities.

• This first classification was done by Aristotle. He classified organisms on the basis of their requirement as
well as on their habitats like fishes, birds, whales and insects.
• Carolos Linnaeus – Considered as the Father of Modern Taxonomy, he was the first person to formulate a
uniform & systematic method of classifying organisms.
• Kingdom → Phylum (Division) → Class → Order → Family → Genes → Species
• Linnaeus classified organism into 2 categories Plants and Animals.
• This classification had a lot of drawbacks so later on R.H. Whittaker reclassified organisms on kingdom
basis of Development. Habitat, nutrition, Reproduction, etc. and gave the theory of 5 kingdom
classification.

Five Kingdom Classification

(i) Monera (ii) Protista
(iii) Fungi (iv) Plantae
(v) Animalia
The five-kingdom classification has become the bench mark for organic classification by which organism
are sub divided and separated from each other.
(1) Monera – It comprises of single cell prokaryotic organism/Bacteria.

• They are Unicellular and Prokaryotes by nature.

• They are found in all habitats.
• They are heterotrophic Decomposers.
• They show asexual mode of reproduction: Binary Fission.

This kingdom contains two types of organisms:

(a)Archaebacteria – Found in harsh environment such as volcanic vents, hot springs, sewage treatment
plant, high saline environment, etc. Thermophile, Halophile, Methanogens.
(b)Eubacteria – These are found in all habitats except harsh ones. They are economically important in
field of agriculture, food industry and medicines. E.g. Rhizobium, Nitrobacter, Lactobacter.

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(2) Protista – Also Known as Hodge-Podge / Rejected Kingdom.
• They are mostly unicellular.
• Can be prokaryotic or Eukaryotic.
• Mostly found in aquatic habitat.
• May have cilia / flagella for movement.
• They can be auto tropes, saprophytes, parasites etc.

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 • They
are

found to disease causing agents in other org, hence also known as Protozoans.
e.g. Amoeba, Paramecium.

Economic Importance of Protists

• Protists serve as the foundation of the food chain.
• Protists are symbionts – having a close relationship between two species in which, one is benefited.
• Some protists also produce oxygen and may be used to produce biofuel.
• Protists are the primary sources of food for many animals.
• In some rare cases, Protists are harvested by humans for food and other industrial applications.
• Phytoplankton is one of the sole food sources for whales
• Seaweed is an alga, which is considered a plant-like protist.
• Zooplankton is fed on by various sea creatures including shrimp and larval crabs.

(3) Fungus – initially they were part of Kingdom Plantae.

• They are multicellular (except yeast).
• They are of eukaryotic origin.
• Mode of nutrition is saprophytic in nature. They feed on dead decaying organic matter.
• They grow in hot, humid & moist conditions.
• They follow asexual reproduction i.e. spore formation, budding and fission.
• They are also economically important in baking, beverage production and medicinal biotech.
E.g. Yeast, Mushrooms, Aspergillus (production of antibiotics).

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Economic importance of Fungi

Fungi provide delicious and nutritious food called mushrooms. They recycle the minerals by decomposing the
litter thus adding fertility to the soil. Dairy industry is based on a single celled fungus called yeast. They
deteriorate the timber. Fungi cause food poisoning due the production of toxins. The Beneficial and harmful
activities of fungi are discussed below:

Bneficial activities

• Food: Mushrooms like Lentinus edodes, Agaricus bisporus, Volvariella volvaceae are consumed for their
high nutritive value. Yeasts provide vitamin B and Eremothe-cium ashbyii is a rich source of Vitamin B12.

• Medicine: Fungi produce antibiotics which arrest the growth or destroy the bacteria. Some of the
antibiotics produced by fungi include Penicillin (Penicillium notatum) Cephalosporins (Acremonium
chrysogenum) Griseofulvin (Penicillium griseofulvum). Ergot alkaloids (Ergota-mine) produced
by Claviceps purpurea is used as vasoconstrictors.

• Industries:

o Production of Organic acid: For the commercial production of organic acids fungi are employed in
the Industries. Some of the organic acids and fungi which help in the production of organic acids
are: Citric acid and Gluconic acid – Aspergillus niger, Itaconic acid – Aspergillus terreus, Kojic acid
– Aspergillus oryzae

o Bakery and Brewery: Yeast(Saccharomyces cerevisiae) is used for fermentation of sugars to yield
alcohol. Bakeries utilize yeast for the production of Bakery products like Bread, buns, rolls
etc., Penicillium roquefortii and Penicillium camemberti were employed in cheese production.

o Production of enzymes: Aspergillus oryzae, Aspergillus niger were employed in the production of
enzymes like Amylase, Protease, Lactase etc.,’ Rennet’ which helps in the coagulation of milk in
cheese manufacturing is derived from Mucor spp.

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 • Agriculture: Mycorrhiza forming fungi like Rhizoctonia, Phallus, Scleroderma helps in absorption of water
and minerals. Fungi like Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae are used as Biopesticides to
eradicate the pests of crops. Gibberellin, produced by a fungus Gibberella fujikuroi induce the
plant growth and is used as growth promoter.

Harmful activities
• Fungi like Amanita phalloides , Amanita verna, Boletus satanus are highly poisonous due to the
production of Toxins. These fungi are commonly referred as “Toad stools”.
• Aspergillus , Rhizopus, Mucor and Penicilium are involved in spoilage of food materials. Aspergillus
flavus infest dried foods and produce carcinogenic toxin called aflatoxin.Patulin, ochratoxin A are some of
the toxins produced by fungi.

(4) Plantae – Usually multicellular in nature.

• They show autotrophic mode of nutrition i.e. they make their own food by the process of
photosynthesis.

6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2

Chlorophyll
• Plants along with Blue Green Algae are considered as the primary producers.
• They have both sexual and asexual mode of reproduction
• The plant cells have cell wall, larger vacuole and have plastid.
Eg. Algae, moss, ferns.

Plant kingdom can be classified into Cryptogams (plant without seeds) and Phanerogams (plants with seeds).

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Cryptogams are further classified into –
(i)Thallophyta – Underdeveloped aquatic plants that do not have proper differentiation between
stem, leaf and roots. Algae
(ii)Bryophyta –Are plants of amphibious nature. They are differentiated into stem, leaf and roots
but not properly developed. Moss, Liverworts and Hornwort.
(iii)Pteridophyta – The are terrestrial plant. e.g. Salvinia molesta, Alzola Species.

Phanerogams are further divided into –

(i)Gymnosperms – Seeds bearing plants that have naked seeds. e.g.: Pine, Deodar,etc
(ii)Angiosperms – Seeds bearing plants well adopted to terrestrial life and occur in diverse habitat.
The plants are represented by herbs, shrubs and trees.

(5) Animalia –
• All are multicellular organism having eukaryotic cell.
• The mode of nutrition is heterotrophic.
• The kingdom is usually considered as consumers.
• They have sexual mode of reproduction.
• Organisms are further sub divided into reptiles, amphibians, birds, fishes and mammals.
Characteristics of Animalia: -
• They are diverse in form from single cell to multicellular org.
• Either they have definite symmetry or none at all.
• They are segmented.
• They have heterotrophic made of nutrition.
• They show active, rapid and complex movement.
• Most of them reproduce sexually.
• Cells formed after meiosis function as gametes.
Classification of Animalia: - The animal kingdom is further divided into 35 phyla out of which 11 are considered as
major ones.
• Almost 99% of animals are invertebrates, and rest represents vertebrates.
• Animals are also categorized as Non-Chordates and Chordates, on the basis of presence or absence
notochord at some stage in their life.
S. No. Chordata Non-Chordata
1. Notochord present Absent
2. Single central nerves system Double
3. Usually, pharynx is perforated by gill slits. Absent
4. Post anal tail present Absent

Phylum Chordata is further sub divided into following sub phylum’s- Vertebrates and Invertebrates.
Sub phylum Vertebrata – The member of this family possess notochord, usually during embryonic stage and in
adult stage it is replaced by cartilage or vertebral column. It is sub divided into
Pisces – Mostly aquatic animals with streamline body and have cartilaginous endoskeleton.
• Mouth is located ventrally and notochord is present throughout the life.
• Have Two chamber heart and are Cold blooded.
• Have Fins for locomotion.
• Respire with help of gills.
• Fertilization takes place outside the body.

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 E.g.: Catla, Rohu, Mrigal
Amphibians – They can live in both aquatic and terrestrial habitat.
• Most of them have two pair of limbs.
• Body is divisible into head and trunk.
• They have 3 chambered heart and are cold blooded.
• They have moist skin and ear is represented by tympanum.
• Alimentary canal, urinary and reproductive organ duct open into a common duct known as cloacae.
e.g. Frog, Toad, Newt and salamander.
Reptiles – They are characterized by creeping and crawling mode of locomotion.
• They have 2 pairs of limbs (except Snake).
• They are cold Blooded and have 3 Chambered heart (Except Crocodile).
• Their body is covered by scales.
• They have internal fertilization and oviparous. e.g. – Turtle, Snake, Lizard.
• They are found both in land & water.
Aves –They are found in all habitats.
• Presence of feathers and most of them can fly.
• Fore limbs are modified into wings hind limbs into claws.
• They possess beak.
• Skin is dry without sweat glands.
• Skeleton is made of bones and usually the long bones are hollow and filled with air cavities.
• Heart is 4 chambered & are warm blooded.
• Internal fertilization and oviparous. E.g. Eagle, Penguin, Crow.
Mammals – Found in all habitats.
• Most unique characterized being presence of mammary glands by which young ones are nourished.
• They have two pair of limbs adopted for walking, running, climbing etc.
• Skin is covered with hairs, external ears present, have different set of teeth present in jaw.
• They have hard dense bones and strong memory ability.
Classification of human –

Domain : Eukarya
Kingdom : Animalia
Phyla : Chordata
Class : Mammalia
Order : Primates
Family : Hominidae
Genus : Homo
Species : sapiens
FACTS:
Taxonomy in India for 1st time : Rishi Parashar
Father of Indian Taxonomy : Henry Santapau
Three Kingdom Classification : Ernst Haeckel
Four Kingdom Classification : Herbert Copeland
Domain Classification : Carl Woese

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 CYTOLOGY

• Cell is the basic structural, functional and biological unit of life. Study of cell is known as Cytology.
• The first person to discover cell is Robert Hooke (1665). He is also called as Father of Cytology.
• A.V. Leeuwenhoek- first to discover living cells (bacteria,1674) also called as Father of Microbiology.
Cells Theory –
It was given by Theodor Schwann, Mathias Schleiden & Rudolf Virchow. It is as follows:
• All living beings are made up of cells.
• Smallest living unit of structure and function of an organism is cell.
• All cells arise from pore existing cells.
Characteristics of cells –
• Ability to replicate independently.
• Contains hereditary information in form of DNA and RNA.
• Each all has the capacity to perform basic functions depending on its location.
Components of cell –
Cell is made up of three components
• Cell Boundary (Cell Wall & Cell Membrane)
• Nucleus
• Cytoplasm
Cells Boundary –
Cell wall is present in plants bacteria, algae, etc. It acts as the outer covering of cell outside the cell membrane. It
provides shape and structural support to the cell. It is made up of cellulose (plants), chitin (fungi), Peptidoglycan
(Bacteria).
Cell membrane (Plasma Membrane) is outer covering of cell (in absence of cell wall). It provides shape and
structure to the cell; it is semi-permeable in nature.
• Made up of lipids (phospho- lipids) and proteins, usually bi-layer.
• It helps in cell adhesion and cell signaling.
NUCLEUS
• Discovered by Robert Brown in 1830.
• It is also known as Brain of the cell.
• It contains genetic information in form of DNA & RNA (mRNA, rRNA, tRNA)
• It contains of the following components.

(i) Nuclear Membrane – It is a bi-layer membrane made up of proteins and lipids (fat). It contains micro holes
through which cytoplasmic and nuclear exchange takes place. It is highly impermeable in nature.
(ii) Nucleoplasm-The protoplasm of nucleus (jelly like matrix) inside the nucleus of cell.
(iii)Nucleolus – It is spherical in structure and can be one or more nucleolus in a nucleus. It is the site for synthesis
of RNA.
(iv)Chromosomes –They are thread like rod shape structure and are made up of DNA and proteins. Chromosomes
have two chromatids and carry genes that act as unit of inheritance in living beings.

DNA
• It is a double stranded polynucleotide usually present in the nucleus.
• It has a double helical structure.
• It can also be found in mitochondria and chloroplast but in small amounts.
• DNA regulates all genetic activities and protein synthesis.
• DNA is made up of De-oxy Ribose sugar molecule, a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base mainly
Adenine Thymine, Guanine & Cytosine.

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 • In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick proposed the double helical structure of DNA based on Xray
diffraction experiment of Rosalind Franklin.
RNA
• It is single stranded poly nucleotide whose main function is to assist in protein synthesis.
• It also acts as genetic material in virus.
• RNA is made up of Ribose sugar, phosphate group and nitrogenous base- Adenine, Uracil, Guanine &
Cytosine.
Cytoplasm – Also Known as Protoplasm of Cell. It is a jelly like structure found inside the cell. It is the part of cell
which provide platform for cell organelles.
It consists of two components –
(1) Cytosol – It is a cytoplasmic matrix. it is further separated in chambers of organelles. (E.g. mitochondrial matrix
is separated into inner outer compartment.)
(2) Cell organelles – Cell organelles perform special function inside the cell such as making new material, cleaning
of wastes, etc.
(a)Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Discovered by Keith Porter.
• Also known as Sewage/ Waste Disposal System of Cell.
• It is a network of tubules or flattened sacs. These are usually found attached will the nuclear membrane.
• They help in providing structural support and transport of material between diff. parts of the cell and
nucleus.
• They act as waste disposal and waste clearing system by digesting unwanted material. They provide
platform for attachment of ribosomes.
• E.R. is of two types –
(i)Smooth E. R (ii)Rough E.R (Contains Ribosome’s)
(b)Ribosomes –
• . Discovered by George Palade.
• Also known as Protein factory of Cell
• They are granular structures observed under electron microscope.
• It is the smallest cell organelle, its main function to synthesis of protein.
(c) Golgi Complex –
• Discovered by Camillo Golgi.
• Also known as Traffic Police Man Of Cell.
• It contains flat sacs called cisternae.
• They are usually formed at attached to the E.R.
• They carry out processed proteins from ER to outside, also help in transport of lipids.
(d)Mitochondria -
• Discovered by Richard Altman. It is also known as Power House Of the Cell.
• Elliptical in shape have two membranes and made up of Cristae.
• They contain their own DNA and RNA
• They are autonomous and are controlled by the nucleus.
• Produces energy by oxidation in form of ATP by cellular respiration.
(e)Plastids – Majorly found in plants & algae.
• Discovered by Ernst Haeckel & also known as Food Factory.
• Contains own DNA, RNA and Ribosome’s.
• They are of three types
(1) Leucoplast (Found in roots, colorless)
(2) Chromoplast (yellow & Reddish)
(3) Chloroplast (Green in color)

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 • They help in manufacture and storage of starch and proteins.
(f)Vacuoles –
• Discovered by AV Leeuwenhoek & also known as Warehouse of the cell.
• Organelles having no shape and size and varying depending on need of the cell.
• Helps in cellular transport mainly food.
(g)Lysosomes –
• Discovered by Christian De Duve & also known as Suicidal Bags or Atom Bomb of cells.
• Responsible for disposing useless, old cells and replacing with new cells.
• Help in body defense system (phagocytosis).
(h)Centrosomes –
• Discovered by Edouard Von Benenden.
• Organelles containing two cylindrical structures celled as centrioles.
• Helps in cell division is formation of spindle fibers.
(i) Microfilaments-
• Also Known as Cytoskeleton of cell.
• Made of protein and helps in providing structural support to cell.

Diff. between Prokaryotes between Eukaryotes

S. No. Prokaryote Eukaryote
1. Cell are under developed. Developed cell
2. Cell size 1-10 μm 5-100 μm
3. Lacks nuclear membrane Present
4. Only one chromosome More than and chromosome
5. Developed Cell organelles like nucleolus chloroplast Present
lysosomes, etc. absent.
6. Cell wall present Usually Absent (except plants)
7. Might have chlorophyll except Fungi and bacteria Absent (except plants)
8. Centrosomes absent Present near the nucleus which take
part in cell division.
9. Lysosomes usually absent Present (except plants)
10. Vacuoles present Usually absent (except plants)

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Facts:
Smallest cell : Mycoplasma
Largest cell : Ostrich Egg
Longest cell : Nerve cell/ Neuron
Smallest cell in human : Haploid cell- in male’s Sperm Cell, in Female’s Polar Cell
Diploid cell- Granule cell(brain)

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 CELL DIVISION
Usually found in multi-cellular organism. It is important for body growth, repair and reproduction. Cell division is
the process by which parent cell divides into two daughter cells which are smaller than the parent cell but are
similar to it.
Stages –
Cell division takes place in two stages.
(1) Inter-phase – also known as resting phase or preparatory phase. In this phase the cell prepares itself for cell
division. In this the cell increases its size, doubles its genetic material and other cell components.
Inter-phase is sub divided into 3 phases -
(a)G1 Phase– Increase of cell size, accumulation nutrients and energy.
(b)S Phase – Also known as synthesis phase. In this phase, DNA synthesis takes place resulting in doubling of the
amount of genetic material by DNA Replication.
(c)G2 / End Phase– In this phase the process started at G1 and S phase come to an end.

(2)M Phase – Cell division is carried out with equal division of nucleus (karyokinesis) and continue with division of
cytoplasm (cytokinesis) resulting in formation of two cells.
This division takes place in 4 phases– Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase & Telophase followed by cytokinesis.

Types of cell division –

Depending on the nature of cell there are two types of cell division –
(a)Mitosis – Occurs in somatic or normal body cell results in body growth and repair.
(b)Meiosis – Occurs in reproductive cells resulting in formation of gametes.

Mitotic cell division / Mitosis

Interphase – same as earlier.
M phase – Divided into four phases
Prophase-
• Here nuclear membrane start disappearing.
• Genetic material condenses to form chromosomes
• Centrosomes appear at opposite poles.
• Formation of spindle fiber takes phase leading to formation of centrioles.
Metaphase –
• Chromosomes align at equatorial plane of cell.
• Spindle fibers attach themselves to chromosome and start to pull it apart.
Anaphase –
• Chromosomes separates into two sister chromatids and moves toward the opposite ends.
• After the chromatids reach the opposite ends and phase ends.
Telophase & Cytokinesis –
• Nuclear membrane reappears.
• Cell organelles are equally distributed.
• Cell pinching starts.
• After complete formation of nuclear membrane and distribution of organelles cell pinching progress
resulting in cytokinesis leading to formation of two new daughter cell.

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Meiosis/ Meiotic cell division
Occurs in reproductive cells of gonads. It is carried out in two stages-
(i)Interphase – Similar to mitosis
(ii)M Phase – The M phase of meiosis is sub divided into two phases- M1 phase and M2 phase
without any inter-phase.
4 new daughter cells are formed after meiosis. The genetic no. is haploid in nature compared to
the diploid parent cells.
Facts:
Cell Division Discovered By : Walther Flemming
Mitosis Discovered by : Otto Butscheli
Meiosis Discovered by : Oscar Hertwig

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 HISTOLOGY (STUDY OF TISSUES)

A tissue is a group of similar cells of same origin and together they carry out specific function.
Tissue is an intermediate between cell and organs. N Grew called the term tissues. It can be classified into –
(a) Plant Tissue (b)Animal Tissue
Animal Tissue – These can be further sub classified into 4 types epithelial, connective tissue, muscular tissue and
nervous tissue.
1. Epithelial – It forms a continuous layer over free surface of many other tissues and organs. It covers
external surface of animal body and internal surface of organs, body cavities and blood vessels. It protects
underlying and over-lining tissues and helps exchange of material across it. E.g. Skin, blood vessels,
Pleura, Pericardium, Peritoneum, etc.
2. Connective tissue – It provides structural framework and mechanical support to diff. tissues. It also plays
a key role in body defense, tissue repairs, fat storage and transmission of blood vessel to other parts of
the body.
It is broadly classified into –
(a)Areolar C.T. – used as supporting and packaging material e.g. Mucus found between skin and muscle,
around blood vessels, etc.
(b)Adipose C.T. - it consists of fat cells and provides insulation and shock absorber for the body. It is also help
in storage of fat as future energy source.
(c)Reticular C.T. – It forms basic framework for no. of tissues and organ. They are usually made up of star
shaped cells. E.g. Bone marrow, lymph nodes.
In addition to above tissues there are two other types of Connective tissues:

Supportive Connective Tissue -

(a)Bones – 206 in total, connected together with help of Joints. Largest bone femur & smallest bone stapes.
(b)Tendons – Connects muscles with bone.
(c)Ligaments – Connects bone to bone.
(d)Cartilage – Also known as soft bone. They are flexible and are usually found in pinna, epiglottis, ring of trachea,
apex of nose.

Fluid Connective Tissue – it consists of blood. Normally blood is red, dense, saline and opaque fluid. Blood
circulates through entire body due to pumping of heart by means of blood vessels.
• By weight blood constitutes 7-8% of our body weight.
• Blood is composed of
(a)Plasma (b)Blood Corpuscles
Plasma – The non living part of blood compassed of organic and inorganic substance like water, protein
(fibrinogen, heparin, albumin, thrombin, prothrombin) Salts, Glucose, etc
• The main function of plasma is to transport hormone and digested food nutrients through the body.
• It also helps in body immune defense system.
Blood Corpuscles - They are of three types –
(i)Red Blood Cell (Erythrocytes)
• They are spherical and biconcave in shape.
• They are produced at bone marrow.
• Their life cycle is of 120 days.
• Mature RBC lacks nucleus.
• They contain a red pigment called haemoglobin.
• The main function of RBC is to transfer CO2 & O2.
• They get destroyed at Liver & Spleen.
• Spleen is considered as the graveyard of RBCs.

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(ii)White Blood Cell (Leucocytes/Lymphocytes)
• They are colorless, large, amoeba like cell, whose main function is to provide body immune defense.
• Most of them are found in lymphatic nodes.
• It performs phagocytosis to kill disease causing agent.
• Their life duration is 8-10 days
(iii)Platelets (Thrombocytes) –
• These are small, fragile, fragments of giant cells.
• Function is to help in blood coagulation and prevent blood loss by blood clotting.
• Their life duration is 7-9 days.
Functions of blood –
• Transport of nutrients, hormones and excretory substance.
• Transport of O2 to tissues and bring back CO2.
• To protect body from diseases.
• To prevent blood loss by blood clotting and further helping in wound healing.
• To maintain body temperature and osmotic pressure.
BLOOD GROUPS
Blood can be grouped into two groups –
(a)ABO group (b)Rh group
Blood grouping was discovered by Karl Landsteiner and it is based on Surface Proteins (Surface Antigen) on the
cell surface RBCs.
ABO grouping was done on the basis of presence of two surface antigens A and B. Similarly, the plasma of diff.
individuals produces two diff. antibodies against A and B antigen. Based upon this, there are four blood groups in
ABO system A, B, AB, O
ABO Group Antigen Antibody Donor group
A A b A, O
B B a B, O
AB A, B - A, B, AB, O
O - a, b O

Another antigen similar to AB antigen was present on Rhesus monkey on the surface of RBCs called as Rh factor. If
present blood group is Rh+ve if absent Rh-ve (nearly 80% of human blood group is Rh+ve).

Erythroblastosis Fetalis – Mismatching of Rh factor may lead to an adverse situation in 2nd or subsequent
pregnancy which may lead to death of fetus or abortion. This situation is called as Erythroblastosis Fetalis.

3. Muscular Tissue
They are made up of muscle fiber whose contraction and relaxation promotes the movement and loco-motional
activities.
(i)Voluntary / Skeletal / Striated -
• The cells of such tissues are longer, cylindrical and unbranched. On the outer part of the muscle we
find strips (striated) and they are multi nucleated.
• They can be moved at one’s own will.
• Their main function is movement, maintenance of posture and generation of heat.
(ii) Involuntary / Smooth Muscle –
• They are thin and spindle shape fibers, pointed at both the ends. They are involuntary in nature (can’t
be controlled) and are present in internal organs.
• Their main function is movement of internal organ. E.g. Diaphragm.
(iii) Cardiac Muscle – They are striped muscle fibers, branched and appears to be multinucleated. They are
involuntary in nature and are present in heart. Their function is contraction and relaxation of heart.

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 4. Nervous Tissue –
• To accommodate work of almost all organs according to specific composition and function is the main
characteristic of nervous tissues.
• It is found at brain & spinal cord.
• Nerve tissues receive and transfer information in form of impulse / stimuli.
Neuron – is the basic unit of nerve tissue made up of three parts Cyton, Axon and Dendron.
Nerves are of Three types:
• Sensory / Afferent Nerve- It carries impulse from receptor organ to brain or spinal cord.
• Motor / Efferent Nerve– They carry impulse from brain or spinal cord to the body.
• Mixed Nerve- Nerve fibre with both sensory and motor functions. E.g Spinal cord.

Plant Tissue
On the basis of development plant tissue are classified in two categories.
(1) Meristematic Tissue -
• Such tissues are found in those parts which have the ability of cell division.
• These tissues are generally found in growing part of plant such apex of stem, sepals, stigma,
internodes, apex of roots, cambium, etc.
• Meristematic tissues have identical cell structure and are mutually interconnected.
• They later on convert in Permanent Tissue.
(2) Permanent Tissue –
• Such tissues are those whose cells have matured and have lost the ability of cell division.
• Permanent tissues are further sub divided into
(i) Simple Tissue – It includes Parenchyma (leaf, fruit pulp), Collenchyma (Stem & cell wall strengthening),
Sclerenchyma (woody cells).
(ii)Complex Tissue – Further classified into two types
• Xylem – Water conducting tissue which consists of dead and hollow cells. The main function of xylem is to
transport water, minerals and salts from the soil to the plant body. It also provides rigidity is various plant
organ. Xylem tissue frequently exists in roots, stem and leaf of plant.
• Phloem – Vascular tissue through which the prepared food is transferred to various organ of plant.

Dendrochronology – it is the study of estimation of age of plants by counting the cambium rings in the trunk.

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 LIFE SYSTEM

The most important criteria to decide something is alive or not, it should exhibit certain life process i.e. various
functions carried out by living being necessary to continue life.
Some of the general life processes are movement, respiration, excretion, transport, sensitivity (control and co-
ordination) and reproduction.

Movement - The most common criteria to determine life is movement. all living beings move by themselves
without only external help. In some organism it is fast and in others it is slow.
In unicellular organism cilia and flagella help in their transport while in multi-cellular organisms they have their
respective organs of transport.
Nutrition – The process by which organism takes food and utilize it is called as nutrition. It provides energy for
various activities and body functions, generally nutrition is of two types
Autotrophic Nutrition –
The mode of nutrition in which organism prepares their own food. It is mainly expedited by plants and algae also
known as Primary Producers. The process by which they produce their own food is known as Photosynthesis. In
this process solar energy, it converted into chemical energy with help of pigment chlorophyll. In this process
atmospheric CO2 is utilized to produce food and O2, the following process can be summarized in –

6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2

Chlorophyll
Importance of photosynthesis –
• It is the only way through which solar energy in made available to different beings.
• Green plants & Algae are main producers in ecosystem & all other organism are dependent upon
them. This helps in maintaining ecological balance.
• The process of photosynthesis helps in maintaining balance of O2 & CO2 in atmosphere.
Heterotrophic Nutrition – The mode of nutrition in which organisms procure food from other organism directly or
indirectly is called as heterotrophic nutrition. Organisms other than plants & few algae follow the heterotrophic
made of nutrition. It can be sub-divided into:
• Decomposers- In this mode organisms depend on dead and decaying organic matter for nutrition. Usually
seen in microorganisms like Bacteria and fungus.
• Saprophytic Nutrition – In this type of nutrition, the digestion of food takes place before the ingestion of
food. It also deals with intake of dead organic matter as a food source. This type of nutrition is usually
seen in fungi and some other microorganisms.
• Parasitic Nutrition- In this mode of nutrition organisms depend on host being for readily available food.
E.g. tapeworm, Plasmodium, Amoeba, etc.
• Holozoic Nutrition – In this type nutrition the digestion of food fallows after the ingestion of food. This
digestion takes place inside the body of organism. This mode happens in 5 stages – Ingestion, digestion,
absorption, assimilation & egestion.
Ingestion – The first phase of nutritional process in which food stuffs are taken inside the body.
Digestion – The second phase of nutritional process in which food taken inside the body is decomposed &
degraded into simpler & smaller molecular.
Absorption – In this, small components of the digested food are absorbed. This process takes place in small
intestine of human.
Assimilation – The fourth phase of nutritional process in which the absorb nutrients are brought up to various
cells & tissues through blood, then cellular energy (ATP) is from farm from them & released by process of
oxidation (Mitochondria).

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Egestion – The fifth & last phase of nutritional process in which the residual waste substance after the absorption
process is removed from the body. The waste substances if left unattended can be toxic in nature & harm the
body.

HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Buccal Cavity – It starts with mouth and is like a fissure (gap) which passes through both the jaws and open in a
cavity called as buccal cavity. In upper and lower jaws two separate sequences of the teeth exists. In each jaw
there are 16 teeth. The dental formula of human is 2123/2123. There are four types of teeth incisor, canine,
premolar and molar. Teeth is responsible for mastication of food.

Tongue – It is a muscular organ found at the floor of buccal cavity. It contains taste buds on it that are responsible
for differentiation of tastes. Taste bud are arranged in order of sweet at apex of tongue, followed by salt, sour at
the sides & bitter at the back. It is responsible for mixing of food and saliva thus, starting the process of digestion.

Pharynx – It is a common passage for both food and wind pipe, it is 12cm long canal. It further divides into
Oesophagus and trachea.

Oesophagus - It is a longer tube (23-27 cm) which opens into the stomach. On its walls mucus glands are present
which moisten & lubricate the food.

Stomach – It is a bi-lobed sac like structure i.e. muscular in nature & J shaped. In here food is temporarily stored
& the gastric juices that are secreted by various gastric glands react upon it do digest it.The gastric juice contains
HCL, Pepsin, Rennin and Mucous. Food is partially digested here.

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Small Intestine – Longest part (6-8 meter) of the alimentary canal, sub divided into three-parts Duodenum,
Jejunum & Ileum here. Complete digestion of food takes place followed by absorption of food. Absorption of food
is carried by finger like projection villi & micro villi present at the walls of small intestine. The absorbed nutrients
are passed into their nearby blood vessels for distribution and assimilation in the whole body.
Large intestine – It also comprises of three parts Caecum, Colon and Rectum. Here absorption of excess water
and left-over nutrients followed by elimination of solid waste.

Gland Involved in Digestion Process

Salivary gland:
There are three pairs of salivary glands – Parotid, Sub-lingual and Sub-mandibular gland. Their secretion saliva is
slightly acidic & contains enzyme Salivary Amylase / ptyalin & Lysozyme (antibacterial). Saliva is responsible for
degradation of carbohydrate.

Gastric Gland (Glands Of Stomach):

They are found at the walls of stomach and are made up of three types of cells
1. Chief Cells : Propepsin and proprenin
2. Oxyntic Cells : HCI
3. Coblet/Mucous Cells : Mucous (Alkaline in nature also called as Alkaline null cells)
The gastric juice contains two enzymes pepsinogen (propepsin) and prorennin, two enzymes(minute amount)
gastric lipase and gastric amylase along with mucous and HCI.

Pancreas :
It is found posterior to the stomach it is both endocrine and exocrime in nature. The endocrine part of pancreas
i.e. Islet of Langerhans contains three types of cells α,β,γ cells producing glucagan, insulin and somatastatin
respectively.
• Insulin : Lowers blood sugar level .
• Glucagon : increase blood sugar level .
• Somatastatin : controls insulin and glucagon.
Exocrine part of Pancreas produce Pancreatic juice that contains Pancraetic Amylase, Lipase & Protease.
Pancreas produces gastrin that helps in secretion of HCl.
Liver:
It is a largest gland of human body and situated in abdominal cavity.Its average weight 1.6 to 2 kg, it has
regeneration ability.Hepatic lobules are structures that are structural and functional unit containing hepatic cells.
Bile is secreted by hepatic cells which plays an important role in digestion.
Function
• Act as facts storage.
• Keeps the level of blood sugar constant, which inturn helps keeping osmotic balance of blood constant.
• Liver secretes heparin which prevent blood clotting inside human body.
• Liver synthesis Vitamin A from β-carotene and also helps in storage of Vitamin C and D.
• Liver forms bile pigments and urea. Ammonia produced from breakdown of protein is converted into urea
and removed through urine.
• It also regulates temperature of human body.
Bile
• Produced in liver, also known as gall. It consist of bile acids and salts, phospholipids, yellow pigment
bilirubin and billirubidin.
• It is slightly Alkaline in nature with pH 7.8.

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 CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

It is the system through which substance / nutrient /waste products made of or absorbed from one part of the
body is transferred/ carried to other part of the body.
In human body the circulatory system had develop into a closed & double circulatory system. The circulatory
system is further divided into two types: Blood circulatory system & Lymph circulatory system.
Organs of Blood Circulatory system
• Heart it is a muscular organ composed of cardiac muscles that are involuntary in nature & are
rhythmically contracting & relaxing. All around the heart there is a thin membrane called as pericardium
or pericardial membrane.
• Human Heart is 4 chambered & the upper two chambers are called as Auricles/Atrium and lower two
chambers are called as ventricles.
• Right side and left side of heart are separated by Septum
• The left part of heart deals with oxygenated blood while the right part deals with deoxygenated blood.
• The contraction of heart is called as systole and the relaxation is called as diastole.

Arteries – They are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart and usually contain oxygenated blood
except pulmonary artery. Artery carries blood from heart to various part of body.
Veins – These are blood vessels which carry blood towards the heart. They usually carry deoxygenated blood
except pulmonary veins.
Capillaries – These are finer blood vessels that are thin and narrower compared with veins and arteries. Arteries
sub divide into capillaries to supply oxygenated blood. Later on, these capillaries sub merge on combine of form
veins to carry forward CO2 rich blood.
Difference between Arteries & Veins

S. No. Artery Veins

1. They more away from the heart. Towards the heart.
2. Valves do not exist. Valves exist to prevent back how of blood.
3. Walls are thicker & muscular Walls are thinner & elastic in nature & wider.
4. The blood color is usually red Color is deep red or violet blue.

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5. Other than pulmonary artery all carry oxygenated Other than pulmonary vein all carry
or pure blood deoxygenated blood.

In human the process by circulation is double circulation i.e. the blood enters the heart twice in
one cardiac cycle. In one cardiac cycle, human heart pumps out 70 ml of blood.

Double circulation ensures complete segmentation of oxygenated & de-oxy blood necessary
for optimum energy production.

Lymphatic Circulatory System

The lymphatic system is a network of tissues and vessels that help to rid the body of toxins, waste and other
unwanted materials. The primary function of lymphatic system is to transport lymph a fluid containing WBC.

Lymph - It is a vascular fluid substance which contains Glucose, salt, water, amino acids & various lymphocytes (T
cells & B cells). Lymph lacks RBCs due to which it is either colorless or slightly yellowish in color.
Functions of Lymph –
• It brings tissue fluid in the main stream of blood circulation.
• It forms lymphocytes that help in destroying micro-organisms.
• It absorbs nutrients from the small intestine.
• It helps maintaining osmotic pressure around the tissues.
• Lymph helps in transfer of nutrients, oxygen from the blood cells to the cellular tissues & also helps in
transport of CO2 & other waste substance from cellular tissue to the blood cell.

Note: The flow of lymph takes place towards heart from cellular tissue although it runs in anti parallel direction of
blood circulatory system.
Diseases related to blood Circulation: -
(1) High Blood Pressure – Blood pressure is the measurement of haw much force is sued to pump blood through
arteries. HBP is also called hypertension with no symptoms. It can damage heart leading to heart
stroke or kidney disease hence also known as silent killer.
(2) Atherosclerosis – It is also known as hardening of arteries due to building of (Cholesterol, fat, calcium). This
can lead to heart attack or heart stroke.
(3) Heart Attack – When enough blood is unable to reach heart it leads to heart attack. This may occur due to
artery blockage.
(4) Heart Stroke – Strokes often occur when blood clot blocks artery in the brain thus reducing blood supply.
Accumulation of blood in brain is called hemorrhage.
(5) Hemophilia – It is also a genetic disorder where blood doesn’t clot in absence of clothing factor.
(6) Glaucoma – It damages optic nerves & is caused when excess fluid builds up in vessels around Cornea & eye. It
is also a side effect of serve diabetes.

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 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The process by which living cells or beings utilize food to get energy is called as respiration. It is an oxidation
reaction where complex organic substances are oxidized to procedure energy.
Mitochondria are the site of respiration & the energy released is stored in the form of ATP & is released as per
need.
In invertebrates such as sponge, coelenterates, flatworms etc. exchange of O2 and CO2 across their skin. In
vertebrates modified organs like gills act as respiratory organ in fish & in terrestrial animal lungs are used.
In humans the respiratory tract starts with nasal cavity followed by naso-pharynx which is a portion of pharynx.
Later on, it leads into trachea later on down south trachea divides into right & left bronchi which further divides
into bronchioles. Here irregular bag like structures called as Alveoli are present that help in exchange of gases.
Type of Respiration – The respiratory process is divided into two types –
(1) External Respiration – It is a process in which living beings exchange respiratory gases CO2 and O2 from the
surrounding. External respiration involves breathing. Breathing is the process atmospheric air
enters inside the lungs also known at inspiration & later pumping out of air out of lung called as
expiration.
(2) Internal Respiration – The gases exchange takes place between the blood & tissue fluid is called as internal
respiration. It occurs in mitochondria inside the cell hence also called as cellular respiration.
Depending on availability of O2 respiration is of two types –
(a)Aerobic Respiration – It happens in presence of O2. Glucose is converted into Pyruvic acid and further on
pyruvic acid is converted into CO2. In this process energy (ATP) is released & water molecules are formed
at the end of this process
Glycolysis O2
C6H12O6 Pyruvic acid 6CO2+ 6H2O + 38 ATP
(b)Anaerobic respiration – This happens in absence on deficient supply of O2. Pyruvic acid either gets converted
into ethyl alcohol or lactic acid. Ethyl alcohol is usually formed in micro-org. like yeast, bacteria
while lactic acid found in muscles as well as microbes.
Steps of Respiration –
Step 1: Breathing or pulmonary ventilation by which air is drawn in and CO2 rich alveolar air is left out.
Step 2: Diffusion of gases (O2 & CO2) across alveolar membrane.
Step 3: Transport of gases by blood.
Step 4: Diffusion of O2 and CO2 between blood and tissue.
Step 5: Utilization of O2 by cells & release of CO2.
Organs of Respiration –

(1) Larynx & Trachea – The part of respiratory tract which connect through trachea is called larynx. Its main
function is to produce voice & is also helpful in coughing, swallowing & in the safety of respiratory
tract.
Trachea: It is a hung inverted tree like structure in the chest cavity of human body. It acts as a passage for
air between the nasal cavity & bronchioles.
(2) Epiglottis – At the entrance of larynx there is a thin blade like structure called as epiglottis. It helps in
prevention of food stuffs from entering into the respiratory tract.

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(3) Lungs – In the chest cavity there exists a pair of cylindrical shape balloon like structure called as lungs
which are connected to the trachea the process of inspiration & expiration takes place inside the lungs.
Every lung has alveolar ducts that are filed with small blood cavity where the exchange of gases takes
place at cellular level lung is covered by pleural membrane.

Regulation of Respiration
Human body has the ability to maintain or regulate the respiratory process depending on demand of the
body. Specialized centre in medulla region of brain called as Respiratory Rhythm centre controls respiration.
Disorders of Respiratory System
Asthma – Difficulty in breathing leading to wheezing due to inflammation of bronchioles.
Emphysema – A chronic disorder in which alveolar walls are damaged leading to decrease in surface area for
respiration.
Occupation Respiratory Disorder – In some industries stone breaking, grinding, ash brick making etc. dust affects
over lings this can lead to fibrosis causing lung damages.
*Fibrosis is thickening & scarring of connective tissue or tissues around lungs.
Pneumonia: An infection of the alveoli, usually by bacteria.
Tuberculosis: A slowly progressive pneumonia caused by the bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Organisms constitute of various types of organs & organs system, further on organs are differentiated on the
basis whether they can secrete or not, e.g., Heart & Pancreas. If an organ is able to secrete secretion if is
considered as glands.
Further on glands can be of two types –
(a)Duct gland (Liver) (b) Ductless glands (Thyroid)
Similarly, on the basis of presence or absence of ducts and on the nature of their secretion’s, glands are of two
types exocrine & endocrine.
• Exocrine glands are duct glands that secrete and pour their secretions into the ducts that are carried away
from their paint of origin to a distance place to their point of action usually they separate enzymes.
*Enzymes are by nature proteins and are considered as chemical bio-catalyst that enhances the metabolic
reactions taking place inside the body e.g. – Amylase, lipase.
• Endocrine they are ductless glands that secrete hormones directly into the blood stream. Eg. Thyroid.
*Hormones are proteins by nature & are called as chemical messenger of the body. They are produced in
traced amount & enhance the process of contract & coordination in the body.
Characteristics of Hormones –
• They are specific chemical messenger.
• They are mainly secreted by endocrine glands.
• They are polled directly into the blood & carried away by blood circulation.
• They act on specific tissue or any targeted organ. E.g. Insulin and Thyroxin.

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Endocrine Gland Hormone(s) Secreted Function(s) of Hormones

(1) Hypothalamus Part of the Brain: The Control and Relay Centre of the Endocrine System.

(2) Pituitary Known as the "Master Gland", this part of the brain consists of three lobes called
"anterior", "interior" and "posterior".
Posterior • Oxytocin Stimulates utrine contraction and breast
contraction for milk release.
Posterior Anti-Diuretic Hormone (ADH), also Stimulates re-absorption of water from kidney
known as "vasopressin" tubules.

• Prolactin (PRL) • Production of breast milk (works in men

too).
• Growth Hormone (HGH) • Growth
• Hypo- Dwarfism
• Hyper- Gigantism
Thyroid Stimulating •
Hormone Stimulates the thyroid to release thyroxin.
(TSH)

• Adrenocorticotrophic • Stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce:

Hormone (ACTH) Corticosteroids:
o mineral corticoids
o glucocorticoids
o cortisol (natural anti-inflammatory)
• Luteinizing Hormone • Brings about ovulation and maintains the
(LH) corpus luteum.
• Follicle Stimulating Hormone • Stimulates growth / development of Graafin
(FSH) follicles ( a mature follicle in the ovary prior to
ovulation,) on approx. 28 day cycle.

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 • Gonadotrophins • Secondary sexual characteristics
• Interstitial Cell Stimulating • Works on the seminiferous tubules in the
Hormone (ICSH) testes – to produce sperm – which take
21 days to mature

Pineal Gland A pea-sized mass of nerve tissue attached by a stalk to the posterior wall of the brain
at the back of the skull. It functions as a gland, secreting the hormone melatonin -
which regulates the pituitary gland and is associated with the biological clock.
• Melatonin • A hormone produced by the pineal gland in
darkness but not in bright light.
• Melatonin receptors in the brain react to this
hormone and synchronize the body to the 24-hour
day/night rhythm, thus informing the brain when it
is day and when it is night.

Thyroid Gland Part of the thyroid / parathyroid gland, which is in the neck.
• Thyroxin • Concerned with the Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR
Hyper-Thyroidism = ‘over-active thyroid’ = Thyrotoxicosis
Symptoms: increase in BMR; increase in heart-rate; loss of
weight; hyper-activity; insomniac, may develop Goiter.
Hypo-Thyroidism
Symptoms; decrease in BMR; weight gain; lethargy; skin
becomes dry and puffy;
• Calcitonin • Uptake of calcium to bone.

Parathyroid Gland
• Parathormone • Associated with the growth of muscle and bone.
• Distribution of calcium and phosphate in the body.
Hyper- Causes transfer of calcium from the bones to the
blood; bones become fragile & easily broken; osteoporosis
Hypo- Lowers blood calcium levels, low calcium levels in
skeletal muscle (which may cause cramps).

Thymus The thymus gland is located organ in the root of the neck, above and in front of the
heart. The thymus (a gland associated with the immune system), is enclosed in a capsule
and divided internally by cross-walls into many lobules (full of T-lymphocytes). In
relation to body size the thymus is largest at birth. It doubles in size by puberty. In
infancy the thymus controls the development of lymphoid tissue and the immune
response to microbes and foreign proteins (accounting for allergic response,
autoimmunity, and the rejection of organ transplants).
• Thymosin • Activates the immune system by activating the T-Cells
(T-Killer Cells; T-Helper Cells; T-Memory Cells).
Pancreas The pancreas lies behind the stomach.
It is both exocrine (ducted) and endocrine (ductless).
The enzymes are:
• Pancreatic amylase (which breaks down polysaccharides, i.e. starch into sugar)
• Lipase (which breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol)
• Proteases (which breaks down protein (polypeptide) into di-peptides).
The islets of Langerhans are within the pancreas.
Islets of Langerhans Located within the pancreas. Contains groups of both Alpha- and Beta- cells.
Beta Cells • Insulin • Conversion of glucose to glycogen.
• Cellular up-take of Glucose.

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 • Conversion of excess glucose to fat.
Hypo- causes Diabetes Mellitus:
Symptoms: Blood glucose levels rise (hyperglycemia).
Glucose is excreted into the urine (glycosuria) - which
increases levels of urination, causing dehydration.
Alpha Cells • Glucagon • Conversion of glycogen to glucose.

Adrenal Glands
Adrenal Medulla • Adrenalin Prepares the body for "fright, fight or flight" and has many
effects:
• Action of heart increased.
• Rate and depth of breathing increased.
• Metabolic rate increased.
• Noradrenalin Similar effects to adrenalin:
• Constriction of small blood vessels leading to
increase in blood pressure.
• Increase in rate and depth of breathing.
Adrenal Cortex • Corticosteroids Glucocorticoids (e.g. cortisol, cortisone, corticosterone)
• Utilization of carbohydrate, fat and protein by the
body.
• Hypersecretion of cortisol results in Cushing’s
Syndrome.
Mineralocorticoids (e.g. aldosterone)
• Regulation of salt and water balance.
• Hypersecretion of Aldosterone decreases the
potassium in the body (affecting nerve impulse
transmission and leading to muscular paralysis).
Ovaries
• Oestrogen • Break-down of the uterine wall.
• Progesterone • Builds up and maintains the uterus wall for
embedding of fertilized egg.
• Associated with secondary sexual characteristics,
e.g. body hair, breast enlargement, changes in
physical body.
Testes
• Testosterone • Development and function of male sex organs.
• Secondary sexual characteristics. e.g. body hair,
muscle development, voice change.

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 NERVOUS SYSTEM / SENSORY SYSTEM

The organ system in organism that serves as co-ordinate & control centre for the body. Nervous system helps in
controlling all other organs system such as it works with endocrine system to communicate & integrate and
control the growth of the body.
The functions of various organs & system help the body to respond to external stimuli. External stimuli are
generated by the five sensory organs eye, ear, nose tongue, skin etc.
The human nervous system consists of brain, Spinal cord & nerves, while neuron is the basic unit of nervous
system.
The nervous system of human is such divided into three parts –
(a)Central Nervous System
(b)Peripheral Nervous System
(c)Autonomous Nervous System
Central Nervous system
The part of nervous system which controls entire human body as well as other nervous systems. It consists of
brain and spinal cord.
Brain
On an average it weights 1200-1400gm; it is the main controlling centre of entire human body. It is made up of
summation of nerve cells divided into grey & white matter. The brain is confined in a system of hollow bones
called cranium.
Human brain is sub divided into -
(1) Fore Brain – It contains olfactory lobes (sense of smell) & cerebrum (It helps in reception & transmission of
impulse)
(2) Mid Brain – Sense of light, sight, hearing.
(3) Hind Brain – It contains Cerebellum, Pons and Medulla.
*Pons: Relay signals from the forebrain to the cerebellum & deals with sleep, respiration, swallowing, bladder
control, hearing, equilibrium.
*Medulla Oblongata: Helps regulate breathing, heart and blood vessel function, digestion, sneezing, and
swallowing. This part of the brain is a center for respiration and circulation.
*Thalamus: It has functions such as relaying of sensory signals, including motor signals to the cerebral cortex, and
the regulation of consciousness, sleep, and alertness.
*Hypothalamus: Controls body temperature, hunger, important aspects of parenting and attachment behaviors,
thirst, fatigue, sleep, and circadian rhythms.

Spinal Cord – It is a cylindrical hollow structure that exists all along the vertebral column. It elongates down from
medulla oblongata.
Its main functions are –
(a)It control & accommodates the activity of reflex action.
(b)It carries forward the impulse signal from & to the brain.
Peripheral Nervous System
• PNS is made up of originating nerves of brain and spinal cord also called as Cranial or spinal nerve.
• It also includes sensory, motor nerves which help in transfer of information between sensory organs &
CNS.
• The PNS is considered as actor in the body that helps in movement central coordinate under the influence
of CNS.
Autonomous Nervous System It usually composed of nerves originating from brain that help in regulating the
function of internal organs in our body.
Neuron – It is the basic unit of nervous tissue. Nervous system consists of about 10 billion nerve cells which
communicate with each other through neurons each neuron consists of three parts.

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(a)Cyton – Central area
(b)Axon – Branching out of Cyton & are longer considering Cyton.
(c)Dendron – Small thread like structure usually branching out of Cyton.
Nerves – Nerves are thread like structures that emerge from brain and spinal card and branch out is almost all
parts of the body. The nervous are composed of Axon or nerve fiber bundled together.

Types of Nerves – There are three types of nerves –

(1) Sensory Nerve – It contains sensory fibers that bring impulse from the sense organs to brain and spinal card.
(2) Motor Nerve – The nerve contains motor fibers that carry impulse from brain and spinal card to various
organs.
(3) Mixed Nerves – These nerves contain both sensory and motor nerve fiber and perform both the functions ex.
Spinal card and nerves.
Reflex action – it is defined as unconscious and involuntary response of an effector’s organ to a stimulus. The
pathway through which messages are transported in reflex action is called as reflex path. The simplest types of
reflex action are knee jerk reaction, yawning, blinking of lets etc. Reflex action is a function of spinal cord.
Diseases:
• Alzheimer’s disease – Chronic neurodegenerative disease. It is a type of dementia that impacts memory
loss, thinking and seasonings.
• Bell’s Palsy – Sudden weakness or paralysis of facial muscles usually on one side of face.
• Cerebral Palsy – Damages nervous system and muscular control, affecting movement and co-ordination.
• Epilepsy – Neurological disorder characterized by epileptic seizures (vigorous shaking).
• Parkinson’s Disease - Disease caused due to loss of brain cells that products dopamine.
SENSORY ORGANS
Eye
Eye is located in sockets of skull called as orbit. Eye ball is spherical and its wall is composed of three layers.
• The outer layer is sclera. The anterior portion is called cornea. The middle layer is called as choroid, usually
bluish in colour and contains blood vessels.
• Eye contains a transparent, crystalline lens. In front of lens there is an aperture surrounded by iris called
pupil.
• The inner layer of eye is called as Retina.
• There are two types of photoreceptor cells found inside the eye-Rod cells and Cone cells.
• Cone cells are for light vision while Rod cells are concerned with twilight or dark.

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Ear – Ear can be divided into outer, middle and inner ear. Outer ear consists of Pinna and external auditory
meatus. The auditory canal leads inward towards the tympanic membrane (ear drum).
The middle ear contains three bone Malleus, Incus and Stapes. Thereafter a Eustachian tube is present in
middle ear that connects to the pharynx helping in equalizing pressure. The inner ear consists of two
parts: bony labyrinth and within it the membranous labyrinth. The membranous labyrinth is filled with
endo-lymph and the called portion of it is called cochlea.

SKELETAL SYSTEM

It is a frame of heard structure having rigid mechanical support which is made from bones of human body.
Depending on their type or location they are of two types-
(1) Exoskeleton – It is found on the external layer of the body. E.g. – scales of fishes, hard covering of
tortoise, shell of mollusks.
(2) Endoskeleton – Skeleton found inside the organism it has two basic components bone and cartilage.
(a) Bone – It is a solid hard connective tissue which is composed of fiber and matrix. Thicker and longer
bone have hollow cavity also known as marrow cavity.
(b) Cartilage – It is found by semi solid transparent and elastic substance basically the matrix of
glycoprotein. E.g. Pinna, Nose etc.

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32
Joints – The place where bones meet mutually each other in such a way that exist a smooth and easy movement
this junction is called as joint. There are three types of joint in human body.

(1) Perfect Joint

(2) Imperfect Joint
(3) Fixed Joint

(1) Perfect Joint – It is further sub divided into sub categories.

(a)Ball and Socket Joint – In this type of joint the end of a bone has a ball like structure and the other bone has a
curve cup like structure and both fit in each other. E.g. Joints of Humerous and Femur.
(b)Hinge Joint – The bones of this type of joint can be move or turn only in one direction. E.g. joints of elbow of
and knee etc.
(c)Pivot Joint – In such type of joint the rounded part of one and of bone fits into a ring of another bone. The
structure allows the notational movement around the rounded bone.
E.g. 1 & 2 vertebra of the neck that allows the head to move back & forth.
(d)Gliding Joint – In this type of joint two bones coverage over one another and glide over each other also known
as gliding joint. E.g. Joints of Radius and Ulna.
(e)Saddle Joint – In this type of joint one of the bones forms a saddle white the other bone fit onto it. These joints
provide more stability and flexibility, compared with hinge or gliding joint.
2.Imperfect Joints – In such type of joints cavities is ligaments do not exist inside the bones and at times loco
motional activities are found. Ex. Joint of pelvic bone of pelvic girdle.

3.Fixed Joint – In such types of joints bones are fixated on each other & no movement among them takes place.
Ex. Skull bone.

Diseases:
Osteoporosis: It is a disease in which your bones become weak and are more likely to break. There are no
symptoms until a bone breaks.

Paget’s Disease: It is a disorder that causes bones to grow too large and weaken.

Sprains and Strains: A sprain is an injury to a ligament (tissue that connects bones). A strain is an injury to a
muscle or tendon (cords of tissue connecting muscle to bone).

Spondylitis: It is one of the most common causes of back and neck pain and is essentially the result of an
inflammation of the vertebral joints.

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 EXCRETORY SYSTEM

It is a biological process through which substances (waste products) produced during metabolic process is
removed from the body. Wastes such as CO2 out of respiratory process, solid residual waste out of digestive
process, urea produce due to degradation of proteins etc are removed by excretory process.
Human excretory system mainly consists of urine system of our body centered around the pair of kidneys in
humans.

Kidney
• In human beings and various mammals the main excretory organ is kidney. It is bean shapes structure and
present in abdominal cavity.
• All around the kidney there exists a thin membrane called as peritoneum.
• The dimension of kidney are 10-12 cm long, 5-8 cm wide and 120-170 gm.
• Each kidney consist of filtering units (approximate 1.3 Lacs) called as nephron.
• Nephron is functional unit of kidney or excretory system and is the real controller of chemical
composition of blood.

Nephron
• In every nephron, a small conical shaped structure exists which is called as bowman’s capsules this
bowmen’s capsules is composed of a network of tubes as filtering part called as glomerulus.
• Glomerulus acts as a tri junction for circulatory system, excretory and nervous system.
• The toxic or waste substation of blood are removed by nephron and this removal is carried out in two
stages.

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Nephron
Filtration : the process of Filtration gets completed in glomerulus. Here the blood is filter at high pressure also
known as ultra Filtration.
Through ultra Filtration, Filtration of only selective substances (takes place water, glucose, minerals, salts etc) are
filtered where as blood cells and plasma are left out. This process of selective Filtration as known as dialysis.
Reabsorption : after Filtration blood passes through bowmen’s capsules where as the selective Filterate is
reabsorb by a net of micro cells present out side the nephron, this is called as reabsorption.
In this process excess water and some of the essential nutrients are reabsorbed into the body.
• Other then kidney, human excretory system also consist of urinary bladder where urine is collected and
from there it can be expelled out through urethra as when required.
• Other then urine system there are other excretory systems that help in excretion of residual substances
and the organs are lungs, skin, liver and intestine.

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
It is a process by which living beings produce their own kind. It is an integral feature of all living beings.
Reproduction is important for each species because this is the only way to continue lineage.
Apart from being important to particular species it is imp. to whole ecosystem as it facilitates evolution.

There are two types of Reproduction –

Asexual reproduction – In this type of reproduction only one parent is involved and no gametes are produces or
formed. It is mostly seen in micro-organisms like bacteria, fungi, algae and plants as well. It can be of following
types
(a) Binary Fission – In it mother cell divides into two daughter cells and each daughter cell begins its life like a new
individual. Most of the unicellular org. reproduce in this method. E.g., Amoeba and Bacteria.
(b) Budding – In this process the body gets elongated & part of it is produced in from of bud. The bud is attached
or grows on the body of parent cell also known as parent bud. The nucleus thin divides into two nucleus one of
which goes into each bud and later on bud grows into an individual org. and get separated from the parent bud to
lead an independent existence. E.g. Hydra and Yeast.
(c) Fragmentation – It is seen in spirogyra. The filaments of spirogyra get divided into many pieces and each
develops into a new individual.
(d) Regeneration – Simple org. that can regenerate from a part which gets accidently cutoff. Ex. Planaria.
(e)Vegetative Propagation – It is seen in higher plants vegetative part flowering plants reproduce a new
organism. E.g. Tuber, Money plant etc.

Sexual Reproduction – It involves two parents and gamete formation takes place. Gametes are specialized cells
which are formed after meiosis.
In the gametes the chromosome no. is halved and fused together during fertilization leading to diploid nature in
offspring. Hence this sort of reproduction is usually seen in diploid organism.

In sexual reproduction the offspring’s get a set of genes from two different individuals. This leads to subtle
variation through subsequent generations. These variations accumulate over generations and may finally give rise
to new species.

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 Human Reproductive System

• The human reproductive system being a sexual reproductive system, it is differentiated into male and
female reproductive system.
• Male reproductive system consists of scrotum, testis (primary sex organ), spermatic ducts, glands and
penis.
• Female reproductive system consists of ovary (Primary sex organs), mammary gland, fallopian tube
(oviduct) and uterus.
• Gametogenesis – It is the process by which gametes are produced in human reproductive system by
process of meiosis (For male’s spermatogenesis and for female oogenesis).
Puberty – In humans, the stage at which the primary sex organs are activated for the process of reproduction is
known as puberty it occurs at the age of 11-12 in females and 13-14 in male’s appearance of secondary sexual
character takes place.
Menstrual Cycle – It is a 28-day cycle that occurs in females. In this cycle the female body prepares for release of
ova & further on fertilization and later on pregnancy.
In this preparation under the influence of hormones, uterine wall thickens due to building up of tissue and blood
supply vessels in uterus. In failure of fertilization, the uterine walls are broken down along with the blood supply
vessels and later on again the rebuilding process of uterine wall start & this to and fro cycle continues until
successful fertilization.
Fertilization – Fusing of male and female gamete to form zygote.
Parturition – the separation of fully develop baby from the mother at the end of gestation period.

Sexual Diseases –
1. STDs – These are reproductive tract infections that are transmitted through sexual interaction. E.g.
• Syphilis: causes by growth of Treponema pallidum, symptoms: swollen joints.
• Gonorrhea: Causes by Neisseria (only in women), it causes pain and pus discharge in genitalia.
• Herpes: By Herpes Simplex virus. It causes ulcers at genitalia.

2. AIDS – Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome – transmitted disease transferred by body fluid like blood
or semen. It is causes by human immune deficiency virus (HIV). It damages immune system and causes
weight loss due to lowering of metabolism nausea, ulcers.

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 EVOLUTION

Evolution is the process by which lower life forms gradually modify (accumulated through successive
generation over 1000s of years) giving rise to higher life forms thereby generating diversity and organic process. It
is described as organic evolution which has descent modifications. Weinberg depicted evolution as change in the
gene pool of population.
Thus, evolution reflects the emergence, divergence and progress of life across several generations. With
regard to process of evolution, three evolutionary theories are predominant which are –
1. Lamarckism
2. Darwinism
3. Synthetic Theory
Lamarckism – It was propounded by J.B. Lamarck. The theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics (1801)
propounded his theory in the back of Philosophic Zoologique.
According to this theory he gave out four postulates.
a) Concepts of internal vital force – According to it, living beings have internal force of life which decides the
growth and also the limit.
b) Evolution is need based – Whenever there is need of new organs the brain directs the muscles of that part of
the body to develop particular type of organ.
c) Principle of Use and Disuse – The growth of any organs is directly proportional to its use.
d) Principle of inheritance of acquired characters – All changes that an organism acquires during his life is
transmitted to his next generation.
All the above-mentioned postulate does not hold ground when scientifically tested. In spite of this the laws of
Lamarckism have their own significance in evolution.

Darwinism – Propounded by Charles Darwin. Drawing on ideas of Thomas Robert Malthus’s essay on “An essay of
the principle of population”.
Darwin propounded first systematic and scientific theory of evolution also known as Darwinism or theory of
natural selection. Darwin’s theory is based on four observation and two inferences and they are as follows –

OBSERVATIONS
a) Living beings have enormous fertility because of which their population increases very fast but resources
required for this population grows gradually.
b) Owing to lack of food or other resources many of these off springs do not survive.
c) Members of the generation differ from each other and also from previous generations.
d) The advantageous variation gets transferred over generations followed by struggle for existence and
natural selection (traits are inherited from parents to offspring.)

Inferences –
• Variations are neither advantageous of disadvantages. It is the nature; it selects, larger the no. of
advantageous variation greater are the chances of survival during struggle.
• The acquiring of advantageous variation leads to evolution of new species.

Even though Darwin’s theory regarding evolution is not complete, it contains certain short comings such as it does
not explain the phenomenon of evolution at level of gene. In spite of this Darwin and Darwinism are legendry in
the field of evolution and act as reference point for every new concept and new evolutionary theory.

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Synthetic Theory/ Neo-Darwinism –
The overcome the short comings of earlier evolutionary theories few scientists such as T Dobzhansky, JBS
Haldane, RA fisher, GL Stebbins, Ernst Mayr and et al (1930-40s) gave a new theory.
This new theory was considered as Synthetic theory. According to it, there are 3 factors which bring variation, 2
factors which spread variation and 2 factors that restrict variation. All these factors work together in evolutionary
process are directed by a process of natural selection.
The factors are –
a) Gene Mutation – i.e. alteration in chemistry of genes.
b) Change in chromosome no.
c) Genetic recombination
d) Isolation – It restricts variation.
e) Migration – It spread the variation.
f) Hybridization – It brings heterozygosity and increase genetic variability.
g) Chance factor – All sudden changes in generations occur due to mutation and natural selection and latter on
they are adopted.
*Natural selection – It is the nature which ultimately selects the variation thus keeping destruction on spread of
variation.
Among all this factors recombination, variation mutation, heredity, natural selection & isolation has been the
major reasons for evolution of various specifics and their various traits.
Thus, synthetic theory almost completely explains the process of evolution using insight from biology,
biochemistry, genetics etc.

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 GENETICS

It is the study of genes, heredity and variation in living organism. Genetics deals with study of transmission of
characters from parents to offspring. It is study of molecular structure and function of genes. G.J. Mendel is
considered as the father of genetics.
Important Terminology –
1.Gene – It is a unit of heredity located in chromosomes which by itself or other genes determine the character of
organisms. The modern concept of gene is propounded by Seymour Benzer. According to him gene
has functional unit cistron, cistron can be over 100 -30000 base pairs of nucleotides. The unit of
mutation is muton and unit of recombination is recon.
2.Phenotype – The characteristic of an organism which is observable such as morphology, physiological
properties psychological characteristics etc. phenotype results in expression of character due to
incretion of genotype with environment.
3.Genotype: Genetic composition of an organism in which all genes are present in the body of an organism (both
dominant and recessive). The genotype determines the heredity potential and limitations of an
individual.
4.Alleles – The characteristic factors (genes) which are represented in diversified form butt they exhibit same
characteristic are called alleles. Alleles are one of the possible form of genes most gens have 2
alleles a dominant allele and a recessive allele.
5.Homozygous – It is a factor (gens or allele) that exhibit the same character specifically during cross breeding,
the homozygous alleles can be both dominant and recessive.
6.Heterozygous – Found in diploid org. the alleles of some trait are present and both are apposite or different to
each other, one is dominant and other is recessive.
7.Linkage – Concept was conceived by Thomas Hunt Morgan. He asserted that when two diff. characters tie up on
the same chromosome i.e. linkage gene sit together on a chromosome, making them likely to be inherited
together.
8.Chromosome – Chromosome is a single piece of DNA gens are segments of DNA arranged along a chromosome.
A single chromosome can have 100 or even 1000 of genes. The number of chromosomes is also the characteristic
feature of species that is fixed. Chromosomes are of two types –
(a)Autosomes – Paired somatic chromosomes which have no role in sexual determination and are found both in
male and female.
(b)Sex Chromosomes – Responsible for sex determination and is represented by X and Y chromosome.
Male Female
(X-Y) (X-X)

MENDEL’S THEORY / MENDELIAN GENETICS

Human knew from early 8000 to 1000 BCE that variation in genome was an aspect of genetic inheritance
through sexual reproduction. Later on, Gregor Mendel proposed laws of inheritance which were based on his
hybridization experiments on garden pea plants. He cross bred randomly seven pairs of characters and
differentiated them into dominance or recessive.
S. NO. Characters Dominant Recessive
1. Shape of seed Spherical / Round Wrinkled
2. Colour of seed Yellow Green
3. Stem height Tall Dwarf
4. Flower position Axial Terminal
5. Pod or fruit colour Green Yellow
6. Red or fruit shape Flatter / smooth Constructed / shrink
7. Flower colour Violet / blue White

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According to Mendel there are two factors to express the same inherent characteristics in every reproductive cell
and whenever these two factors are some it is called as homozygous and if opposite heterozygous.
For his studies Mendel studied one pair species of opposite characters and called them monohybrid and later on
two pair species of opposite characters called as dihybrid cross.

Monohybrid Cross – Mendel selected two plants a tall plant (TT) and a dwarf plant (tt). He used these plants in
the form of parental generation and through artificial pollination. These plants were cross and f1 generation (first)
was observed.

Dihybrid Cross – in this hybridization of two pairs of plant of diff. characters takes place. Mendel selected round /
yellow seed and green / wrinkled seed and crossed to obtain dihybrid cross.

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When plant of f1 generation (Rr Yy) where self pollinates four types of plant were obtained in f1 generation. On
this basis Mendel propounded his three laws which were derived from the monohybrid and dihybrid cross
experiment they are –

1. Law of Dominance (First Law):

The law of dominance states that when two alternative forms of a trait or character (genes) are
present in an organism, only one factor expresses itself in F1-progeny and is called dominant, while the other that
remains masked is called recessive.
This law is used to explain the expression of only one of the parental characters in a monohybrid cross in the F1 -
generation and the expression of both in the F2-generation. It also explains the proportion of 3:1 obtained in
theF2-generation.
2. Law of Segregation (Second Law):
This law states that the alleles do not show any blending and both the characters are recovered as
such in the F2-generation, though one of these is not seen in the F1 -generation.
Due to this, the gametes are pure for a character. The parents contain two alleles during gamete formation. The
factors or alleles of a pair segregate from each other such that a gamete receives only one of the two factors.
3. Law of Independent Assortment (Third Law):
This law states that when two pairs of traits are combined in a hybrid, segregation of one pair of
character is independent of the other pair of characters at the time of gamete formation.
It also gets randomly rearranged in the off springs producing both parental and new combinations of characters.
The law was proposed by Mendel, based on the results of dihybrid crosses, where inheritance of two traits were
considered simultaneously.

GENETIC DISEASES

• Hemophilia – it is a sex-linked recessive gene carrying defective synthesis of clotting factor.

• Sickle cell anemia – Recessive autosomic gene in homozygous condition result in abnormal hemoglobin
(mobility to carry CO2 and O2 in blood)
• Albinism – Lack of pigment in skin and iris of eyes are symptoms of albinism. In this disease the gene
coding for the pigments has mutated or has deformed.
• Edwards Syndrome – Trisoming of chromosome no. 18 leading mental retardation with several
congential (science birth malfunction)
• Down’s Syndrome – Caused due to trisoming of chromosome no. 21 leading to mental and physical
retardness along with round face and broad skull.
• Turner’s Syndrome – In it Y chromosomes gets absent leading to non development of secondary sexual
character.

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 DISEASES

Any condition which interferes with normal functions in of the body called as disease. It can also be defined as
disorder of physical, physiological, psychological, or sociological nature caused due to nutritional deficiency,
physiological change, pathogen etc.

Disease

Congenital Acquired

Communicable Non Communicable

↓
Degenerative/Deficiency/Allergy/Cancer/Infections

Congenital disease – The disease which is present from birth. They are caused by some genetic abnormality on
metabolic disorder or malfunctioning of an organ. Ex. Hole in heart of infants.
Acquired disease – The disease which may occur after birth during once lifetime. It is again of two types –
(1) Communicable disease – The disease which can be transmitted from an infected person to a healthy person.
E.g. Cold flu
(2) Non communicable – These diseases do not spread from an affected person to a healthy person by contact.
E.g. Jaundice, Diabetes
Difference between communicable & non communicable disease –

S. No. Communicable Non-Communicable

1. Caused by biological agents or pathogens such as Caused due to specific factors such as
virus, bacteria, protozoa’s etc. malfunctioning of vital organs, deficiency of
nutrients etc.
2. Spread from one person to another through Do not spread from one person to another by
contract, water, air, food etc. contact.
3. The concerns of society as these are related to The concern of individual only.
community heath.

Non communicable diseases are further classified into –

(1) Degenerative Disease – Caused by malfunction of some vital organ of the body. Eg. Heart failure.
(2) Deficiency Disease – Caused due to nutritional deficiency such as that of minerals and vitamins n diet. E.g. Fe –
Anemia and Beri Beri.
(3) Allergy – Caused due to hyper sensitivity of the body to certain foreign substances like pollen, dust etc.
(4) Cancer – Abnormal, uncontrolled and unwanted growth of cells. E.g. Lung cancer.
(5) Infections– Disease caused by pathogens or infections agents. E.g. – measles.

Modes of Spread of Communicable Diseases – Communicable disease spread from one infected person to a
healthy person directly without an intermediate agent. It can be transferred two method.
1.Direct Transmission – The pathogen of disease infects a healthy person directly without a agent it can be
further sub divided into –

42
 (a) Direct Contact – Diseases or pathogen spread between inflected and healthy person by direct
contact. Eg. Small pox and Syphilis.
(b)Droplet Infection – The infected person Thorold out tiny droplet of mucus by coughing, sneezing
or spiting. These droplets might contain in a healthy person. E.g. Common cold,
Pneumonia and T.B.
(c)By Contact with soil – Transmission of disease that are caused by soil organ bacteria, virus etc.
E.g. Tetanus.
(d)Animal Bite – Virus of Rabies are transmitted through the wound caused by Rabid animals
specially dogs. The virus is present in the saliva of Rabid animals.
2.Indirect Transmission – The pathogens of certain disease are transmitted through intermediate agents. It can
take place by various methods such as.
(a)By Vectors – Vector such as house flies, mosquito and cockroaches help in transmission of
various pathogens into the body of healthy person. E.g. Dengue, malaria.
(b)Air Borne – The pathogens many reach humans with air and dust. The epidemic typhus spreads
by inhalation of dry faces of infected flies.
(c)Object Borne – Many diseases are transmitted through use of contaminated article such as
utensil, door handle, surgical instrument etc.
(d)Water Borne – If potable water (drinking water) is contaminated with pathogens of disease such
as cholera, diarrhea, hepatitis, it reaches a healthy person by consuming this water.

COMMUNICABLE DISEASES IN INDIA:

1. Malaria: Malaria is a very common disease in developing countries. The word malaria is derived from the word
‘mal-aria meaning bad air. Ronald ross first discovered the transmission of malaria by mosquitoes, while he was
working in India (Secunderabad, AP) in 1897. Malaria is one of the most widespread diseases in the world. Malaria
kills more than one million children a year in the developing world, accounting for about half of malaria deaths
globally.

The risk of getting malaria extends to almost the entire population in India (almost 95 percent). The following
states that have the highest number of malaria cases are Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Karnataka,
Rajasthan, assam, Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh.

2. Typhoid: Typhoid fever is an acute, systemic infection presenting as fever with abdominal symp-toms, caused
by salmonella typhi and paratyphi. Before nineteenth century, typhus and typhoid fever were considered to be
the same. Enteric fever is an alternative name for typhoid. Salmonella typhi and paratyphi colonise only humans.
Salmonella paratyphi can also cause fever and abdominal symptoms. The disease caused by both these entities is
called enteric fever. The disease presents with a typical, continuous fever for about three to four weeks, relative
bradycardia with abdomi-nal pain (due to enlargement of lymph nodes in the abdomen), and constipation.

Geographical distribution worldwide, typhoid fever affects about six million people with more than 6, 00,000
deaths a year. Almost 80 percent of cases and deaths occur in Asia, and most others in Africa and Latin America.
Among Asian countries, India prob-ably has a large number of these cases.

Indian statistics typhoid fever is endemic in India. Health surveys conducted by the central ministry of health in
the community development areas indicated a morbidity rate varying from 102 to 2,219 per 1, 00,000 population
in different parts of the country. A limited study in an urban slum showed 1 percent of children up to 17 years of
age suf-fer from typhoid fever every year.

Carriers of typhoid fever typhoid infection is mainly acquired from persons who are carriers of the disease.

43
3. Hepatitis: Hepatitis is the inflammation of liver. It can be caused by viruses (five different viruses— termed a, b,
c, d and e cause viral hepatitis), bacterial infections, or continuous expo-sure to alcohol, drugs, or toxic chemicals,
such as those found in aerosol sprays and paint thinners, or as a result, of an auto-immune disorder.

Symptoms seen in hepatitis differ according to the cause and the overall health of the infected individual.
However, at times, the symptoms can be very mild. The com-monly seen clinical features are general weakness
and fatigue, loss of appetite, nausea, fever, abdominal pain and tenderness. The main feature is the presence of
jaundice (yel-lowing of skin and eyes that occurs when the liver fails to break-down excess yellow- coloured bile
pigments in the blood).

Depending on the progress and intensity, hepatitis can be categorized as acute or chronic. In acute hepatitis,
clinical features often subside without treatment within a few weeks or months. However, about 5 percent of the
cases go on to develop into chronic hepatitis, which may last for years. Chronic hepatitis slowly leads to
progressive liver damage and cirrhosis.

4. Jaundice: Jaundice, also known as icterus, is a condition, which is characterized by yellowish dis-colouration of
the skin and whites of eyes. It is a symptom or clinical sign, not a disease by itself. The yellow colouration is
caused by an excess amount of bile pigment known as bilirubin in the body. Normally, bilirubin is formed by the
breakdown of haemoglobin during the destruction of worn-out red blood cells.

5. Leptospirosis: Leptospirosis is a disease caused by a type of bacteria and is associated with animals. It is more
common in the tropical countries. The disease is also known as canefield fever; cani- cola fever, field-fever, mud
fever, seven-day fever and swineherd disease. Leptospirosis is caused by different strains of bacteria of the genus
leptospira. Of all the varieties that cause disease, leptospira icterohaemorrhagiae is the most serious type.

If not treated properly, it could lead to serious complications. Leptospirosis is a disease of animals that can spread
to humans. Rats are the most common carriers. Soil contaminated with urine of infected animals can also
transmit the disease to persons exposed to cattle urine, rat urine or to foetal fluids from cattle. Sewage workers,
agricultural workers, butchers, meat inspectors, workers in contact with contaminated waters and veterinarians
are generally at risk.

6. Diarrhoeal Diseases: The term gastroenteritis’ is most frequently used to describe acute diarrhoea. Diarrhoea is
defined as the passage of loose, liquid or watery stools. These liquid stools are usually passed more than three
times a day. The attack usually lasts for about 3 to 7 days, but may also last up to 10 to 14 days.

Diarrhoea is a major public health problem in developing countries. Diarrhoeal dis-eases cause a heavy economic
burden on health services. About 15 percent of all pediatric beds in india are occupied by admissions due to
gastroenteritis. In India, diarrhoeal dis-eases are a major public health problem among children under the age of 5
years. In health institutions, up to a third of total pediatric admissions are due to diarrhoeal diseases.

Diarrhoea related diseases are a significant cause of mortality in children less than five years of age. Incidence is
highest in the age group of 6 to 11 months. The National Diarrhoeal Disease Control Programme has made a
significant contribution in averting deaths among children less than five years of age.

7. Amoebiasis: Amoebiasis is an infection caused by a parasite ‘Entamoeba histolytica. The intestinal disease
varies from mild abdominal discomfort and diarrhoea to acute fulminating dys-entery. Extra intestinal amoebiasis
includes involvement of the liver (liver abseess), lungs, brain, spleen, skin, etc.

Amoebiasis is a common infection of the human gastroin-testinal tract. It has a worldwide distribution. It is a
major health problem in the whole of china south-east and west asia and latin america, especially mexico. It is

44
generally agreed that amoebiasis affects about 15 percent of the indian popula-tion. Amoebiasis has been
reported throughout india.

8. Cholera: Cholera is an acute diarrhoeal disease caused by V. Cholera. The majority of infections are mild or
symptomatic. Epidemics of cholera are characteristically abrupt and often create an acute public health problem.
They have a high potential to spread fast and cause deaths.

9. Brucellosis: Brucellosis is one of the major bacterial zoonoses, and in humans is also known as undulent fever,
malta fever or mediterranean fever. It is occasionally transmitted to humans by direct or indirect contact with
infected animals.
The disease may last for several days, months or occasionally, even years. Brucellosis is both a severe human
disease and a disease of animals with serious economic consequences. Brucellosis is a recognized pub-lic health
hazard that is found the world over. Animal brucellosis has been reported from practically every state in India.
10. Hookworm infection: Hookworm infection is defined as: ‘any infection caused by ancylostoma or necator’.
They may occur as single or mixed infections in the same person through various fac-tors, which have to be
prevented. Hookworm infection is widely prevalent in india.

Necator americanus is predomi-nant in south india, and ancylostoms duodenal in north india. Recently, another
spe-cies, a. Ceylanicum has been reported from a village near calcutta. The heavily infected areas are found in
assam (tea gardens). West bengal, bihar, orissa, andhra pradesh, tamil nadu, kerala and maharashtra. More than
200 million people are estimated to be infected in india. It is believed that 60 to 80 percent of the population of
certain areas of west bengal, uttar pradesh, bihar, orissa, punjab, and the eastern coast of tamil nadu and andhra
pradesh are infected with hookworms.

11. Influenza: Influenza is an acute respiratory tract infection caused by influenza virus of which there are three
types—a, b and c. All known pandemics were caused by influenza a strains, due to various factors. Influenza is
found all over the world. The first pandemic during the present century occurred in 1918-19, which affected an
esti-mated 500 million people and killed more than 20 million. In India alone, over six mil-lion people died during
this pandemic. This pandemic was caused by what is now known as the Swine Influenza Virus.

12. Filariasis: It is caused by a parasite, which belongs to the nematode family filariasis. According to who reports,
an estimated 751 million people are at ‘risk’ for infection, and 120 million have actually been infected. The public
health problem of lymphatic filariasis is greatest in China, India and Indonesia. These three countries account for
about two-thirds of the estimated world total of persons infected.

Filariasis is a major public health problem in India. There are an estimated six million attacks of acute filarial
disease per year, and at least 45 million persons currently have one or more chronic filarial lesions. Heavily
infected areas are found in Uttar pradesh, bihar, andhra pradesh, orissa, tamil nadu, kerala and gujarat.

The filarial organism is transmitted when the mosquito bites a person. The parasite is deposited near the site of
puncture. It passes through the punctured skin or may penetrate the skin on its own and finally reach the
lymphatic system.

13. Tuberculosis: Tuberculosis remains a worldwide public health problem, particularly in the third world
countries. Tuberculosis is India’s biggest public health problem. An estimated that 5, 00,000 deaths annually are
reported due to this disease, while a similar number of persons get cured.

The population in the third world countries like India is exposed to tuberculo-sis. The disease, however, does not
develop in everyone who is exposed. Poor nutrition, overcrowding, low socio-economic status, are more likely to
develop the disease.

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 IMMUNITY
Immunity is refered to the resistances of an individual towards injury caused by microbes and their product this
overall ability of the host to fight the disease-causing organism conferred by the immunity system.
Immunity is of two types –
(1) Innate Immunity – It is a non specific type of defence that is present since birth in form of physical barrier
(skin and mucus membrane), physiological barium (acid of saliva and stomach), cellular barrier
(WBCs) and Genetic Barrier.
(2) Acquired Immunity – Immunity arising due to bodig’s ability to recognize and defend itself against pathogen
and their product. It develops during the lifetime of an organism and after the exposure to antigen.
It is further of two types
(a)Active Immunity – It is the resistances develop by an individual as a result of antigen stimulus.
(b)Passive Immunity – Immunity which results from introduction of antibodies from another
person or animal.

DEFINITIONS

Vaccination – The principle of vaccination or immunization is based on the property of memory of the immune
system. Vaccination is injection of a killed micro or weakened microbe into the host in order to stimulate the
immune system against the specific microbe thereby preventing disease.

Vaccine – A vaccine is after made from weakened or killed microbes, its toxins or it’s surface proteins that
resemble a disease-causing pathogen leading to stimulation of our immune response.

DNA Vaccine – Vaccines that after use naked DNA and DNA not associated with a cell or a virus with instructions
for making protective antigens or antibodies when injected, the DNA is taken in by other cells which then produce
antibodies.

Infection – The invasion and multiplication of microorganism such as bacteria, virus and parasites that are
normally not present within the body.

Aids – (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) – It means deficiency of immune system, acquired during the
lifetime of an individual indicating that it is not a congenital disease. Syndrome means a group of symptoms.
AIDS is caused by HIV a member of retro virus family which has RNA genome.

HIV infection is transmitted by following methods –

(1) Sexual contact with infected person.
(2) By transfusion of contaminated blood and blood products.
(3) By sharing infected needles as in vase of intravenous drug abusers.
(4) From infected mother to her child throw placenta.
A widely used diagnosis test for AIDS is Enzyme Linked Immuno-Sorbent Assay (ELISA Test)

Treatment – Treatment of AIDS is done with Anti Retro viral drugs which is partially effective it can only prolong
the life of the patient but cannot prevent death which is inevitable.
As AIDS has no cure, prevention the better option and it has been rightly say Don’t die of ignorance.
In India National AIDS Control Org. (NACO) is work-in toward spread of knowledge awareness regarding
prevention and control.

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 CANCER
One of the most dreaded disease of human beings. It out body cell differentiation is highly regulated and
controlled but when these control mechanism fails these cells grow uncontrollably and are called as cancer cells
and the condition cancer.
Cancer cells just continue to divide giving rise to mass of cells known as tumors.

Tumours are of two types –

(1) Benign
(2) Malignant
Benign Tumour – They remain confined to there original location and do not sprerad to other parts of the body
causing little damage.
Malignant tumour - They are mass of proliferating cells also called as Neoplastic or Tumour cells. They grow
rapidly, invading and damaging nearby normal tissue. As they grow and divide, they also starve nearby healthy
cells. Cell detaching themselves from tumour sites and traveling to distant body parts through blood and thereby
staring a new tumour is a properly known as metastasis usually seen in malignant tumour.
Causes of Cancer –
(1) Radiations like x-ray, ganma rays and u.v. rays may cause DNA damage leading to transformation in genome.
(2) Chemical Carcinogens like alkaloids in tobacco, ETBR (Ethidium Di Bromide Are)
(3) Cancer causing viruses called as oncogenic virus.
(4) Several genes (Oncogenes) are mutated or activated under various conditions leading to formation of cancer
cells.
(5) Various environment and nutritional factor also play a role in increase of oncogenic activity of the cells.
*Carcinogen – Carcinogens are agent that have the ability to convert normal cells into cancer cells, they can be of
physical, chemical or of biological nature.
*Oncogenes – Mutated genes that have cancerous properties that give rise to cancer cells.
Treatments – Tumours are cancer cells are treated with help of surgery, radio therapy and chemotherapy. In
radio therapy cancerous tumuous irradiated lithally to kill tumour cells. While in chemotherapy various
chemotheprapeutic drugs are use to kill cancerous cells but majority of them have severe side effects like hairloss,
anemia etc.
Drug and Alcohol Abuse
The drug which are commonly abused are opioid, cannabinoids and coca alkaloids usually they are obtained from
flowering plants. Drugs affects the receptor in our central nervous system and gastro intestinal tract.
(1) Heroin – Commonly known as smack extracted from poppy plant. It is a depressant slows down body
functions.
(2) Cannabinoids – Obtained from inflorescences of plant Cannabis sativa. It produces marijuana, hashish, charas,
Ganja.
(3) Coca Alkaloids or cocaine – Extracted from coca plant (Erythroxylem coca). It is commonly called as coke or
crack. Excessive dosage causes hallucinations.
(4) Other plants with hallucinogenic property are Atropa belladona and Dhatura.
Drug Abuse – When drugs such as sedatives, painkillers or hallucinogens are taken for a purpose other than
medicinal use or in amounts or frequency that impairs one’s physical, physiological, physiological it is called drug
abuse.

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 BIOLOGY OF PLANTS

Plant Parts

Roots:Roots act like straws absorbing water and minerals from the soil. Tiny root hairs stick out of the root,
helping in the absorption. Roots help to anchor the plant in the soil so it does not fall over. Roots also store extra
food for future use.

Stems:Stems do many things. They support the plant. They act like the plant's plumbing system, conducting water
and nutrients from the roots and food in the form of glucose from the leaves to other plant parts. Stems can be
herbaceous like the bendable stem of a daisy or woody like the trunk of an oak tree.

Leaves:Most plants' food is made in their leaves. Leaves are designed to capture sunlight which the plant uses to
make food through a process called photosynthesis.

Flowers:Flowers are the reproductive part of most plants. Flowers contain pollen and tiny eggs called ovules.
After pollination of the flower and fertilization of the ovule, the ovule develops into a fruit.

Fruit:Fruit provides a covering for seeds. Fruit can be fleshy like an apple or hard like a nut.

Seeds:Seeds contain new plants. Seeds form in fruit.

Plants help the environment (and us!) in many different ways:

• Plants make food
• Plants make oxygen
• Plants provide habitats for animals

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 • Plants help make and preserve soil
• Plants provide useful products for people
Plant Hormones

Plant Processes

Diffusion:

Movement of molecules from high concentration to low concentrationwithout semi-permeable membrane.

Diffusion depends upon: Concentration gradient, Permeability of themembrane, Temperature, Pressure and Size
of the substance.

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Osmosis:

Water diffuses from region of its higher concentration to its lower concentration through semi-permeable
membrane. Direction and rate of osmosis depends upon pressure gradient and concentration gradient.

Osmotic pressure − External pressure applied to prevent the diffusion ofwater.

Transpiration:

Transpiration is a process of loss of water in the form of water vapours from the surface of leaves.Transpiration
accounts for loss of 99% of water taken by the plant. Loss is mainly through stomata. It occurs manly through
openings called stomata. Transpiration provides the transpirational pull which is responsible for the upward
movement of waterin tall plants.

Stomata:
o Open in the day and close during the night
o Also contribute in the exchange of O2 and CO2
o Opening and closing of stomata is influenced by the turgidity of the guard cells.
Pollination

Pollination is the transfer of pollen from a stamen to a pistil. Pollination starts the production of seeds.

Flowering plants have several different parts that are important in pollination. Flowers have male parts called
stamens that produce a sticky powder called pollen. Flowers also have a female part called the pistil. The top of
the pistil is called the stigma, and is often sticky. Seeds are made at the base of the pistil, in the ovule.

To be pollinated, pollen must be moved from a stamen to the stigma. When pollen from a plant's stamen is
transferred to that same plant's stigma, it is called self-pollination. When pollen from a plant's stamen is
transferred to a different plant's stigma, it is called cross-pollination. Cross-pollination produces stronger plants.
The plants must be of the same species.

Pollination occurs in several ways. Usually plants rely on animals or the wind to pollinate them.When animals
such as bees, butterflies, moths, flies, and hummingbirds pollinate plants, it's accidental. They are not trying to
pollinate the plant. Usually they are at the plant to get food, the sticky pollen or sweet nectar made at the base of
the petals. When feeding, the animals accidentally rub against the stamens and get pollen stuck all over
themselves. When they move to another flower to feed, some of the pollen can rub off onto this new plant's
stigma.

Hydroponics:

It was given by Julius Von Sachs. Hydroponic is growing of plants in a definednutrient solution, in the absence of
soil. It helps us to study the effect of adding, removing or varying the concentration of any particular mineral
element.

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 ORGANIC FARMING

Organic farming can be defined as an agricultural process that uses biological fertilizers and pest control
acquired from animal or plant waste. It largely excludes the use of synthetic inputs (such as fertilizers,
pesticides, hormones, feed additives etc.) and rely upon crop rotation, crop residues, animal manures, off-
farm organic waste, etc.
Organic farming in India has been followed since ancient times. It primarily aims at cultivating crops in such a
way, as to keep the soil alive and in good health by use of organic wastes (crop, animal and farm wastes,
aquatic wastes) and other biological materials along with beneficial microbes (biofertilizers) to release
nutrients to crops for increased sustainable production in an eco-friendly and pollution-free environment.
Types of Organic Farming
Organic Farming is of two types:

• Integrated Organic Farming : Integrated organic farming includes the integration of pest management and
nutrients management to achieve ecological requirements and economic demands.

• Pure organic farming : Pure organic farming means avoiding all unnatural chemicals. In this process of
farming, all the fertilizer and pesticide are obtained from natural sources such as bone meal or blood meal.

Organic Farming Techniques

• Crop Rotation: It is the technique to grow various kind of crops in the same area, according to the different
seasons, in a sequential manner.
• Green Manure: It refers to the dying plants that are uprooted and turned into the soil to make them act as
a nutrient for the soil to increase its quality.
• Biological Pest Control: In this method, living organisms are used to control pests with or without the use
of chemicals.
• Compost: It is a recycled organic matter, highly rich in nutrients used as a fertilizer in the agricultural farms.
• Soil Management: Soil management is the soul of organic farming. After cultivation, soil loses most of its
nutrients and its fertility goes down. The process of recharging the soil with all the necessary nutrients is
called soil management. For this purpose, animal waste is increasingly used to recharge the soil with the
necessary nutrients. The bacteria present in animal waste make soil fertile once again.
• Management of Weeds: Organic farming focuses on removing the weeds from the soil during the crop
production. To get rid of weeds the farmers follow Mulching and Cutting or Mowing(Mulching is a process in
which the farmers use plant residue or plastic films on the surface of the soil which blocks the growth of the
weed while cutting or mowing helps in removal of the growth of the weeds in the farms).

Advantages of Organic Farming

• Economical: In organic farming no expensive fertilizers, pesticides, HYV seeds are required for the
plantation of crops. Therefore, no extra expense.
• Good return on Investment: With the usage of cheaper and local inputs, a farmer can make a good return
on investment.
• High Demand: There is a huge demand for the organic product in India and across the globe, generating
more income through export.

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• Nutritional: As compared to chemical and fertilizer utilized products, organic products are more
nutritional, tasty, and good for health.
• Environment-Friendly: The farming of organic product is free of chemical and fertilizers, so it doesn’t harm
the environment.

Disadvantages/ Challenges/ Limitations of Organic Farming in India:

• Incompetent: The major issue of organic farming is the lack of Inadequate infrastructure and marketing of
the product is not properly streamlined.
• Less production: The organic farming products are lesser in the initial years as compared to the chemical
product. So, the farmers find it difficult to accommodate large scale production.
• Shorter shelf-life: Organic products have shorter shelf life than the chemical product.
• Limited production: Off-season crops are limited and have fewer choices option in organic farming.
• Organic manure is not abundantly available and on plant nutrient basis it may be more expensive than
chemical fertilizers if organic inputs are purchased.
• The guidelines for organic production, processing, transportation and certification etc are beyond the
understanding of ordinary Indian farmer.
Facts:
• Sikkim becomes the first fully organic state of India, the state also known as the Land of Flower.Over the
years around 75000 hectares of land in the state has been converted into certified organic farms. Following
the guidelines as prescribed by National Programme for Organic Production. Within 1.24 million tonnes of
organic production in the country around 80000 million is supplied by Sikkim alone. With this, Sikkim now
joins hands with the organic states of the foreign countries like California, Wisconsin among others.

• Uttaranchal is the first state to establish organic commodities board and created organic export zones by
establishing organic bio-villages.

• “MP Organic” is a brand created by Government of Madhya Pradesh for the promotion of organic farming
among the farmers and providing organic seeds & food grains to the farmers and people at large. For this
purpose, “Madhya Pradesh Rajya Beej Evam Farm Vikas Nigam (MP Beej Nigam)” is working as a Nodal
agency for the production, distribution and extension of organic seeds and food grains. Being a nodal agency
of the brand “MP Organic”, MP Beej Nigam has started organic cultivation at two of its farms i.e. Burhanpur
& Khamaria (Jabalpur) for which organic certifications have also been received. Other 8 farms namely
Dindori, Delabadi (Chhindwara), Chandrakesar (Dewas), Gadhi (Balaghat), Bhoma Katiyar (Seoni), Mahua
Kheda (Gwalior), Jobat (Jhabua), Budhhagaon (Betul) are also in the process of getting organic certification
and will provide organic seeds and food grains shortly.

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 HEALTH & HYGIENE

Health is defined as, “health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being”. A healthy person is one
whose mind and body are completely fit. Good health involves proper functioning of all body organs. Only if you
are in good health you can be of help to others and the community.

According to WHO, health is “a complete state of physical, mental and social well-being, and not merely the
absence of disease or infirmity.” WHO declared April 7th as World Health Day.

To keep ourselves free from diseases and to have good health, we should be careful about hygiene. The various
practices that help in maintaining good health are called hygiene. The word hygiene comes from a Greek word
hygiea that means ‘Goddess for Health’ and deals with personal and community health. Thus, health and hygiene
go hand in hand or they are interrelated. Proper nutrition, physical exercise, rest and sleep, cleanliness, and
medical care are essential parts of maintaining good health. Health and hygiene are two correlated terms.

PERSONAL HEALTH

Personal Health is the ability to take charge of your health by making conscious decisions to be healthy. It not only
refers to the physical well-being of an individual but it also comprises the wellness of emotional, intellect, social,
economic, spiritual and other areas of life.
Some important aspects of good personal health are as follows:
Balanced diet: It includes the correct proportion of carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins, minerals and roughage in
your diet.
Personal hygiene: These activities are:
• Regular toilet habits: Regular bowel movements keep us free of body wastes generated inside the body.
• Washing hands before eating: Having food with dirty hands may make us sick because the dirt in our hand might
carry certain disease-causing germs.
• Bathing regularly and wearing clean clothes.
• Cleaning the teeth.
• Washing hair, cleaning eyes, ears and nails. Nails should be clipped regularly; nail biting is unhygienic and must
be avoided.
• Domestic hygiene: House should be kept clean and free from dirt, flies and germs.
• Clean food and water:Fruits and vegetables should be washed in clean water to make them free from
germs and pesticides (chemicals sprayed on plants to keep them insect free) before consumption and
cooking.
• Water used for drinking, cooking, bathing and washing utensils should be from a clean source.
• Cooking with care: Food should be prepared in a clean kitchen and in a clean manner.
• Abstaining from habit-forming substances: To keep healthy, one should avoid smoking, chewing of betel
nut, gutka and tobacco, and drinking alcohol. Intake of such habit-forming substances may lead to health
problems such as liver damage, kidney failure and heart failure.
• Exercise: Regular walking and physical exercises have a good effect on health.
• Regular sleep and relaxation: These also play an important part in maintaining sound mental health. They
also help in the repair of body tissues.

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COMMUNITY HEALTH

Community health is a field of public health that focuses on studying, protecting, or improving health within a
community. It does not focus on a group of people with the same shared characteristics, like age or diagnosis, but
on all people within a geographical location or involved in specific activity.
“Activities, undertaken at the Government or local organisation level to maintain health of the people (for
controlling diseases) are known as community health.”
Local or government organisations may take steps to control spreading of a disease, by creating awareness and
ensuring adequate supplies of medicines Such awareness is regularly created through nationwide campaigns
against the spread of diseases such as malaria, dengue, AIDS, polio, leprosy, and Hepatitis B.
There are several organisations working towards good community health. Some of these are listed below.
•Government hospitals, and dispensaries
•The National Malaria Eradication (removal) Programme
•The Tuberculosis (T. B.) Eradication Programme
•National Immunization Programme
•National Pulse Polio Programme
Some of the important tasks, which the community health centres undertake are:
•To maintain proper cleanliness by disposing off the sewage from colonies.
•To provide safe and germ-free drinking water.
•To run various immunization (vaccination against various diseases) programs and other health awareness
programmes wherever there is danger of spreading of a disease.
•To provide health education.
•To spray insecticides to kill harmful insects.

ENVIRONMENTAL HYGIENE

Environmental hygiene includes environmental sanitation or keeping the surroundings clean. To have a healthy
living one must live in clean surroundings. Unclean surroundings may become breeding ground for flies and
germs, thus, leading to spread of diseases.
To keep the environment healthy, we should be careful about the disposal of the garbage. Some of the practices
for disposing the garbage are:
• Keeping the house clean: The house must be cleaned every day.
• Throwing garbage in dustbins: Do not throw your household garbage on the roadside. This makes street
dirty and allows flies, mosquitoes and other animals to breed. Garbage should be thrown inside the
dustbins. The bins should also be cleaned after emptying the garbage.
• Keeping dustbins covered: To prevent entry of insects and other animals inside the house dustbins should
be kept covered.

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 NATIONAL VACCINATION/ IMMUNIZATION PROGRAMME

Smallpox eradication left a legacy of improved health system, trained vaccinator, cold chain
equipment and system and a network for surveillance of vaccine preventable diseases (The world was declared
free from smallpox on May 8, 1980 by the World Health Assembly). Experts globally agreed to utilize this
opportunity of trained workforce for better health and reduce child morbidities and mortality from other vaccine
preventable diseases. The World Health Organization launched Expanded Programme on Immunization (EPI) in
1974.
As soon as India was declared smallpox free in 1977, the country decided to launch National
Immunization programme called Expanded Programme of Immunization (EPI) in 1978 with the introduction BCG,
OPV, DPT and typhoid-paratyphoid vaccines. The target in EPI was at least 80 per cent coverage in infancy, the
vaccination was offered through major hospitals and largely restricted to the urban areas and thus
understandably, the coverage remained low.

UNIVERSAL IMMUNIZATION PROGRAMME (UIP)

In November 19, 1985, the Expanded Programme of Immunization (EPI) was modified as ‘Universal Immunization
Programme’(UIP) to be implemented in phased manner to cover all districts in the country by 1989-90 with the
one of largest health programme in the world.
Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India provides several vaccines to infants, children and
pregnant women through the Universal Immunisation Programme.
The objectives and major focus in UIP were:
•Rapidly increasing immunization coverage and reduction of mortality and morbidity due to vaccine preventable
diseases (vpds),
•Improve the quality of service,
•Establish a reliable cold chain system till health facility level,
•Phased implementation - all districts to be covered by 1989-1990,
•Introduce a district-wise system for monitoring and evaluation, and
•Achieve self-sufficiency in vaccine production and manufacturing of cold chain equipment.

VACCINES PROVIDED UNDER UIP (Source: National Health Portal)

•BCG: BCG stands for Bacillus Calmette-Guerin vaccine. It is given to infants to protect them from tubercular
meningitis and disseminated TB.BCG vaccine is given at birth or as early as possible till 1year of birth.
•OPV: OPV stands for Oral Polio Vaccine. It protects children from poliomylitis. OPV is given at birth called zero
dose and three doses are given at 6, 10 and 14 weeks. OPV is given orally in the form of two drops.
•Hepatitis B vaccine: Hepatitis B vaccine protects from Hepatitis B virus infection. Hepatitis B vaccine is given at
birth or as early as possible within 24 hours. Subsequently 3 doses are given at 6, 10 and 14 weeks in combination
with DPT and Hib in the form of pentavalent vaccine.

•Pentavalent Vaccine
Pentavalent vaccine is a combined vaccine to protect children from five diseases Diptheria, Tetanus, Pertusis,
Haemophilis influenza type b infection and Hepatitis B. Three doses are given at 6, 10 and 14 weeks of age (can be
given till one year of age).

•Rotavirus Vaccine: RVV stands for Rotavirus vaccine. It gives protection to infants and children against rotavirus
diarrhea. It is given in select states. Three doses of vaccine are given at 6, 10, 14 weeks of age.

55
•PCV: PCV stands for Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine. It protects infants and young children against disease
caused by the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae. It is given in select states. The vaccine is given as two
primary doses at 6 & 14 weeks of age followed by a booster dose at 9 months of age.

•fIPV: fIPV stands for Fractional Inactivated Poliomylitis Vaccine. It is used to boost the protection against
poliomylitis. Two fractional doses of IVP are given intradermally at 6 and 14 weeks of age.

•Measles/ MR vaccine: Measles vaccine is used to protect children from measles. In few states Measles and
Rubella, a combined vaccine is given to protect from Measles and Rubella infection.

•JE vaccine: JE stands for Japanese encephalitis vaccine. It gives protection against Japanese Encephalitis disease.
JE vaccine is given in select districts endemic for JE. JE vaccine is given in two doses first dose is given at 9
completed months-12 months of age and second dose at 16-24 months of age.

•DPT booster: DPT is a combined vaccine; it protects children from Diphtheria, Tetanus and Pertussis. DPT vaccine
is given at 16-24 months of age is called as DPT first booster and DPT 2nd booster .

•TT: Tetanus toxoid vaccine is used to provide protection against tetanus. Tetanus toxoid vaccine is given at 10
years and 15 years of age when previous injections of pentavalent vaccine and DPT vaccine are given at scheduled
age. In Pregnant women-TT-1 is given early in pregnancy; and TT-2 is given 4 weeks after TT-1.

MISSION INDHRADHANUSH

Mission Indradhanush was launched by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of
India on December 25, 2014. Mission Indradhanush aims to cover all those children by 2020 who are either
unvaccinated, or are partially vaccinated against vaccine preventable diseases It targets children under 2 years of
age and pregnant women for immunization.
It provides vaccination against 12 Vaccine-Preventable Diseases (VPD) i.e. diphtheria, Whooping
cough, tetanus, polio, tuberculosis, hepatitis B, meningitis and pneumonia, Hemophilus influenza type B
infections, Japanese encephalitis (JE), rotavirus vaccine, pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV) and measles-
rubella (MR).
However, Vaccination against Japanese Encephalitis and Haemophilus influenzae type B is being provided in
selected districts of the country.

STRATEGY FOR MISSION INDRADHANUSH

Mission Indradhanush strategy will include four basic elements-

•Meticulous planning of campaigns/sessions at all levels: Ensure in each district availability of sufficient
vaccinators and all vaccines during routine immunization sessions & develop special plans to reach the unreached
children in more than 400,000 high risk settlements such as urban slums, construction sites, brick kilns, nomadic
sites and hard-to-reach areas.
•Effective communication and social mobilization efforts: Generate awareness and demand for immunization
services through need-based communication strategies and social mobilization activities.
•Intensive training of the health officials and frontline workers: Build the capacity of health officials and workers
in routine immunization activities for quality immunization services.
•Establish accountability framework through task forces: Enhance involvement and accountability/ownership of
the district administrative and health machinery by strengthening the district task forces for immunization in all
districts of India.

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The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare will establish collaboration with other Ministries, ongoing programmes
and international partners to promote a coordinated and synergistic approach to improve routine immunization
coverage in the country.

INTENSIFIED MISSION INDRADHANUSH (IMI)

The Intensified Mission Indradhanush (IMI) was launched by the Government of India in 2017 to reach each and
every child under two years of age and all those pregnant women who have been left uncovered under the
routine immunisation programme.
Under IMI, greater focus has been given on urban areas which was one of the gaps of Mission Indradhanush. The
target under IMI was to increase the full immunization coverage to 90% by December 2018. However, only 16
districts in the country have achieved 90% coverage so far.
The Intensified Mission Indradhanush 2.0 (started in 2019) will target the districts which have immunisation
coverage of 70% or below.

Note: “National Immunisation Day”

On March 16th every year, India observes National Vaccination day, also known as Immunization day. It was on
this day in 1995 that the first dose of Oral Polio vaccine was given in India.
The initiative to eradicate polio from the country came in the form of the Pulse Polio Campaign launched by the
government.Under this extensive drive, 2 drops of Oral Polio Vaccine was given to all children younger than 5
years of age. It was due to aggressive vaccination campaign against Polio that India was declared free of the
disease in March 2014.
Another major milestone is the elimination of Maternal and Neonatal Tetanus in 2015.

NATIONAL HEALTH POLICY 2002

National Health Policy was last formulated in 1983, and since then there have been marked
changes in the determinant factors relating to the health sector. Some of the policy initiatives outlined in the
NHP-1983 have yielded results, while, in several other areas, the outcome has not been as expected.

Current scenario

Financial resources: The public health investment in the country over the years has been comparatively low, and
as a percentage of GDP has declined from 1.3 percent in 1990 to 0.9 percent in 1999. The aggregate expenditure
in the health sector is 5.2 percent of the GDP. Out of this, about 17 percent of the aggregate expenditure is public
health spending, the balance being an out-of-pocket expenditure.

Equity: In the period when centralized planning was accepted as a key instrument of development in the country,
the attainment of equitable regional distribution was considered one of its major objectives.

National Health Polity, 2017

After 15 Years of the pervious National Health Policy, 2002. Parliament passed the National Health Policy, 2017 on
15 March, 2017.

Objectives
• Investment in Health Sector.

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 • Administration and financing of Healthcare Facilities.
• Prevention of Diseases.
• Access of Technologies.
• Human Resource Development.
• Promotion of Various Therapeutic Systems.
• Support from Various Department.
• Health sector regulations.
• Financial Protection related strategy.

NATIONAL POPULATION POLICY OF INDIA

Population Policy pursues to achieve following Socio-Demographic goals by 2010:

• Address the unmet needs for basic reproductive and child health services, supplies, and infrastructure.
• Make school education up to age 14 free and compulsory, and reduce dropouts at primary and secondary
school levels to below 20 percent for both boys and girls.
• Reduce infant mortality rate to below 30 per 1000 live births.
• Reduce maternal mortality ratio to below 100 per 100,000 live births.
• Achieve universal immunization of children against all vaccine-preventable diseases.
• Promote delayed marriage for girls, not earlier than age 18 and preferably after 20 years of age.
• Achieve 80 percent institutional deliveries and 100 percent deliveries by trained persons.
• Achieve universal access to information/counseling, and services for fertility regulation and contraception
with a wide basket of choices.
• Achieve 100 percent registration of births, deaths, marriage, and pregnancy.

NATIONAL RURAL HEALTH MISSION

National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) has been launched with a view to bringing about dramatic
improvement in the health system and the health status of the people, especially those who live in the rural areas
of the country.

Objectives of the Mission

• Reduction in child and maternal mortality.
• Universal access to public services for food and nutrition, sanitation and hygiene and universal access to
public health care services with an emphasis on services addressing women‘s and children‘s health and
universal immunization.
• Prevention and control of communicable and non-communicable diseases, including locally endemic
diseases.
• Access to integrated comprehensive primary health care.
• Population stabilization, gender and demographic balance.
• Revitalize local health traditions & mainstream AYUSH.

NATIONAL MALARIA CONTROL PROGRAM

It was started in 1953, which was later changed to National Malaria Eradication Program in 1958. It
is the largest program against any infectious disease in the world. It was given prominence in the northeastern
states and tribal dominated areas of Andhra Pradesh Telangana, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh,
Jharkhand and Odisha.

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NATIONAL FILARIA CONTROL PROGRAM
It was started in the year 1995. It is targeted to eradicate Filaria by the end of 2020 globally. Filaria
clinics have been established in all the affected states, through which a massive campaign to destroy larvae, have
been carried out.

NATIONAL TB CONTROL PROGRAM

Launched in 1962. DOTS system has been introduced in 1997 on the recommendation of W.H.O.
Early diagnosis and early treatment of cases was the main focus of the program.

JAPANESE ENCEPHALITIS IMMUNIZATION PROGRAM

Launched in 2006 in Five States- Bihar, Assam, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka and West Bengal. The virus
of this disease thrives in paddy fields and waterlogged areas, while mosquitoes that spread this virus live in the
plains. In 2005, this disease emerged as an epidemic in Uttar Pradesh.

NATIONAL IODINE DEFICIENCY CONTROL PROGRAM

Started in 1962 with Objective To arrange iodized salt in the main affected areas. From 17 may,
2006, the government has banned the sale of non-iodized salt in the country.

NATIONAL LEPROSY ERADICATION PROGRAMME

Initially, known as Program for Leprosy Control in the country since 1955. However, in 1983 it was
renamed as National Leprosy Eradication Program on the recommendation of a special committee. Its objective is
to eradicate the problem of leprosy from the country.

AMRIT PROGRAM
Launched in November 2015. Its Objective is to reduce the expenditure incurred by patients for the
treatment of cancer and heart disease. For this, ‘Amrit Stores’ have been opened; medicines are available at
these store

PRADHAN MANTRI JAN AUSHADHI YOJANA

Started on 1 July, 2015 by the Government of India. Through this scheme, the government will
make high quality generic medicines priced below the market price and make them available through Jan
Aushadhi Stores.

JANANI SURAKSHA YOJANA

Started on 12 April 2005 especially for women living below poverty line. This is a Central Govt Sponsored Scheme.
Currently it is an important component of NRHM. Maternity bonus is given to women above the age of 19 at the
time of first two live deliveries, which are Rs. 1400 for women in rural areas and Rs. 1000 for women in urban
areas.
JANANI SHISHU SURAKSHA KARYAKARAM
Started on 1st June 2011. Its objective is to provide all pregnant women free access to public
health institutions. It includes free medicines, free treatment, blood etc. There is also a provision of free
transportation from home to hospitals to vulnerable newborns.

MOTHERS ABSOLUTE AFFECTION (MAA)

“MAA-Mother's Absolute Affection'' is an Intensified programme launched on the 5th August, in an
attempt to bring undiluted focus on promotion of breastfeeding. It is a nation-wide program to Promote Breast
Feeding and provides counseling for prevention of Malnutrition in the early stages of the Child.

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JANANI EXPRESS YOJANA
This scheme was launched in 2006, with Objective to provide 24 hour transportation facility to
pregnant women. This service is available to women in emergency both before and after delivery. This facility is
also available to sick children and beneficiaries of Deendayal Upchar Yojana.
KAYAKALP SCHEME
Started in 2015 by Union Ministry of Health and Family Welfare for rewarding public health
facilities. Its Objective is to increase people’s confidence in public health facilities and provide quality services.
Five rewards will be given under this: Two best district hospitals in each state, Two community health centres or
sub-district hospitals & One state centre in each district.
ATAL BAL AROGYA AND NUTRITION MISSION
The aim of this mission is to free children from malnutrition. For the success of this mission,
‘Breast feeding consultants’ are appointed in all maternal and child health centers.

LAQSHYA PROGRAM (LABOUR ROOM QUALITY IMPROVEMENT INITIATIVE)

Objective is to Reduce maternal and newborn morbidity and mortality. Improve quality of care
during delivery and immediate post-partum period. Enhance satisfaction of beneficiaries, positive birthing
experience and provide Respectful Maternity Care (RMC) to all pregnant women attending public health
facilities.

HEALTHY CHILDREN-HEALTHY INDIA PROGRAM

Started on 22 August 2017, under this scheme, health and wellbeing of 12 lakh students of
Kendriya Vidyalaya will be covered. The goal of this program is to make teachers and parents aware of the
importance of better health and wellbeing, as well as encourage the child to play one hour every day.

PRADHAN MANTRI SWASTHYA SURAKSHA YOJANA (PMSSY)

The Pradhan Mantri Swasthya Suraksha Yojana (PMSSY) was announced in 2003 with objectives of
correcting regional imbalances in the availability of affordable/ reliable tertiary healthcare services and
also to augment facilities for quality medical education in the country.

Pradhan Mantri Swasthya Suraksha Yojana was approved in March 2006. They were in the states of
Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Odisha, Uttaranchal and Rajasthan. In the second phase, 2 AIIMS
were set up in UP and West Bengal. Also, 6 medical colleges were set up. In the third phase existing
medical colleges were upgraded.

The project cost for upgradation of each medical college institution has been estimated at Rs. 150 crores
per institution, out of which Central Government will contribute Rs. 125 crores and the remaining Rs. 25
crores will be borne by the respective State Governments.

PULSE POLIO PROGRAMME

India launched the Pulse Polio immunisation programme in 1995 after a resolution for a global initiative
of polio eradication was adopted by the World Health Assembly (WHA) in 1988. Children in the age
group of 0-5 years are administered polio drops during national and sub-national immunisation rounds
(in high-risk areas) every year.

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Pulse Polio Initiative was started with an objective of achieving hundred per cent coverage under Oral
Polio Vaccine. It aimed to immunize children through improved social mobilization, plan mop-up
operations in areas where poliovirus has almost disappeared and maintain high level of morale among
the public.

Treatment of Polio:

There are two vaccines available to fight polio:

• Inactivated poliovirus (IPV): IPV consists of a series of injections that start 2 months after birth
and continue until the child is 4 to 6 years old. This version of the vaccine is provided to most
children in the U.S. The vaccine is made from inactive poliovirus. It is very safe and effective and
cannot cause polio.
• Oral polio vaccine (OPV): OPV is created from a weakened form of poliovirus. This version is the
vaccine of choice in many countries because it is a low cost, easy to administer, and gives an
excellent level of immunity. However, in very rare cases, OPV has been known to revert to a
dangerous form of poliovirus, which is able to cause paralysis.
The last polio case in the country was reported from Howrah district of West Bengal with date of onset
13th January 2011. Thereafter no polio case has been reported in the country. WHO on 24th February
2012 removed India from the list of countries with active endemic wild polio virus transmission. Two
years later, the South-East Asia Region of the WHO, of which India is a part, was certified as polio-free.

To prevent the virus from coming to India, the government has since March 2014 made the Oral Polio
Vaccination (OPV) mandatory for those travelling between India and polio-affected countries, such as
Afghanistan, Nigeria, Pakistan, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, Syria and Cameroon.

NATIONAL AIDS CONTROL PROGRAMME

AIDS Situation in India

India has the third largest HIV epidemic in the world, with 2.1 million people living with HIV.

India’s epidemic is concentrated among key affected populations, including sex workers and men who
have sex with men. Maharashtra accounted for 15% of the national total. It was followed by Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka, Telangana, Bengal, Tamil Nadu, UP and Bihar.

National AIDS Control Organisation (NACO) is a division of the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare
that provides leadership to HIV/AIDS control programme in India through 35 HIV/AIDS Prevention and
Control Societies.

NACO has played a very big role in significantly reducing the prevalence of HIV/AIDS in the country and
that too faster than the global rates. Estimated AIDS-related deaths declined by 71% since its peak in
2005.

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As per the UNAIDS 2018 report, the global average for the decline in new infections and AIDS-related
deaths from peak has been 47% and 51% respectively.

Established in 1996, UNAIDS has been leading and inspiring global, regional, national and local
leadership, innovation and partnership to consign HIV to history. It is headquartered in Geneva,
Switzerland.

National AIDS Control Programme (NACP), launched in 1992, is being implemented as a comprehensive
programme for the prevention and control of HIV/AIDS in India.

• The NACP I started in 1992 was implemented with an objective of slowing down the spread of
HIV infections so as to reduce morbidity, mortality and impact of AIDS in the country.
• In November 1999, the second National AIDS Control Project (NACP II) was launched to reduce
the spread of HIV infection in India, and (ii) to increase India’s capacity to respond to HIV/AIDS
on a long-term basis.
• NACP III was launched in July 2007 with the goal of Halting and Reversing the Epidemic over its
five-year period.
• NACP IV, launched in 2012, aims to accelerate the process of reversal and further strengthen the
epidemic response in India through a cautious and well-defined integration process over the next
five years.

NACP - IV - Objectives

• Reduce new infections by 50% (2007 Baseline of NACP III)

• Provide comprehensive care and support to all persons living with HIV/AIDS and treatment
services for all those who require it.
• Preventing new infections by sustaining the reach of current interventions and effectively
addressing emerging epidemics
• Prevention of Parent to Child transmission
• Ensuring effective use of strategic information at all levels of programme
• Building capacities of NGO and civil society partners especially in states with emerging epidemics
• Integrating HIV services with health systems in a phased manner
• Mainstreaming of HIV/ AIDS activities with all key central/state level Ministries/ departments will
be given a high priority and resources of the respective departments will be leveraged. Social
protection and insurance mechanisms for PLHIV (“People Living With HIV/AIDS”) will be
strengthened.

Antiretroviral Therapy

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With neither a vaccine nor a cure in sight, Antiretroviral Therapy (ART) is the only option available for
people living with HIV-AIDS.

HIV is a type of virus called a retrovirus, and the combination of drugs used to treat it is called
Antiretroviral Therapy (ART).

According to the World Health Organization, standard ART consists of a combination of at least three
antiretroviral drugs to suppress the HIV virus and stop the progression of the disease. Significant
reductions have been seen in rates of death and suffering by the use of potent ART regimen, particularly
in the early stages of the disease.

AYUSHMAN BHARAT
Launched in 2018 by Prime Minister Narendra Modi Ayushman Bharat is a health scheme. It is the
largest government-funded healthcare programme in the world with over 50 crore beneficiaries. The
Ayushman Bharath programme has two sub-missions PM-JAY & HWCs.

• Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PM-JAY), earlier known as the National Health Protection
Scheme (NHPS)will cover the financial protection for availing healthcare services at the
secondary and tertiary levels.

• Health and Wellness Centres (HWCs) aimed at improving access to cheap and quality healthcare
services at the primary level.

NATIONAL HEALTH PROTECTION MISSION (AB-PMJAY)

PMJAY offers a sum insured of up to Rs.5 lakh per family for secondary care (which doesn’t involve a super
specialist) as well as tertiary care (which does). For the beneficiaries, this is a free scheme. It was launched as the
National Health Protection Mission and renamed later. It is the largest government-funded health insurance
scheme in the world.

Scheme Benefits:

• It ensures that nobody is left out (especially women, children and elderly) there will be no cap on family
size and age in the scheme.
• The benefit cover will also include pre and post-hospitalisation expenses.
• All pre-existing conditions will be covered from day one of the policy.
• A defined transport allowance per hospitalization will also be paid to the beneficiary.
• Benefits of the scheme are portable across the country and a beneficiary covered under the scheme will
be allowed to take cashless benefits from any public/private empanelled hospitals across the country.
• The beneficiaries can avail benefits in both public and empanelled private facilities. All public hospitals in
the States implementing AB-PMJAY, will be deemed empanelled for the Scheme.
• As for private hospitals, they will be empanelled online based on defined criteria.
• To control costs, the payments for treatment will be done on package rate (to be defined by the
Government in advance) basis.
• It is an entitlement-based scheme that targets the beneficiaries as identified by latest Socio-Economic
Caste Census (SECC) data.

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 • Individuals can walk into any empanelled hospital that can process cashless payments.
• The insurance cost is shared by the centre and the state mostly in the ratio of 60:40.

NATIONAL ORGAN TRANSPLANT PROGRAMME

The shortage of organs is virtually a universal problem but Asia lags behind much of the rest of the
world. India lags far behind other countries even in Asia. There is a wide gap between patients who
need transplants and the organs that are available in India.

An estimated around 1.8 lakh persons suffer from renal failure every year, however the number of renal
transplants done is around 6000 only. An estimated 2 lac patients die of liver failure or liver cancer
annually in India, about 10-15% of which can be saved with a timely liver transplant. Hence about 25-30
thousand liver transplants are needed annually in India but only about one thousand five hundred are
being performed. Similarly, about 50000 persons suffer from Heart failures annually but only about 10
to 15 heart transplants are performed every year in India.

Issues and Challenges

• High Burden (Demand Versus Supply gap)
• Poor Infrastructure especially in Govt. sector hospitals
• Poor Awareness and attitude towards organ donation--- Poor Deceased Organ donation rate
• Lack of Organized systems for organ procurement from deceased donor
• Maintenance of Standards in Transplantation, Retrieval and Tissue Banking
• Prevention and Control of Organ trading
• High Cost (especially for uninsured and poor patients)
• Regulation of Non- Govt. Sector

Objectives of National Organ Transplant Programme:

• To organize a system of organ and Tissue procurement & distribution for transplantation.
• To promote deceased organ and Tissue donation.
• To train required manpower.
• To protect vulnerable poor from organ trafficking.
• To monitor organ and tissue transplant services and bring about policy and programme corrections/
changes whenever needed.

NATIONAL ORGAN AND TISSUE TRANSPLANT ORGANIZATION

National Network division of NOTTO would function as apex centre for all India activities of coordination
and networking for procurement and distribution of organs and tissues and registry of Organs and
Tissues Donation and Transplantation in country.
MEDICAL TERMINATION OF PREGNANCY BILL
Union Cabinet has approved the Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP) (Amendment) Bill, 2020. The
Bill seeks to extend the termination of pregnancy period from 20 weeks to 24 weeks, making it easier for
women to safely and legally terminate an unwanted pregnancy.

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Key Features
• The Medical Termination of Pregnancy (Amendment) Bill, 2020 proposes requirement for an opinion
from one provider (registered medical practitioner) for termination of pregnancy up to 20 weeks of
gestation and introducing the requirement of opinion from two providers for termination of pregnancy
up to 20-24 weeks of gestation.
• The amended bill proposes increasing the upper gestation limit from 20 to 24 weeks for special
categories of women such as vulnerable women including survivors of rape, victims of incest and others
such as differently-abled women and minors.
• Under the amendment bill, the upper gestation limit will not apply in cases of substantial foetal
abnormalities diagnosed by the Medical Board. The composition, functions and other details of the
Medical Board will be prescribed subsequently in Rules under the Act.
• Further, the name and other details of the woman whose pregnancy has been terminated shall not be
revealed except to a person authorised by the law.
Significance
The Medical Termination of Pregnancy Amendment bill aims to ensure the safety and well-being of
women. The proposed increase in gestation limit will ensure dignity, autonomy, confidentiality and
justice for women who need to terminate their pregnancy.
PM CARES FUND
Prime Minister’s Citizen Assistance and Relief in Emergency Situation Fund: Is a public charitable trust
initiated by the Prime Minister Narendra Modi. This national trust is created with the objective to meet
the distressed and dreadful situation like COVID-19 in times ahead. PM CARES was initiated on March
28, 2020 under the chairmanship of the Indian Prime Minister with Ministry of Home Affairs, Defence
Minister and Finance Minister as the ex-officio Trustee.
AAROGYA SETU
The Government of India took an initiative to fight the Coronavirus pandemic. It launched a mobile
application to spread the awareness of COVID_19 among the citizens of India through an app called
Aarogya Setu. The Aarogya Setu mobile app has been developed by the National Informatics Centre
(NIC) that comes under the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology.

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 MAJOR HEALTH ORGANIZATIONS OF CENTRAL AND THE STATE GOVERNMENT.

The health organizations of a country are the backbone of human resource. Under the constitution states are
largely independent in matters relating to the delivery of health care to the people. Each State, therefore, has
developed its own system of health care delivery, independent of the Central Government.

The health system in India has 3 levels: 1. Central level. 2. State level 3. District level

HEALTH ADMINISTRATION AT THE CENTRAL LEVEL

The official organs of the health system at the national level consist of 3 units:
1. Union Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.
2. The Directorate General of Health Services.
3. The Central Council of Health and Family Welfare.

I. Union Ministry of Health and Family Welfare Organization:

The Union Ministry of Health and Family Welfare is headed by a Cabinet Minister, a Minister of State, and a
Deputy Health Minister. These are political appointment and have a dual role to serve political as well as
administrative responsibilities for health. Currently the union health ministry has the following departments:
1. Department of Health
2. Department of Family Welfare
3. Department of Indian System of Medicine and Homoeopathy

II. Directorate General of Health Services Organisation

The DGHS is the principal adviser to the Union Government in both medical and public health matters. He is
assisted by a team of deputies and a large administrative staff. The Directorate comprises of three main units:
i. Medical care and hospitals
ii. Public health
iii. General administration

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III. Central Council of Health:
The Central Council of Health was set up by a Presidential Order on August 9, 1952, under Article 263 of the
Constitution of India for promoting coordinated and concerted action between the centre and the states in the
implementation of all the programmes and measures pertaining to the health of the nation. The Union Health
Minister is the chairman and the state health ministers are the members.
STATE-LEVEL HEALTH ORGANIZATIONS

Historically, the first milestone in the state health administration was the year 1919, when the states
(provinces) obtained autonomy, under the Montague-Chelmsford reforms, from the central Government in
matters of public health.
By 1921-22, all the states had created some form of public health organisation. The Government of India
Act, 1935 gave further autonomy to the states. The state is the ultimate authority responsible for health services
operating within its jurisdiction.
In India, with each state having its own health administration. In all states, the management sector comprises
the State Ministry of Health and a Directorate of Health.
1. State Ministry of Health
The State Ministry of Health is headed by a Minister of Health and FW and a Deputy Minister of Health and FW. In
some states, the health minister is also in charge of other portfolios. The health secretariat is the official organ of
the State Ministry of Health and is headed by a secretary who is assisted by Deputy Secretaries and a large
administrative staff.
Functions: Health services provided at the state level
1. Rural health services through minimum needs programme
2. Medical development programme
3. M.C.H., family welfare & immunization programme
4. NMIP (malaria) & NFCP(filarial)
5. NLEP, NTCP, NPCB, prevention and control of communicable diseases like diarrheal disease, JE
6. School health programme, nutrition programme, and national goitre control programme
7. Laboratory services and vaccine production units
8. Health education and training programme, curative services, national Aids control programme

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State Health Directorate

The Director of Health Services is the chief technical adviser to the State Government on all matters relating to
medicine and public health. He is also responsible for the organization and direction of all health activities. The
Director of Health and Family Welfare is assisted by a suitable number of deputies and assistants.

DISTRICT LEVEL HEALTH ORGANISATION

The district is the most crucial level in the administration and implementation of medical /health services. At the
district level there is a district medical and health officer or CMO who is overall Subdivisions
i. Tehsils (talukas)
ii. Community development blocks
iii. Municipalities and corporations
iv. Villages
v. Panchayaths

HEALTHCARE IN MADHYA PRADESH

Madhya Pradesh is one of the largest states of the Republic of India. Ranking 5th in terms of population size and
23rd in terms of population density among the 36 states and union territories, it is a large state with a widely
dispersed population and relatively low density. From the point of view of per capita income, literacy,
urbanization, infrastructure facilities and other development indicators, Madhya Pradesh belongs to the category
of less developed states of the country.

In spite of the best of efforts on behalf of the Government institutions, the people of the state are not satisfied
and the health status, though improved from yesteryears, is far below when compared on the national scale (as
reflected by the health indices). The problem is compounded as government does not have an effective
monitoring, surveillance or control function with regard to private health care.

Madhya Pradesh is one of the Empowered Action Group states of the National Health Mission. These states have
struggled to contain population growth at manageable levels and have poorer quality of life indicators than other
states. Madhya Pradesh struggles with health problems that contribute to high maternal and child mortality rates.
These problems include anaemia, malnutrition among adults and children, early childhood illnesses, and several
infectious diseases (NFHS-3, 2006).

The health care delivery system of MP in rural areas is based on a network of 8835 sub health centres, 1194
private health centres and 227 community health centres.

PHCs (Primary Health Care)

The PHC is the first contact point between the village community and the medical officer. These are established
and maintained by the state government under the minimum needs/ basic minimum services programme. The
activities of PHC ‘s involve curative, preventive, promotive and family welfare services. The number of PHC‘s
functioning in the country is 22975. The primary health centre is the basic structural and functional unit of public
health services for rendering primary health care in peripheral areas.

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Functions of PHC
• Medical care
• Maternal and child health
• Control of communicable diseases
• Collection and reporting of vital statistics
• Immunization services
• Improvement in environmental sanitation
• School health programmes

CHCS (Community Health Centres)

The community health centres are established and maintained by the state government under MNP/BMS
programme. It has 30 indoor beds with an x-ray labour room, operation theatre, and laboratory facilities. It is
managed by four medical specialists i.e. surgeon, physician, gynaecologist and paediatrician.
On 31st March 2003, 3076 CHC were established each covering a population of 80000 to 1.20 lakh. Definition
Community health centres are the non-profit community-governed health organizations that provide primary
health care, health promotion and community development services, using interdisciplinary terms of health
providers.

Standards of CHC
In order to provide quality care in CHCs IPHS are being prescribed to provide optimal expert care to the
community and achieve and maintain an acceptable standard of quality of care. These standards would help to
monitor and improve the functioning of CHCs. CHCs has to provide the following services:
• Care of routine and emergency cases in surgery
• Care of routine and emergency cases in medicine
• 24-hour delivery services
• Essentials of emergency obstetric care.
• Full range of family planning services including laparoscopic services
• Safe abortion services
• Newborn care
• Routine and emergency care of sick children
• Other management of medical and accidental conditions
• All the national health programmes should be delivered through CHCs

Sub Health Centre (SHC): staffed by a MPW (male) and a MPW (female)/ANM, the SHC is envisaged
to cater to a population of 5000 (3000 in hilly areas), provide limited primary care and act as a stock
point for basic medical and family welfare supplies. In MP, a population of 5000 could be scattered
across 6 villages. There is minimal curative service at the SHC.

MADHYA PRADESH STATE HEALTH POLICY (Source: http://health.mp.gov.in/en/state-health-policy)

Vision: All people living in the state of Madhya Pradesh will have the knowledge and skills required to keep
themselves healthy, and have equity in access to effective and affordable health care, as close to the family as
possible, that enhances their quality of life*, and enables them to lead a healthy productive life.
Objective: The Department of Public Health and Family Welfare, Government of Madhya Pradesh (GoMP) has
taken a decision to develop a medium-term health strategy, intended to serve the State for next five years.

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 HEALTH PROGRAMMES IN MADHYA PRADESH
ATAL BAL AAROGYA EVAM POSHAN MISSION (referred to as Atal Bal Mission)

Half of the children in Madhya Pradesh under age 5 are stunted and 35 percent are wasted. In an effort to
address this situation, in late 2010, the Government of Madhya Pradesh launched the Atal Bal Aarogya Evam
Poshan Mission (Atal Bal Mission) to bring about a systematic reduction in child malnutrition. The mission’s
strategic objectives include integrated planning by multiple government departments from various sectors,
including women and child development, public health, rural development, tribal welfare, food and civil supplies,
engineering, school education, and finance.
The State Government of Madhya Pradesh provides the resources needed to facilitate the smooth functioning of
the Atal Bal Mission. Development partners, such as the World Health Organization, DFID, United Nations
Development Programme, and European Commission, also provide technical, financial, administrative, logistical
support, and other resources

CHIEF MINISTER BAL HRIDAY UPCHAR YOJANA

Started on 14th July, 2011. Under this scheme, children from 0 to 15 years of facilities living below
the poverty line and those families who are not registered below the poverty line and are not able to get their
treatment. They will be eligible for this scheme, there is a provision of free treatment (surgery) in government
and authorized private hospitals.

DEENDAYAL ANTYODAYA UPCHAR YOJANA

Started by Madhya Pradesh Government from September, 2004. Its Objective is Providing free
quality services to families below the poverty line in the event of illness. This facility is provided only to those
patients admitted to government hospitals. This scheme protects poor families from indebtedness in the event of
illness. The limit of expenditure on diagnosis and treatment is 20,000 Rs. per family per person.
DEENDAYAL MOBILE HOSPITAL SCHEME
Launched on 2006 by Madhya Pradesh Government.To provide quality health services to remote
tribal areas. Under the scheme, doctors, nurses and other staff necessary equipment and medicines are provided
in a mobile vehicle. Through this program, people are also given information on various means of family planning
and publicity of various welfare schemes is also done.

ANTARA YOJANA
Started on 15th August, 2017 by the health department of Madhya Pradesh, to keep the gap in
childbirth and to prevent the increasing population. Under this scheme, ‘Antara’ injection will be given to women
under the supervision of a specialist in the community health center.
BAL SHAKTI YOJANA
The aim is to minimize the malnutrition rate in children in the age group of 0-5 years. Malnutrition
is the main cause of death of 0-5 years old children in Madhya Pradesh. This scheme is being implemented by
establishing nutritional rehabilitation centers in government health institutions.
SANJEEVANI 108
108 ambulance service operated since 2009, with the aim of bringing people from home to hospital and providing
medical services (including life- saving services) in emergency. Since 2012-13, the scheme is being provided in all
the districts.
JANANI SAHYOGI SCHEME
Implemented in 2006. Its Objective is to provide quality emergency maternity services, sick new
born care services and safe abortion services to women and new-borns from below poverty line by certified
private institutions. The specialty of this scheme is that it takes the support of private service providers instead of

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government hospitals. The beneficiaries of this scheme are pregnant women and sick newborns of BPL (below
poverty line) families.
DASTAK CAMPAIGN
Started in 2017-18 with Objective to curb Malnutrition and Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) in M.P.
ATAL BAL MISSION EXPRESS
Launched in Madhya Pradesh in 2011, With objective to provide ambulance service under Atal Bal
Arogya and Nutrition Mission.

MATERNITY ASSISTANCE SCHEME

Started in 2004, for women workers engaged in construction works. Under the scheme, women
workers are paid 50% of the salary they are receiving in the last quarter of pregnancy for a total period of 12
weeks as maternity benefit.

DISTRICT STATE WELLNESS ASSISTANCE FUND

Medical care worth Rs. 25000 to 2 lakh is provided to the patients who belong the below poverty
line in Madhya Pradesh. The benefit of this scheme is available only in government hospitals or government
approved scheduled hospitals.

MATRU SAHYOGINI SAMITIS SCHEME

Started in Dec 2020. Also called ‘Mothers Cooperation Committees’, these will comprise 10
mothers at each Anganwadi centers. They would represent concerns under the Integrated Child Development
Scheme or National Nutrition Mission.

DHANWANTARI BLOCK DEVELOPMENT SCHEME

Launched on 15th August 2005 to Coordinate the implementation of existing services to health for better
health management at block level. Efforts are being made to create such a society in which every child is healthy
and every woman is better in terms of health. Under this scheme, the emphasis is put to promote institutional
delivery, so that maternal and child mortality in these development blocks be reduced.

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 NUTRITION & NUTRIENTS

Nutrition

The process by which organism takes food and utilize it is called as nutrition. It provides energy for
various activities and body functions, generally nutrition is of two types:

Autotrophic Nutrition

The mode of nutrition in which organism prepares their own food. It is mainly expedited by plants and
algae also known as Primary Producers. The process by which they produce their own food is known as
Photosynthesis. In this process solar energy, it converted into chemical energy with help of pigment
chlorophyll. In this process atmospheric CO2 is utilized to produce food and O2.

Importance of photosynthesis

• It is the only way through which solar energy in made available to different beings.
• Green plants & Algae are main producers in ecosystem & all other organism are dependent upon
them. This helps in maintaining ecological balance.
• The process of photosynthesis helps in maintaining balance of O2 & CO2 in atmosphere.

Heterotrophic Nutrition

The mode of nutrition in which organisms procure food from other organism directly or indirectly is
called as heterotrophic nutrition. Organisms other than plants & few algae follow the heterotrophic
made of nutrition. It can be sub-divided into:

• Decomposers- In this mode organisms depend on dead and decaying organic matter for nutrition.
Usually seen in microorganisms like Bacteria and fungus.

• Saprophytic Nutrition – In this type of nutrition, the digestion of food takes place before the ingestion
of food. It also deals with intake of dead organic matter as a food source. This type of nutrition is usually
seen in fungi and some other microorganisms.

• Parasitic Nutrition- In this mode of nutrition organisms depend on host being for readily available
food. E.g. tapeworm, Plasmodium, Amoeba, etc.

• Holozoic Nutrition – In this type nutrition the digestion of food fallows after the ingestion of food. This
digestion takes place inside the body of organism. This mode happens in 5 stages – Ingestion, Digestion,
Absorption, Assimilation & Egestion.

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 NUTRIENTS

SIX BASIC NUTRIENTS: Carbohydrates, Fats, Proteins, Vitamins, Minerals, Water.

CARBOHYDRATES

They are sweet in taste also known as sugars or saccharides.

They get into the blood to fast of energy.

Most nutritionists agree that 55 to 65% of our diet should be carbohydrates.

• Primary source of energy – easiest food to break down and use for energy.

• Produced by all plant life – fruits, vegetables, grains (6-11 servings a day).

Types of Carbohydrates:

Simple Sugars – Monosaccharide-single sugar unit.

a. Glucose – blood sugar

b. Fructose – mostly fruits, berries and honey.

c. Galactose – does not occur free in nature.

Compound Sugars – Disaccharide – two sugar units

a. Sucrose – sugar cane and sugar beets

b. Maltose – germinating seeds

c. Lactose – milk sugar

Complex Carbohydrate – polysaccharide – many sugar units.

a. Cellulose b. Starch c. Chitin

PROTEIN

It is recommended that 15 to 20% of the diet come from protein. Proteins contain 4 calories per gram.

The building blocks of proteins are amino acids. The body needs 22 amino acids in order to grow and
develop properly. The body can produce most of these amino acids itself. The other 9 amino acids must
be received through the food you eat and are called essential amino acids.

Foods that contain all 9 essential amino acids are complete proteins. All animal products are complete
proteins meat, milk, poultry, cheese, fish, eggs.

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Not all protein foods have all 9 essential amino acids – these foods are called incomplete proteins
(plants may be rich in protein – but are incomplete).

It is possible to combine 2 incomplete proteins to make a complete protein.

a. Wheat bread and peanut butter

b. Legumes and seeds

c. Legumes and grains

Function: Vital part of everybody cell – muscle, bone, blood, and organs.

Build, repair and maintain body tissue, regulate body processes – enzymes, hormones, and antibodies

Excess protein cannot be stored in the body. Excess protein causes:

• Dehydration, because more water is needed to flush protein out of the system.

• Strain on liver and kidneys.

• A need for more calcium – which results in a calcium deficiency.

FATS

Most nutritionist agree that we should reduce fat intake to under 30% of our diet. Fats contain about 9
calories per gram twice as many carbohydrates or protein.

Function: (add flavor and help satisfy hunger).

• Body’s storage form for food energy eaten in excess of need.

• Insulates the body.

• Cushions vital body organs.

• Transports fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K).

TYPES OF FATS

1.Saturated Fats – solid or semisolid at room temperature. A fatty acid carrying the maximum possible
number of hydrogen atoms.

Source – mostly from animal products – meats, poultry, fish, milk, cheese and eggs.

Vegetable oils high in saturated fats: Palm oil (50% saturated), Coconut oil (92% saturated)

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Beware of terms like

a. All vegetable oil. b. 100% vegetable oil. 4

2. Monounsaturated Fats – liquid at room temperature. A fatty acid that has one hydrogen bond
missing. Source – mostly from plants (olive oil & peanut oil).

Slightly lowers LDL cholesterol, but some studies show that it may slightly raise HDL – other studies
show its effect on HDL is neutral.

3 Polyunsaturated Fats – liquid at room temperature. A fatty acid that has two or more hydrogen bonds
missing. Lowers cholesterol, but also slightly lowers HDL (good cholesterol). They supply essential fatty
acids.

Source – mostly from plants.

4.Fish Oils – Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids that come from fish. They don’t have much effect on
cholesterol. They lower the total amount of fat in the blood (reduce triglycerides). They help prevent
blood clots.

5.Transfatty acids – the process of adding hydrogen to unsaturated fats to make it more solid and
resistant to chemical change. Example: Butter – Margarine (partially hydrogenated vegetable oil).

Note: CHOLESTEROL: A fat related substance found in all animal fats and some vegetable fats that may
form fat deposits on the wall of the arteries. A condition called atherosclerosis.

Function in the body: Essential for cell wall construction, needed to make hormones and bile no
problem when in & Transmission of nerve impulses correct amount

Types of cholesterol

Low Density Lipoproteins – LDL – bad cholesterol

• Fat in the blood stream that is on its way to cell for storage (including the cells that line the artery
walls).

• Saturated fat causes the body to produce LDL.

High Density Lipoproteins – HDL – good cholesterol

• Fat in the bloodstream that is in route to the liver where it is processed and excreted from the body.

• HDL works to minimize the harmful effects of LDL by causing it to be removed from the bloodstream
and excreted.

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VITAMINS – they do not supply calories. Function – They work with enzymes by triggering specific
chemical reactions that allow the digestion, absorption, metabolism, and use of other nutrients. They
act like catalyst or co-enzymes to help a reaction take place, but are neither changed nor incorporated
into the products of the reaction.

Types:

Water soluble – (C and B complex)- Are not stored to any extent in the body so you need an adequate
supply of water-soluble vitamins every day. Found in fruits and vegetables. 5

Fat Soluble – (A – D – E – K) - They are absorbed and transported by fat. The body stores fat-soluble
vitamins in fatty tissue. Any excess buildup of these vitamins can have a dangerous toxic effect.

MINERALS – inorganic substances that the body cannot manufacture. Used for building new cells and
chemical reactions within the body. Some of the functions: muscular contraction, nerve irritability,
water balance, acid base equilibrium, metabolism.

WATER – human body is about two thirds water (6 to 8 cups of water a day). Regulator – vital to every
body function (digestion, excretory, circulatory). Dehydration causes malfunction of all systems – death.

a. Decrease urine – increase of toxins

b. Decrease sweating – increase body temperature

c. Decrease blood volume – increase of fatigue – decrease oxygen and nutrients

Discovery of Vitamins

Vitamin Year Discovered Scientists

Vitamin A 1912-1914 Elmer V. McCollum and M. Davis
Vitamin D 1922 Edward Mellanby
Vitamin E 1922 Herbert Evans and Katherine Bishop
Vitamin K 1929 Henrik Dam
Thiamin (B1) 1912 Casimir Funk – coined term “Vitamines”but e
dropped off in 1920 because not all vitamins
are composed of amines
Riboflavin (B2) 1926 D. T. Smith, E. G. Hendrick
Niacin (B3) 1937 Conrad Elvehje
Pantothenic Acid (B5) 1933 but isolated in 1939 Richard Kuhn
Pyridoxine (B6) 1941 Paul Gyorgy
Biotin (B7) 1934 Paul Gyorgy
Folate (B9) 1933 Lucy Wills
Cyanocobalamin (B12) 1926, but isolated in 1948 Karl A. Folkers and Alexander R. Todd
Vitamin C 1912 A. Hoist and T. Froelich

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 Water soluble vitamins
VITAMIN What it does for our bodies Where do we get it from
B1 (thiamin) • Helps release energy from • Yeast extracts (e.g. Vegemite)
carbohydrates • Wheatgerm and wheat bran
• Is needed for proper working of the • Nuts and seeds
heart, digestive and nervous systems • Fortified bread and breakfast cereals
• Important for growth • Wholemeal flour and cereals
B2 (riboflavin) • Important for growth and repair of • Dairy products (milk, cheese, yoghurt)
tissues, especially the skin and eyes • Egg whites
• Helps release energy from food • Almonds
• Mushrooms
• Wholemeal flour and cereals
• Green vegetables
B3 (niacin) • Helps to release energy from food • Lean meat
• Important for growth • Yeast
• Helps control cholesterol levels • Bran
• Important for nervous system and • Peanuts
digestive health • Legumes
• Fortified breakfast cereals
• Eggs
• Vegetables
• Milk
B6 (pyridoxine) • Helps process protein and • Lean meat and poultry
carbohydrate • Fish
• Assists in making red blood cells • Soybeans
• Important for brain function and • Nuts
immune system health • Wholegrains
• Green leafy vegetables
Pantothenic acid • Helps process carbohydrate, fat and • Fish
protein for energy • Lean meat
• Involved in the formation of fatty acids • Legumes
and cholesterol • Nuts
• Eggs
• Green leafy vegetables
• Bread and cereals
B12 (cyano- • Works with folate to produce new • Found only in animal products (lean meat, chicken, fish,
cobalamin) blood and nerve cells and DNA seafood, eggs and milk)
• Helps process carbohydrate and fat • Fortified soy products
Biotin • Helps process fat and protein • Egg yolk
• Important for growth and nerve cell • Oats
function • Wholegrains
• Legumes
• Mushrooms
• Nuts
Folate (folic acid) • Produces red blood cells and DNA • Yeast extracts (e.g. Vegemite)
• Keeps the nervous system healthy • Green leafy vegetables
• Important in early pregnancy to • Wholegrains

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 prevent neural tube defects • Peas
• Nuts
C (absorbic acid) • Needed for healthy skin, gums, teeth, • Fruit and vegetables (citrus fruit and juices, berries,
bones and cartilage pineapple, mango, pawpaw, capsicum, parsley, broccoli,
• Assists with absorption of some types spinach, cabbage)
of iron
• Assists with wound healing and
resistance to infection

Fat soluble Vitamins

VITAMIN What it does for our bodies Where we get it from
A (occurs as both retinol and beta- • Essential for eyesight, especially night Retinol
carotene, which is then converted by vision • Oily fish (salmon, sardines, herring)
the body into retinol) • Essential for normal growth in • Full cream dairy products
children • Butter and table margarine
• Keeps the skin in the mouth, • Egg yolk
respiratory tract and urinary tract moist Beta-carotene
(protects against harmful bacteria) • Orange, yellow and green fruits and
• Builds immunity (ability to fight vegetables (carrots, spinach, apricots,
infections) mango, pumpkin, broccoli)
D (cholecalciferol) • Works with calcium and phosphorus • Sunlight (about 10 minutes every
to make strong, healthy bones and day)
teeth • Cod liver oil and oily fish (herring,
• A deficiency in Vitamin D can cause salmon, tuna and sardines)
rickets, which increases the chance of a • Fortified margarine
child having fractures • Eggs
E (tocopherol) • This antioxidant may play a role in • Wheatgerm
preventing cancer and heart disease • Nuts and seeds
• Eggs
• Wholegrains
• Fish
• Fruit and vegetables
K (phylloquinone) • Essential for blood clotting • Green leafy vegetables
• Broccoli and cauliflower
• Eggs
• Cheese

Minerals
MINERAL What it does for our bodies Where we get it from
Calcium • Essential for building strong healthy bones and • Dairy products (milk, cheese and yoghurt)
teeth • Wholegrains
• Helps muscle contraction and nerve function • Broccoli
• Helps blood clotting • Almonds
Chromium • Helps with normal growth •Egg yolk
• Plays a role in controlling blood sugar levels • Liver and kidney

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 • Lean meat
• Wholegrains
• Cheese
Copper • Joins with iron in formation of red blood cells • Oysters, crab, lobster, mussels
• Helps with the functioning of the nervous system • Nuts
• Wholegrains
Fluorine / Fluoride • Helps with the structure of healthy bones and teeth • Fluoridated drinking water
• Decreases the chance of dental caries • Fish
• Helps in the prevention of osteoporosis • Tea
Iodine • Promotes normal thyroid function • Seafood
• Helps brain function and normal growth • Iodised salt
• Bread (through iodised salt)
Iron • Helps red blood cells carry oxygen around the body • Lean red meat, poultry, seafood
• Prevents anaemia • Dark leafy vegetables
• Wholegrains
• Legumes
• Eggs
Magnesium • Provides structure for healthy bones • Milk
• Involved in the release of energy from food • Wholegrains
• Essential for muscle and nerve function • Green leafy vegetables
• Legumes
• Lean meats and fish
• Nuts and seeds
Manganese • Helps in the formation of healthy bones • Nuts
• Helps in the processing of carbohydrates, • Cereals
cholesterol and protein • Vegetables
• Oils
Phosphorus • Works with calcium in the formation of strong Widely available in many foods however the
healthy bones and teeth richest sources are:
• Helps the body to store and use energy • Meat
• Milk and cheese
• Eggs
• Bran and wheat germ
• Nuts and seeds
Potassium • Controls nerve impulses and muscle contractions • Nuts
• Helps maintain fluid balance • Dried fruit
• Bran and wheat germ
• Raw fruit and vegetables
• Lean meat and fish
Sodium/Salt • Controls nerve impulse transmission • Table, sea and vegetable salt
• Helps maintain water balance • Cheese
• Bread
Zinc • Aids in wound healing and immune function • Lean meat, fish and chicken
• Essential for normal taste, smell and sight • Milk
• Helps in the formation of strong bones • Whole grains
• Legumes and nuts

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