EVOLUTION
EVOLUTION
EVOLUTION
EVOLUTION
Outline
Explain the meaning of evolution
Explain the current concepts of evolution
State and explain the various evidences of evolution
State and explain the Mechanisms of evolution
- Larmarck’s theory / theory of use and disuse
- Darwin’s theory of natural selection
Explain the meaning of struggle for existence and survival for the fittest
Evolution in progress - Natural selection in action (industrial Melanism )
- Resistance to drugs, pesticides and antibiotics
Meaning of Evolution
THEORIES OF EVOLUTION
There are many theories that explain the origin of life but at our level we
examine two:
1
The evidence is found in religious writings like in holy Quran and
bible and also in folklores.
2
Fossils give direct evidence of the type of plant or animal that existed
during a certain geological era.
This because fossils show morphological chances of the organisms
over the millions of years.
E.g the evolution of the skull of man from Homo habilis (earliest
species of man) to Homo sapiens (present species of man) has been
documented through the fossils records.
The exact age of fossils can be determined using radioactive carbon
dating techniques.
3
The land mass later split to the present and modern continents
which later drifted apart to their present locations………
Continental drift theory/ Plate tectonics theory.
Later after the drift, animals with common ancestry become
isolated by physical barriers e.g. mountains, deserts, oceans etc.
hence they i.e animals evolved into different species after a long
period.
Examples
(i) Illamas of the Amazon forest and the camels of Africa and Asia
both show resembles of a common ancestry.
(ii) The tiger of the Asia jungle resembles the leopard and cheetah.
(iii) Kangaroos in Australia and the jaguars in South America show a
common ancestry.
c) Comparative embryology
A comparison of embryos of common vertebrates such as fish,
chicken, lizards, mammals etc. shows morphological or structural
similarities in their early stages of development.
This shows that they had a common origin/ancestor.
d) Comparative anatomy
Members of a phylum or closely related group show similarities in
the body structures or organs performing the same body
functions e.g. digestive system, urinary system, nervous system
etc.
Such structures show that these groups of organisms may have
had a common origin/ancestor.
Divergent evolution.
Is a type of evolution where one basic structure is modified to
given rise to various forms leading to adaptive radiation
4
Adaptive radiation
Occurs in divergent evolution where a basic structure has been
modified over a long period of time to perform different functions
for the purpose of occupying different ecological niche for the
survival of the species.
An example of adaptive radiation is the possession of homologous
structures.
Homologous structures:
These are structures that have a common embryonic origin but
have been modified to perform different functions for the
purpose of exploiting different ecological niches e.g. pentadactyl
limbs of vertebrates’ i.e. where;
i) The forelimbs of birds/bat have been modified into wings
for flight.
ii) The forelimb of a horse has been elongated for fast
running.
iii) The forelimb of a mole has been modified into a hand for
digging.
iv) The forelimb of a whale has been modified into flippers for
swimming.
The importance of divergent evolution is that; it results in
adaptations that enable organism to exploit different ecological
niche leading to the formation of new species/speciation.
Convergent evolution
Is a type of comparative anatomy where different basic structures
of different embryonic origin have been modified to form
analogous structures.
Analogous structures:
Are structures of different embryonic origin but have been
modified to perform similar functions for the purpose of
exploiting the same ecological niche.
5
Examples of analogous structures
6
e.) Comparative cell biology
An example
Human evolution
Man, apes, and monkeys belong to the Order- primates, hence they are
believed to have had a common ancestor a long time ago.
Results of discovery of fossils in various archeological sites by Scientists
have been able to construct/ show the evolutionary history of man.
The earliest primate to have evolved is the Proconsul which gave rise to the
two families of primates i.e.
Homonidae (humans)
Pongidae (apes)
The homonidae is divided in two genera – plural for genus- namely;
Australopithecus.
Homo.
The genus homo has three species.
Homo habilis
Homo erectus
Homo sapiens
APES HUMAN
MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION
8
These are ideas that explain how evolution has occurred. They include:
Lamarck’s theory.
Evolution theory by natural selection— (Darwin’s theory)
10
selected to survive and reproduce, while those that are poorly
adapted perish or die and do not transmit their bad characteristics.
Note:
The struggle for existence is created by the environmental
pressure on the population on the resources or competiton for
resources.
Survival of the fittest comes as a result of any advantageous
variations that an individual poses which makes it to survive.
Those individuals that are selected for reproduction pass their
variation or traits onto their offspring.
The gradual accumulation of variations from generation to
generation over a long period of time leads to emergence of
new forms of species.
Note
The theory of natural selection explains how new species arose from
pre-existing ones.
The basic concept of natural selection is that nature selects how well
a particular trait of organism can make the organism survive in a
particular environment and pass the advantageous trait in its
subsequent generations.
According to Darwin variations are the raw materials for evolution.
The theory does not explain how the variations come into existence
or how they are inherited.
How natural selection brings about adaptation of species to its
environment.
Individuals of the same species show certain variations or differences
that are caused by genetic differences among individuals of the same
species.
11
These genetic differences can be passed from parent to offspring
through genetic inheritance.
Generally, most organisms produce more offspring than the
environment can support.
Therefore, there is always a tendency for struggle for existence due
to competition among individuals for survival.
Those individuals that possess favorable characters that enable them
to compete successfully among themselves are able to survive to
reach the reproductive age and hand over their favourable
characteristic/gene to their offspring.
Those individuals that possess unfavourable characters are not able
to compete successfully, hence they fail to reach their maturity age
hence, do not pass their traits to their offspring’s so they perish
leaving the well adapted individual to survive.
Modern scientist believe that variation is caused by mutations.
They also suggest that variations are determined by genes which are
passed from parents to their offspring.
12
Mutation provides the new materials or genes which are acted upon by
natural selection to produce evolution and emergence of new species.
a) Peppered moth
13
It is known that there is a high frequency of these mutant genes in
places where malaria incidences is high.
This is because those who are heterozygous (Hb A Hbs) have immunity
against malaria, a situation know as ‘’heterozygous advantage’’ thus
the heterozygous individuals are selected for i.e survive malaria
pandemics.
Examples
14
v) Resistance of ticks to various acaricides.
Speciation
Speciation is the emergence of new species.
15