Proceedings of the ASME 2022

International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition

IMECE2022
October 30-November 3, 2022, Columbus, Ohio

IMECE2022-94651

Downloaded from http://asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/IMECE/proceedings-pdf/IMECE2022/86656/V003T03A029/6981009/v003t03a029-imece2022-94651.pdf by Loughborough University user on 10 September 2023

ON THE MICROMECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CONVENTIONAL & 3D-PRINTED REBAR

Seyed M. Allameh Alexis Eckart Jose Fonseca Lopez

Northern Kentucky University Northern Kentucky University Northern Kentucky University
Highland Heights, KY Highland Heights, KY Highland Heights, KY
[email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

Roger Miller Avery Lenihan Hadi Allameh

Northern Kentucky University Gatton Academy of Sullair
Highland Heights, KY Mathematics and Science Michigan City, IN
[email protected] Bowling Green, KY [email protected]
[email protected]

ABSTRACT

This study is focused on the micromechanical properties of and across the longitudinal axis of the rebar and at different
conventional rebar and how they could be used for depths from the surface to investigate their micromechanical
comparison with the 3D printed rebar tensile and fatigue properties. Dog-bone shaped specimens 1000-micron in gage
properties. Current trends in additive manufacturing hint at length with square gage cross sections measuring 200-micron
the eventual use of 3D printing in the construction of homes x 200-micron were extracted from the surface as well as from
and office buildings. Nowadays, 3D printing of homes is the center of thick and thin rebar rods using a HAAS CNC.
being achieved on an experimental basis by depositing Samples were polished to a mirror finish and then tested in
extruded concrete in layers up to the ceiling to make walls, an Instron Electropulse E1000 load frame equipped with
and then building a roof on top of the walls by conventional microgrippers that allowed monotonic and cyclic loading of
methods. This practice is not suitable to make bridges, the samples at a frequency of 50Hz. The results of
multistory office buildings or structures that substantially micromechanical testing obtained from conventional rebar
experience tensile stresses. It is necessary to incorporate are compared with the those obtained from testing micro-
steel rebar in otherwise easily printed concrete structures. specimens machined from mild steel weldments deposited by
One way to achieve this is direct welding of steel into 3D welding on ceramics. The results demonstrate the
concrete by mounting a welder gun on to the 3D printing reliability of mild streel rebar printed by 3D welding onto
head and conducting 3D welding of the rebar. This has been concrete. The implications of the findings on the use of
accomplished and mild steel weldments have been 3D additive manufacturing in 3D printing reinforced concrete
welded onto concrete. To make it acceptable for and how it will impact the construction industry are
construction, the reliability of such printed rebar must be discussed.
investigated. Early results of microscale tensile and fatigue
testing on steel weldments made by additive manufacturing Keywords: Microtesting, Microfatigue, 3D welding,
show desirable mechanical properties. However, the reliability, reinforced concrete, conventional rebar.
comparison has been made with macroscale tensile and
fatigue properties of conventional rebar. To ascertain the
reliability of 3D printed rebar welded onto concrete, it is INTRODUCTION
essential to conduct a comparison with the micromechanical
properties of conventional mild steel rebar. To achieve this, Additive manufacturing methods currently investigated for
micro-specimens were machined off thick and thin building homes include material extrusion, directed energy
conventional rebar in various orientations including along deposition, and particle bed processes. Selective cement paste

1 Copyright © 2022 by ASME

intrusion (SPI) utilizes selective cement paste for bonding Application of microtesting steel weld beads layered on steel
thin layers of aggregates [1]. Cements such as magnesium [35] and on concrete [36] has been demonstrated. This is
potassium phosphate, which produces struvite upon particularly useful to examine the effects of various
hydration, has been suggested as mortar [2]. With proper parameters such as the orientation and position of samples
bonding, almost any construction material locally available within the weld bead made by construction-specific 3D
can be considered for additive manufacturing of homes. This printers [37]. The results obtained by microtesting have
has been tried by Italian architects who built a house in Italy shown tensile and fatigue strengths that exceed those

Downloaded from http://asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/IMECE/proceedings-pdf/IMECE2022/86656/V003T03A029/6981009/v003t03a029-imece2022-94651.pdf by Loughborough University user on 10 September 2023

by 3D printing using soil [3]. Because of the low tensile generated by macroscale testing [35-36]. Orientation of the
strength of concrete, fiber reinforcement in various types has microsamples within the weld bead was demonstrated by
been investigated. Carbon fiber in conventional [4] and microtesting. Samples at the top were stronger than those of
biomimicked concrete [5-6] and hemp [7] have been interface of bead/substate when welding was performed on
investigated to potentially add strength and toughness to the concrete (hotter interface [35]). The reverse was seen for
otherwise brittle material. beads layered on steel (where the bottom cooled faster than
the top [36]).
Fabrication of metallic objects by additive manufacturing is
now commercially feasible for steel, titanium, and
aluminum among other metals. Some of the processes used
are laser beam melting, laser metal deposition, electron
beam melting, and metal paste extrusion followed by
sintering of green metallic bodies [8]. The microstructure
and subsequent properties of the resulting structure have
been related to the processing method and the microstructure
of starting metal powder [9-10]. Fatigue properties have
been shown to depend on the surface roughness and residual
stresses which may lead to scatter in the stress-life plots [11].
The effects of additive manufacturing parameters on the
fatigue properties of metal have been discussed by Hack et
al. [12], and Erdelyi et al. [13] and by Pegues et al. for
austenitic stainless steel [14].

While layering of concrete with added fibers or meshing

Fig. 1 - WaveMatrix from NI to run microtesting on small-
may be adequate for residential housing, commercial structure specimens extracted from various bulk materials.
buildings such as trade towers, skyscrapers, and similar
structures under tensile and shear stresses will need
reinforced concrete. Steel rebar as a standard reinforced Microfatigue testing is necessary to investigate the reliability
element, acceptable for such structures, will need to be of of structures at small size applications [15], [32], [38], [39-
sufficient tensile and fatigue strength. Macro-scale fatigue
40] . In fact, mechanisms of fatigue and fracture have been
testing has been commonly used to determine the cyclic
found to be different for smaller samples tested at microscale
behavior of steel rebar [8]. For reinforced concrete to be 3D-
[16], [23], and [28]. It is dependent on surface characteristics,
printed, the steel rebar must have similar strength and
internal porosity, inclusion, second phase particles, and other
fatigue resistance. This is the focus of this investigation.
flaws. Further, the size effect may express itself as it has been
demonstrated for thick and thin LIGA Ni samples. The LIGA
PRIOR WORK process may cause larger columnar grains in thicker samples
[23].
Microtesting is a well-established method to characterize
the micromechanical properties of materials and structures.
[9-10]. Various materials have been tested [15-28]. These The experimental building of homes by 3D printing [37],
include testing silicon [29-33] at various environments [18]. [41] will soon lead to commercially mature technology that
For microelectromechanical systems (MEMS [34]), will require reliable reinforcing materials such as steel
microtesting is the only option because of their small size. rebar. While macroscale testing of 3D printed rebar
However, with the advent of 3D printing of thin-walled provides the best answer, microtesting as pioneered by
structures, microtesting permits measurement of Sharpe [19] has been shown to provide fast and reliable
mechanical properties in the direction of small dimensions. results for tensile and fatigue testing of structures at a small
scale. Comparison of micro-scale properties of conventional
rebar with those of mild steel weldments layered on

2 Copyright © 2022 by ASME

concrete may shed light on the reliability of 3D printed software was also used. Sinusoidal load wave forms under
rebar and subsequently that of additively manufactured load control at an R=0.1 were applied using WaveMatrix™.
reinforced concrete. Fatigue testing of samples was carried out at a frequency of
50Hz. The Instron machine loading and unloading of samples
at desired force until a certain number of cycles is reached.
a b Alternatively cyclic loading can continue until the sample
fails under the load. For each of the lateral and longitudinal

Downloaded from http://asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/IMECE/proceedings-pdf/IMECE2022/86656/V003T03A029/6981009/v003t03a029-imece2022-94651.pdf by Loughborough University user on 10 September 2023

samples tested, the stress level and life were recorded. Based
on the microfatigue test results, a stress-life plot was created.

a b

4mm 2mm

Fig. 2 - a) Conventional rebar machined into a square bar by

machining. Samples carved in longitudinal direction (vertical)
and lateral direction (horizontal) are seen in pairs. b) Samples
extracted from conventional rebar on a polishing stub. 100 µm
1mm

MATERIALS AND METHODS Fig. 3 – a) Picture of actual samples placed onto the holder on
the top side b) Fatigue fracture surface of a sample with two
distinct areas: fatigue area which is planer and the ductile
To test the fatigue strength of conventional mild steel rebar, fracture area, on the right, which is at an angle.
dog bone shaped samples were machined from a 16-
millimeter diameter piece of steel. The round rebar was
machined on all 4 sides in order to make it square. Dog bone RESULTS
shaped samples were then cut into the machined
conventional rebar using a HAAS CNC end mill. The back The stress vs. displacement of the upper gripper, obtained
sides of the samples were cut with a series of sawing and from the tensile tests conducted on conventional rebar
then grinding/sanding. When the samples were close to specimens is plotted for different samples. They are shown
being released, different grit sandpaper was used to gently in Fig. 4. There are two curves in this figure corresponding
sand the rebar down until the dog bone shaped samples were to specimens extracted from weldment beads made by 3D
released, taking care not to lose or damage the samples in printing. The mechanical behavior of steel weldments laid
any way. A final resizing of the thickness was performed by on steel substrate, in tension, is presented in Fig. 4a. It shows
mounting multiple samples on a 10 mm stub of a special
a high ultimate tensile strength of about 880 MPa. Figs. 4b
polisher using Crystalbond™ (Ted Pella Inc., Redding, CA)
and 4c correspond to specimens extracted in the lateral and
adhesive. The polishing was completed on a clean granite
longitudinal directions of conventional rebar respectively.
stone and the samples were polished down to a mirror finish.
They show ultimate tensile strengths (UTS) of 660 and 640
After polishing, the samples were measured to ensure
MPa. The last plot belongs to 3D-welded beads laid on
accurate results when tested. For testing, the dog bone
samples measured at 1000-micron gage length, and 200- concrete and the strength is comparable to the conventional
micron wide, in addition to 190–204-micron thickness. rebar with a UTS of about 620 MPa.
Samples were extracted in lateral and longitudinal
directions though test were performed, and results are Results of fatigue testing of the samples are shown in Figs.
reported here for micro-specimens from both directions. 5a and 5b. The stress-life data obtained by microfatigue
testing of specimens, extracted in the longitudinal direction,
The polished and measured micro-specimens were then
along the length of conventional rebar, is plotted as S-N
mounted onto the recessed triangular areas of the top and
curve in Fig. 5a (the red round solid red markers). For
bottom grippers of the Instron E1000 Electropulse™ test
comparison purposes, stress-life curve obtained from 3D
machine to undergo the fatigue test. Fig.3a shows the details
of mounting. Instron WaveMatrix™ (Instron Norwood MA) printed weld bead specimens is superimposed on the plot.
The markers for the latter are shown as green diamonds.

3 Copyright © 2022 by ASME

To examine the effect of size effect and frequency of testing
on the results, microfatigue testing data of conventional
rebar are compared with data reported for macro-scale
fatigue results of mild steel rebar. Fig. 5b depicts the size
effect where the microfatigue results suggest a fatigue limit
of about 400MPa, while no such behavior is observed for

Downloaded from http://asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/IMECE/proceedings-pdf/IMECE2022/86656/V003T03A029/6981009/v003t03a029-imece2022-94651.pdf by Loughborough University user on 10 September 2023

the conventional rebar.

The effect of orientation of sample on the fatigue properties

is shown in Fig. 6. The solid round orange markers represent
data obtained from samples extracted in the longitudinal
direction of rebar along its length. The blue hollow squares
represent data from the lateral sample oriented
perpendicular to the longitudinal directions. It should be
noted that both types of the sample are from the same area
in the vicinity of the surface. Except from one sample that
failed early at 430 MPa, the other data points follow a
similar trend suggesting no significant difference between
the two directions.

DISCUSSIONS

The strength values (in the range of 600 to 900 MPa)

obtained by microtesting are all higher compared to the
strength of mild steel rebar or that of mild steel MIG wire
[42] (reported to be in the 517-579MPa range).

Fig. 5 – a) The stress-life (S-N) curve obtained by microtesting

on conventional rebar (round red markers) and 3D welded mild
steel (green diamond markers). b) The stress-life curves for
conventional rebar (Kaps et al. [44]) obtained by macro-scale
testing (light brown triangles) vs that of samples examined by
microtesting (round solid markers). Arrows show continued
life.

This can be easily attributed to size effect. However, the

strengths obtained for microtesting of conventional rebar and
the 3D printed bead welded onto concrete are close, within
Fig. 4 –Comparison of stress-extension curves for 3D printed and
an 8% range (620-670MPa). The weldment on steel is cooled
conventional rebar: a) Steel welded on steel, b) conventional down much faster and therefore shows much higher strength
rebar along the length, c) Conventional rebar across the (about 880MPa). This suggests that the strength of 3D printed
diameter, d) Steel welded on concrete [34]. rebar is comparable to that of conventional rebar, although

4 Copyright © 2022 by ASME

the application is at macroscale. initiation and crack propagation portions of the total life of
the sample under cyclic loading. These two areas are colored
The criterion for reliability of the 3D printed rebar is fatigue green (crack initiation) and red (crack propagation) in Fig. 7.
resistance, which ensures safety of structures reinforced by
3D printed steel rebar. While fatigue testing is done at
microscale and may not be directly related to macro-scale
applications, such results can be compared with those of

Downloaded from http://asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/IMECE/proceedings-pdf/IMECE2022/86656/V003T03A029/6981009/v003t03a029-imece2022-94651.pdf by Loughborough University user on 10 September 2023

microfatigue properties of conventional rebar. Since both
are of mild steel composition, a direct comparison can be
made. Fig. 5a displays the S-N plots of fatigue data for
conventional and 3D printed rebar. With a good
approximation, the fatigue data fall within the same range
of stresses and life cycles. This is another indication that 3D
printed rebar has the potential to be substituted for
conventional rebar. Further tests on 3D printed rebar at
macroscale will provide the ultimate proof as hinted by the
microtesting results presented here.

To examine the size effect on the results of fatigue testing,

a comparison of microfatigue testing of conventional rebar
has been made with the results reported in the literature. Fig.
5b is the superposition of data from macro-scale fatigue
testing of conventional rebar reported by Burton et al. using
Grade 40 and 60 mild steel rebar [8] and data from micro- Fig. 6 – Effect of orientation on the fatigue properties of
fatigue tests [43]. There are two points to consider: a) both conventional rebar: blue squares represent data on lateral
tests produce similarly low fatigue life cycles at high samples while round solid red markers belong to longitudinal
stresses; b) as stress is reduced, life cycles increase, samples extracted along the length of rebar. Arrows indicate
continued life.
however, the rate of increase is different. For microsamples,
such rate of increase is much higher than with macro-
specimens. While a plateau is reached for micro-specimens
at relatively high stresses, no such fatigue limit is observed
in microtesting as reported by Kaps et al. [44]. This clearly
demonstrates the higher impact of size effect at lower
stresses.

The location and orientation of the specimens may affect the

tensile and fatigue properties of the material. This has been
proven for beads welded onto steel substrates [34].
Microtensile monotonic and cyclic loading tests conducted
on conventional rebar do not suggest orientation effect. The
strengths obtained for lateral and longitudinal specimens are
comparable within 4%. The lack of a significant effect of
orientation is also observed in fatigue tests as displayed in
Fig. 6. Except for one data point, all other data points
belonging to the two perpendicular sample groups seem to
follow the same trend.

Crack Initiation and Propagation: The image of fracture

surface (Fig.3b) clearly shows two regions of crack
initiation, which is relatively flat and perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis of the sample, and the ductile region, Fig. 7 – Relative proportion of fatigue life initiation and
which is at an angle. By monitoring the change in the propagation as shown in the increase in the length of the sample.
The ratio of crack propagation to total life is about 7.7%.
magnitude of displacement required to maintain the same
level of stress, it is possible to distinguish the crack

5 Copyright © 2022 by ASME

By comparing the width of crack propagation to the
combined width of the two regions, it is easy to compute the
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
fraction of each stage of fatigue life. For the sample shown
in Fig. 7, fatigue initiation portion of life is about 92.3% and
that of crack propagation is about 7.7%. This is consistent The first author acknowledges the financial support of CAS
with a similar trend observed for the fatigue of Ni MEMS with Dr. McGill as the Dean. The technical assistance of
specimens tested in microfatigue with thicknesses of 70 and Mike Lehrter, lab manager at NKU, is also recognized.

Downloaded from http://asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/IMECE/proceedings-pdf/IMECE2022/86656/V003T03A029/6981009/v003t03a029-imece2022-94651.pdf by Loughborough University user on 10 September 2023

270-microns [24]. For these samples, it was found that a
thinner sample would have a shorter fraction of life spent in
crack propagation. Bibliography

Fatigue properties of rebar have been investigated by [1] D. Weger and C. Gehlen, "Particle-Bed Binding by
Helgeson et al. [45]. Comparing weld material fatigue Selective Paste Intrusion-Strength and Durability of
properties with those of virgin mild steel, Helgeson [46] Printed Fine-Grain Concrete Members," Materials
and Forrest [47] have concluded the strength of parent (Basel), vol. 14, no. 3, p. 586, 2021.
metal is superior to that of the weld because of the [2] H. Ma, B. Xu and Z. Li, "Magnesium potassium
difference in chemical composition and microstructure. phosphate cement paste: Degree of reaction, porosity
This is not seen in microscale fatigue testing which suggests and pore structure," Cement and Concrete Research,
the micromechanical properties of mild steel rebar are vol. 65, no. Nov., pp. 96-104, 2014.
similar to those of welded mild steel. [3] E. Stathaki, "Inside the world's first 3D printed house
in raw earth," 16 April 2021. [Online]. Available:
The viability of 3D printing of reinforced concrete will https://www.wallpaper.com/architecture/tecla-3d-
impact the construction industry. The process allows for printed-house-mario-cuccinela-italy. [Accessed 25 4
faster and more efficient building practices that save 2022].
material, labor, cost, and time, while leading to structures [4] C. Dunn, "3D Printing: Carbon Fiber Reinforced
that are more reliable with the elimination of many human Concrete," 11 1 2022. [Online]. Available:
errors. This is a disruptive technology, which promises to https://www.asti.com/3d-printing-carbon-fiber-
benefit rich and poor nations alike in times of war and peace reinforced-concrete/. [Accessed 25 4 2022].
and in the face of natural disasters. [5] H. Alqahtani and S. Allameh, "Effect of Fiber Form
and Volume Fraction on Fiber-Reinforced
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Biomimicked Composites," in ASME International
Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition,
Microfatigue testing of conventional rebar has been Nov. 9-15 2012, Houston, TX, 2012.
conducted in various orientations and the results have been
[6] S. Allameh, "Effect of Reinforcement Fiber Length
compared with those of 3D printed beads welded onto
on the Mechanical Behavior of Biomimicked
concrete. Based on the results, the following conclusions are
Composites," in International Mechanical
made:
Engineering Congress and Exposition, IMECE2016-
65202, Phoenix, AZ, Nov. 11-17 2016.
• Micromechanical properties of mild steel
weldments are similar to those of conventional [7] S. Allameh and M. Summe, "Mechanical Properties
rebar. of Hemp-Reinforced Biomimicked Composites," in
• The microscale tensile and fatigue strengths of International Mechanical Engineering Congress and
conventional rebar are shown to be significantly Exposition, IMECE2010-38440, Vancouver, BC,
higher than those obtained at macro-scale. This has Nov. 12-18 2010.
been attributed to size effect. [8] C. Qui, M. Kindi, A. S. Aladawi and I. Hatami, "A
• Samples extracted in the direction of length and in comprehensive study on microstructure and tensile
a direction perpendicular to it show similar tensile behaviour of a selectively laser melted stainless
and fatigue strengths. This suggests no significant steel," Scientific Reports, vol. 8, p. 7785.
effect of orientation on mechanical properties at [9] D. Herzog, V. Seyda, E. Wycisk and C. Emmelmann,
microscale. "Additive manufacturing of metals," Acta
• The initiation stage fraction of fatigue life is seen Materialia, vol. 117, pp. 371-392, 15 September
to constitute as much as 92.7% of total fatigue life. 2016.
[10] H. D. Carlton, A. Haboub, G. F. Gallegos and D. Y.
Parkinson, "Damage evolution and failure

6 Copyright © 2022 by ASME

 mechanisms in additively manufactured stainless [21] Y. Yang, S. Allameh, J. Lou, B. Imasogie, B. L.
steel," Mater. Sci. Eng. A, vol. 651, pp. 406-414, Boyce and W. O. Soboyejo, "Fatigue of LIGA Ni
2016. micro-electro-mechanical system thin films,"
[11] E. Wycisk, A. Solbach, S. Siddique, D. Hezog, F. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A:
Walther and C. Emmelmann, "Effects of Defects in Physical Metallurgy and Materials Science, vol. 38
Laser Additive Manufactured Ti-6Al-4V on Fatigue A, no. 13, 2007.
Properties," Physics Procedia, vol. 56, pp. 371-378, [22] Y. Yang, B. I. Imasogie, S. M. Allameh, B. Boyce,

Downloaded from http://asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/IMECE/proceedings-pdf/IMECE2022/86656/V003T03A029/6981009/v003t03a029-imece2022-94651.pdf by Loughborough University user on 10 September 2023

2014. K. Lian, J. Lou and W. O. Soboyejo, "Mechanisms
[12] M. Hack, N. Lammens, H. Erdelyi, T. Craeghs, S. of fatigue in LIGA Ni MEMS thin films," Materials
Cornelissen, B. Van Hooreweder and J. Science and Engineering A, vol. 444, no. 1-2, 2007.
Wanwalleghem, "Influences of the Additive [23] J. Lou, S. Allameh, T. Buccheit and W. O. Soboyejo,
Manufacturing Process on Local Fatigue Properties "An investigation of the effects of thickness on
in Metallic Components," Procedia Structural mechanical properties of LIGA nickel MEMS
Integrity 19, pp. 442-451, 2019. structures," Journal of Materials Science, vol. 38, no.
[13] H. Erdelyi, N. Lammens, W. VanPaepegem and B. 20, 2003.
Van Hooreweder, "Impact of Additive [24] J. Lou, P. Shrotriya, S. Allameh, T. Buchheit and W.
Manufacturing Process Conditions on the Fatigue O. Soboyejo, "Strain gradient plasticity length scale
Performance of Metallic Components," in NAFEMS parameters for LIGA Ni MEMs thin films,"
DACH Conference, Bamberg, Germany, 14-16 May Materials Science and Engineering A, vol. 441, no.
2018. 1-2, 2006.
[14] W. Pegues, M. Roach and N. Shamsaei, "Additive [25] J. Lou, P. Shrotriya, S. Allameh, T. Buchheit and W.
manufacturing of fatigue resistant austenitic stainless O. Soboyejo, "On the Role of Plasticity Length Scale
steels by understanding process-structure–property Parameters in Multi-Scale Modeling," 2003.
relationships," Materials Research Letters, vol. 8, [26] J. Lou, P. Shrotriya, S. Allameh, N. Yao, T. Buchheit
no. 1, pp. 7-15, 2019. and W. O. Soboyejo, "Plasticity length scale in LIGA
[15] S. M. Allameh, "Mechanical Properties of MEMS," nickel MEMS structures," Materials Research
in Advanced Mechatronics and MEMS Devices II. Society Symposium - Proceedings, vol. 687, 2002.
Microsystems and Nanosystems, D. Zhang and B. [27] S. M. Allameh, M. S. Hossieny and M. Rajai,
Wei, Eds., Springer, 2017, pp. 133-151. "Development of microtesting systems: I. Tensile
[16] S. M. Allameh, "An introduction to mechanical- testing of metallic microsamples," ASEE Annual
properties-related issues in MEMS structures," Conference and Exposition, Conference
Journal of Materials Science, vol. 38, pp. 4115-4123, Proceedings, 2005.
2003. [28] S. M. Allameh, J. Lou, F. Kavishe, T. Buchheit and
[17] J. Wardlow and S. M. Allameh, "On the W. O. Soboyejo, "An investigation of fatigue in
micromechanical characterization of metallic LIGA Ni MEMS thin films," Materials Science and
MEMS by a hybfid microtester," in ASME Engineering A, vol. 371, no. 1-2, 2004.
International Mechanical Engieering Congress and [29] P. Shrotriya, S. M. Allameh, J. Lou, T. Buchheit and
Exposition, IMECE 2015-50942, Houston, TX, Nov. W. O. Soboyejo, "On the measurement of the
13-19 2015. plasticity length scale parameter in LIGA nickel
[18] S. M. Allameh and J. Wardlow, "Environmental foils," Mechanics of Materials, vol. 35, no. 3-6,
effects on the mechanical behavior of covetic 2003.
aluminum mems components," ASME International [30] P. Shrotriya, S. Allameh, A. Butterwick, S. Brown
Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition, and W. O. Soboyejo, "Mechanisms of fatigue in
Proceedings (IMECE), vol. 10, Nov. 3-9, 2017. polysilicon MEMS structures," Materials Research
[19] W. N. Sharpe Jr. and A. McAleavey, "Tensile Society Symposium - Proceedings, vol. 687, 2002.
properties of LIGA nickel," Proceedings of SPIE, , [31] P. Shrotriya, S. Allameh, S. Brown, Z. Suo and W.
vol. 3512, pp. 130-137, 1998. O. Soboyejo, "Fatigue Damage Evolution in Silicon
[20] Y. Yang, S. Allameh, B. Boyce, K. S. Chan and W. Films for Micromechanical Applications,"
O. Soboyejo, "An experimental study of fracture of Experimental Mechanics, vol. 43, no. 3, 2003.
LIGA Ni micro-electro-mechanical systems thin [32] S. M. Allameh, P. Shrotriya, A. Butterwick, S.
films," Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A: Brown, N. Yao and W. Soboyejo, "Surface
Physical Metallurgy and Materials Science, vol. 38, topography evolution and fatigue fracture of
no. 6, 2007. polysilicon," Journal of Materials Science, vol. 38,

7 Copyright © 2022 by ASME

 no. 20, 2003. [40] S. M. Allameh, P. Shrotriya, A. Butterwick, S. B.
[33] S. M. Allameh, "Processing of MEMS and NEMS," Brown and W. O. Soboyejo, "Surface topography
in Handbook of Nanotechnology for evolution and fatigue fracture in polysilicon MEMS
Telecommunications, S. Anvar, M. Yasin, A. Raja, structures," Journal of Microelectromechanical
S. Qazi and M. Ilyas, Eds., CRC Press, 2010, pp. Systems, vol. 12, no. 3, 2003.
207-227. [41] S. M. Allameh, R. Miller and A. Almuzaini,
[34] S. M. Allameh, A. Lenihan, R. Miller and H. "Combinatorial investigation of mechanical

Downloaded from http://asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/IMECE/proceedings-pdf/IMECE2022/86656/V003T03A029/6981009/v003t03a029-imece2022-94651.pdf by Loughborough University user on 10 September 2023

Allameh, "Fatigue properties of 3D welded thin properties of biomimicked composites," ASME
structures," ASME International Mechanical International Mechanical Engineering Congress and
Engineering Congress and Exposition, Proceedings Exposition, Proceedings (IMECE), vol. 12, 2019.
(IMECE), vol. 12, 2020. [42] ESAB, "Mild Steel Wires," Welding & Cutting
[35] S. M. Allameh, B. Harbin and B. Leininger, Products, [Online]. Available: https://www.norco-
"Mechanical properties of 3D printed metals," in inc.com/ASSETS/DOCUMENTS/ITEMS/EN/ESB-
ASME International Mechanical Engineering 321M116700-SpecSheet.pdf. [Accessed 26 April
Congress and Exposition IMECE2018-26310, 2021].
Pittsburgh, PA, 2018. [43] S. Allameh, D. Alexander, R. Miller, A. Lenihan and
[36] S. M. Allameh and M. Ortiz Rejon, "Mechanical H. Allameh, "On the Fatigue Properties of 3D Steel
properties of steel printed on ceramics," in ASME Structures Welded onto Ceramics," in ASME
International Mechanical Engineering Congress and International Mechanical Engineering Congress and
Exposition, IMECE2019-10392, Salt Lake City, UT, Exposition, IMECE2021-72572, Virtual, Nov. 16-19
Nov. 8-14, 2019. 2021.
[37] S. M. Allameh, "On the development of a 3D printer [44] P. Kopas, L. Jakubovicova, M. Vaskoa and M.
for combinatorial structural composite research," in Handrik, "Fatigue resistance of reinforing steel bars,"
ASME International Mechanical Engienering Procedia Engineering, vol. 136, pp. 193-197, 2016.
Congress and Exposition , IMECE2015-50962, [45] T. Helgason, J. M. Hanson, N. F. Somes, W. G.
Houston, TX, No. 13-19, 2015. Corley and E. Hognestad, "FATIGUE STRENGTH
[38] S. M. Allameh, "Silicon-Based OF HIGH-YIELD REINFORCING BARS,"
Microelectromechanical Systems (Si-MEMS)," in TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD,
Advanced Structural Materials: Properties, Design NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL, Report 164,
Optimization and Applications, W. O. Soboyejo and Skokie, IL, 1976.
T. S. Srivatasa, Eds., CRC Press, 2007, pp. 65-101. [46] K. T. Burton, "Fatigue Tests of Reinforcing Bars,"
[39] P. Shrotriya, S. M. Allameh and W. O. Soboyejo, PCA Research and Development Laboratories, vol.
"On the evolution of surface morphology of 7, no. 3, pp. 13-23, Sept. 1965.
polysilicon MEMS structures during fatigue," [47] P. G. Forrest, Fatigue of metals, Pergamon Press,
Mechanics of Materials, vol. 36, no. 1-2, 2004. 1962.

8 Copyright © 2022 by ASME