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Antinutrients in Plant-based Foods: A Review

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REVIEW ARTICLE

Antinutrients in Plant-based Foods: A Review

Aneta Popova1 and Dasha Mihaylova2,*
1
Department of Catering and Tourism, University of Food Technologies, 26 Maritza Blvd., 4002, Plovdiv, Bulgaria
2
Department of Biotechnology, University of Food Technologies, 26 Maritza Blvd., 4002, Plovdiv, Bulgaria

Abstract: Modern society has easy access to a vast informational database. The pursuit of sustainable green and healthy lifestyle leads to a series
of food choices. Therefore, it is of importance to provide reliable, comprehensive and up-to-date information about food content including both
nutritional and antinutritional elements.
Nutrients are associated with positive effects on human health. Antinutrients, on the other hand, are far less popular for the contemporary man.
They are highly bioactive, capable of deleterious effects as well as some beneficial health effects in man, and vastly available in plant-based foods.
These compounds are of natural or synthetic origin, interfere with the absorption of nutrients, and can be responsible for some mischievous effects
related to the nutrient absorption. Some of the common symptoms exhibited by a large amount of antinutrients in the body can be nausea, bloating,
headaches, rashes, nutritional deficiencies, etc. Phytates, oxalates, and lectins are few of the well-known antinutrients.
Science has acknowledged several ways in order to alter the negative influence antinutrients exhibiting on human health. Mechanical, thermal and
biochemical approaches act synergistically to provide food with lower antinutritional levels.
The purpose of this review was to synthesize the availability of antinutrients, clear their effect on the human body, and commemorate possible
paths to disable them. This review provides links to the available literature as well as enables a systematic view of the recently published research
on the topic of plant-based antinutrients.

Keywords: Antinutritional factors, Plant-based foods, Beneficial effect, Antinutrients, Food content , Biochemical approaches .

Article History Received: March 08, 2019 Revised: May 22, 2019 Accepted: June 06, 2019

1. INTRODUCTION other adverse effects. Antinutrients are frequently related to

plant-based, raw or vegan diets and are naturally synthesized in
Food is an essential part of people’s lives. Despite the
plants [4]. Some of the common symptoms exhibited by a large
world produces enough food for everyone, over 800 million
number of antinutrients in the body can be nausea, bloating,
people still go to bed hungry [1]. Furthermore, malnutrition
headaches, rashes, nutritional deficiencies, etc. [5]. On the
and hunger-related diseases cause over 60% of deaths [2].
other hand, such chemical compounds can be evidently
Eliminating hunger and malnutrition is one of the most
advantageous to humankind when consumed wisely. In fact,
fundamental challenges facing humanity [3]. Moreover, food
plants, for their own defense, primarily use antinutrients.
sufficiency is not the last aspect of importance; food nutritional
quality is of critical demand as well as the effects of the Although people’s sensitivity to antinutrients widely
accepted food portion, in particular. From this point of view, differs adequate food processing is initially recommended to
the topic of the present review antinutrients raises essential reduce antinutritional factors [6]. A person cannot eliminate
questions about human health and contributes to the under- antinutrients once they have been introduced to the body.
standing of what people actually eat and what the possible Eliminating and reintroducing specific foods that contain
resulting effects can be. antinutrients can clear the correlation between symptoms and
Antinutritional factors are primarily associated with effects on human health. In this regard, the biochemical effects
compounds or substances of natural or synthetic origin, which of the anti-nutritional factors are an object of research interest
interfere with the absorption of nutrients, and act to reduce [7 - 10] Most of the secondary metabolites, acting as anti-
nutrient intake, digestion, and utilization and may produce nutrients, elicit very harmful biological responses, while some
of them are widely applied in nutrition and as pharmaco-
* Address correspondence to this author at the Department of Biotechnology, logically-active agents [11, 12].
University of Food Technologies, 26 Maritza Blvd., 4002, Plovdiv, Bulgaria; Tel:
+359 898 742 397; E-mail: [email protected] Antinutrients are found in their highest concentrations in

DOI: 10.2174/1874070701913010068, 2019, 13, 68-76

Antinutrients in Plant-based Foods The Open Biotechnology Journal, 2019, Volume 13 69

grains, beans, legumes and nuts, but can also be found in lead to cancer but lectins have not yet been recognized as
leaves, roots and fruits of certain varieties of plants. The major cancer causing.
antinutrients found in plant-based foods are phytates, tannins,
Not all variety of lectins are toxic or responsible for
lectins, oxalates, etc. Antinutrients in vegetables, whole grains,
intestinal damage. Lectins can be found in plant species such as
legumes and nuts are a concern only when a person’s diet is
wheat, beans, quinoa, peas, etc. [25]. As grains are a common
composed exclusively of uncooked plant foods. Oxalate, for
part of the birds’ diet, it has been found that birds themselves
instance, prevents calcium from being absorbed in the body by
are resistant to grains lectins [26]. Acne, inflammation,
binding with it [13]. Raw spinach, kale, broccoli and soybeans
migraines or joint pains can be caused by the consumption of
usually contain oxalates [14]. When consuming excessive
lectins [27]. Lectins are usually found in the hull so choosing
tannins, which are associated with tea, wine, some fruit, and
white rice can lower the lectin intake. Heating plant sources in
chocolate, enzymes responsible for protein absorption may be
the process of cooking can significantly lower the amount of
inactivated. Phytates are present in grains, nuts and seeds,
lectins in them. White potatoes, for instance, have a higher
while peppers, eggplants, and tomatoes contain lectins.
lectin content compared to sweet potatoes [28]. Almonds are
Phytates consumption may lead a lower mineral absorption and
lectins are able to cause various reactions to the body [15]. also a richer lectin source than peanuts [29].
Saponins, on the other hand, have been linked to red blood
2.2. Trypsin Inhibitors
cells damaging, enzyme inhibition and thyroid function
intervention [16]. Trypsin inhibitors occur in a wide range of foods like
chickpeas, soybeans, red kidney beans, adzuki beans, mung
There are several approaches to oppose antinutritional
beans and other representatives of the Leguminoseae,
factors. Modern biotechnology`s techniques could reduce the
Solanaceae, and Gramineae families [30]. Ten percent of the
level of certain allergens and antinutrients in food. Genome
world’s dietary protein is derived from grain legumes [31].
editing biotechnology can create mutations and substitutions in
Trypsin inhibitors redound to the loss of trypsin and chymo-
plant and other eukaryotic cells based on nuclease-based forms
trypsin in the gut, thus preventing protein digestion. Excess
of engineering such as the TALENS (Transcription Activator-
Like Effector Nucleases) or the CRISPR (Clustered Regularly trypsin synthesis and burden on sulfur-containing amino acids
Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats)/CRISPR-Associated in requirement of the body are due to the release of chole-
Systems (CAS) [17, 18]. Providing an enhanced level of cystokinin triggered by trypsin inhibitors [32].
prebiotic in the body can positively influence the effects of
2.3. Alpha-amylase Inhibitors
antinutrients [19]. A classic approach to remove antinutrients is
to treat the product thermally, use methods such as extrusion, Inhibition of α-amylase is considered a strategy for the
autoclaving, hydrotechniques, enzymatic and harvest treat- treatment of disorders in carbohydrate uptake, by reducing
ments, etc. [20]. insulin levels, as well as, dental caries and periodontal diseases
[33]. Amylase inhibitors are substances that bind to alpha
The nutritional value of foods strongly depends on their
amylases making them inactive [34]. Two roles of α-amylase
nutritional and antinutritional composition. This review was
designed to synthesize the availability of antinutrients, clear inhibitors have been identified. The primary function of
their effect on the human body, and commemorate possible inhibitors is protecting the seed against microorganisms and
paths to disable them. pests, and the other function is the inhibition of the endogenous
α-amylase [35]. However, the instability of this inhibitor under
2. ANTINUTRIENTS IN PLANT-BASED FOODS the conditions of the gastrointestinal tract and being a very
heat-liable constituent results in its failure to be used as starch
2.1. Lectins blocker [36]. It is used to control human diabetes type two [37]
and finds several applications in the food industry [38, 39].
Lectins, particularly abundant in plants, are proteins or
glycoproteins of non-immune origin. They have the ability to 2.4. Protease Inhibitors
bind, without modifying, to either carbohydrates or glyco-
conjugates (glycoproteins, glycolipids, polysaccharides). They Proteases are key cell-process-regulation enzymes that are
can successfully recognize animal cell carbohydrates, which found in all cells and tissues. Protease inhibitors are commonly
corresponds to the Latin derivation of the word legere meaning present in raw cereals and legumes, especially soybean.
to select [21]. Lectins have a variety of roles. They can bypass Protease inhibitors bind to their target proteins reversibly or
human defense system and travel all over the body causing irreversibly. Growth inhibition, pancreatic hypertrophy [40],
diseases (i.e. Crohn’s disease, Coeliac-Sprue, colitis, etc.) by and poor food utilization [41] are associated with protease
breaking down the surface of the small intestine [22]. When inhibitors’ antinutrient activity. Exopeptidases remove amino
large quantities of lectins are introduced in the body, the gut acids from the C- or N-terminus, whereas endopeptidases are
wall develops holes, and intestinal permeability, causing the capable of cleaving peptides within the molecule [42]. Grain
leaky gut syndrome. Lectins can make cells act as if they have eating birds have evolved digestive enzymes that are resistant
been stimulated by insulin or cause the insulin release by the to grain protease inhibitors [26]. In human volunteers and in
pancreas. Lectins can also cause autoimmune diseases by animal experiments, high levels of protease inhibitors lead to
presenting wrong immune system codes and stimulating the an increased secretion of digestive enzymes by the pancreas
growth of some white blood cells [23, 24]. This may possibly [43].
70 The Open Biotechnology Journal, 2019, Volume 13 Popova and Mihaylova

Table 1. Antinutrients in different foods [29, 68 - 80].

Source Type Amount

Phytic acid 386-714 mg/100g
Saponins 106-170 mg/100g
Legumes (soya, lentils, chick peas, peanuts, Cyanide 2-200 mg/100g
beans) Tannins 1.8-18 mg/g
Trypsin inhibitor 6.7 mg/100g
Oxalates 8 mg/kg
Grains (wheat, barley, rye, oat, millet, corn, Phytic acid 50-74 mg/g
spelt, kamut, sorgho) Oxalates 35-270 mg/100g
Phytic acid
Pseudo-grains: quinoa, amaranth, wheat, Lectins 0.5-7.3 g/100g
buckwheat, teff Saponins 0.04-2.14 ppm
Goitrogens
Nuts: almonds, hazelnut, cashew, pignola, Phytic acid 150-9400 mg/100g
pistachio, brazil nuts, walnuts, macadamia, Lectins 37-144 μg/g
etc. Oxalates 40-490 mg/100g
Phytic acid 1-10.7 g/100g
Seeds: sesame, flaxseed, poppy seed,
Alpha-amylase inhibitor 0.251 mg/mL
sunflower, pumpkin
Cyanide 140-370 ppm
Oxalates 0.4-2.3 mg/100g
Tubers: carrot, sweet potato, Jerusalem
Tannins 4.18-6.72 mg/100g
artichoke, manioc (or tapioca), yam
Phytates 0.06-0.08 mg/100g
Phytic acid 0.82-4.48 mg/100g
Nighshades: potato, tomato, eggplant, Tannins 0.19 mg/100g
pepper Saponins 0.16-0.25 mg/100g
Cyanide 1.6-10.5 mg/100g

Fig. (1). Structure of some antinutrient substances.

Antinutrients in Plant-based Foods The Open Biotechnology Journal, 2019, Volume 13 71

2.5. Tannins metabolizable energy and protein utilization [59]. Research has
shown that RFO removal has improved the digestion of all
Plant tannins are a major group of antioxidant polyphenols
amino acids increasing the overall nutritional value of the lupin
found in food and beverages that attracts research interest with
diet [60].
its multifunctional properties to human health. Tannins are
oligomers of flavan-3-ols and flavan-3, 4-diols that are
2.9. Saponins
concentrated in the bran fraction of legumes [44]. Grapes and
green tea are rich in this water-soluble polyphenol [45]. Some saponins (steroid or triterpene glycoside compounds)
Tannins exhibit antinutritional properties by impairing the can be used for food while others are toxic. Saponins with a
digestion of various nutrients and preventing the body from bitter taste are toxic in high concentrations and can affect
absorbing beneficial bioavailable substances [46]. Tannins can nutrient absorption by inhibiting enzymes (metabolic and
also bind and shrink proteins. Tannin-protein complexes may digestive) as well as by binding with nutrients such as zinc.
cause digestive enzymes inactivation and protein digestibility Saponins are naturally occurring substances with various
reduction caused by protein substrate and ionisable iron biological effects. In the presence of cholesterol, saponins
interaction [47]. exhibit strong hypocholesterolemic effect [61]. They can also
lead to hypoglycemia [62] or impair the protein digestion,
2.6. Phytates uptake vitamins and minerals in the gut, as well as lead to the
Phytates occur in several vegetable products. Seeds, grains, development of a leaky gut [63].
nuts and legumes store phosphorus as phytic acid in their husks
in the form of phytin or phytate salt. Their presence may affect 2.10. Oxalates
bioavailability of minerals, solubility, functionality and diges- Some organic acids can have antinutritional factors. Oxalic
tibility of proteins and carbohydrates [41]. Phytic acid is most acid can form soluble (potassium and sodium) or insoluble
concentrated in the bran of grains [48]. In legumes, phytic acid (calcium, magnesium, iron) salts or esters called oxalates that
is found in the cotyledon layer and can be removed prior to are commonly found in plants i.e. leafy vegetables or syn-
consumption [49]. The digestive enzyme phytase can unlocked thesized in the body [64]. Insoluble salts cannot be processed
the phosphorus stored as phytic acid. In the absence of phytase, out of the urinary tract once processed through the digestive
phytic acid can impede the absorption of other minerals like system. Calcium oxalate can have a deleterious effect on
iron, zinc, magnesium and calcium by binding to them [50]. human nutrition and health by accumulating kidney stones
This results in highly insoluble salts that are poorly absorbed [65]. Cruciferous vegetables (kale, radishes, cauliflower,
by the gastrointestinal tract leading to lower bioavailability of broccoli), as well as chard, spinach, parsley, beets, rhubarb,
minerals. Phytates also inhibit digestive enzymes like pepsin, black pepper, chocolate, nuts, berries (blueberries, black-
trypsin and amylase [51]. berries) and beans are some of the foods with high amounts of
oxalates [66]. Most people can induct normal amounts of
2.7. Goitrogens oxalate rich foods, while people with certain conditions, such
Hypothyroidism is increasing daily worldwide as the as enteric and primary hyperoxaluria, need to lower their
thyroid gland is highly sensitive to stress and environmental oxalate intake. In sensitive people, even small amounts of
stimuli [52]. Goitrogens interfere with iodine uptake and thus, oxalates can result in burning in the eyes, ears, mouth, and
affect thyroid function. Vegetables from the genus Brassica i.e. throat; large amounts may cause abdominal pain, muscle
broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts and kale are weakness, nausea, and diarrhea [67].
some of the goitrogen rich foods [53]. The consumption of Table 1 is revealing some food sources with the typical
cruciferous vegetables affects triiodothyronine (T3) and thy- antinutrients contained in them as well as the amounts
roxine (T4) levels by causing hypothyroidism [54]. Concomi-
variables.
tant factors can be insufficient water consumption and protein
malnutrition [55]. 2.11. Exorphins
2.8. Raffinose Oligosaccharides The alcohol-soluble proteins (proalimins) of cereal grains
and dairy products called gliadins can be further degraded to a
Raffinose, stachyose and verbascose, all part of the
collection of opioid-like polypeptides named exorphins in the
Raffinose Family Oligosaccharides (RFOs), are synthesized
gastrointestinal tract [81]. Behavioral traits such as spon-
from sucrose. Non-digestible oligosaccarides have a prebiotic
taneous behavior, memory, and pain perception can be affected
effect in the lower intestine by promoting the growth of
by the bioactivity of food-derived exorphins [82]. Exorphins
Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus that inhibit pathogenic
can also influence gastric emptying and intestinal transit by
growth [56]. The absence of appropriate enzyme activity to
increasing its time [83]. The digestion of milk produces alpha-
hydrolyse RFOs (α-galactosidase) leads to the inability of
casein-derived exorphins [84]. Recent research suggests that
humans and to digest RFOs an allow them to pass through the
epigenetic effects of milk-derived opiate peptides may
intestinal wall intact [51, 57]. A correlation between legumes
contribute to gastrointestinal dysfunction and inflam-mation in
consumption and the likelihood of intestinal discomfort has
sensitive individuals [85].
been drawn leading to symptoms like burping, abdominal pain,
and bloating [57]. The presence of RFO in the daily food intake Fig. (1) pinpoints some of the widely speard antinutrients
can interfere with the digestion nutrients [58]. RFO can reduce in plant-based foods.
72 The Open Biotechnology Journal, 2019, Volume 13 Popova and Mihaylova

2.12. Contextual Antinutrients plant bioactives and antinutrients, in addition to the chemical
structure, time of exposure and interaction with other dietary
Some supplements or foods rich in certain nutrients can
components. Many factors influence their activity. They can
create reactions of an antinutrient nature. For instance,
both be considered as antinutritional factors with negative
calcium-rich foods can impede iron absorption. There is also a
effects or non-nutritive compounds with positive health effects.
mutual antagonism between zinc and copper during the
Consumers’ awareness is crucial especially when abnormal
absorption process, taking place in/on the intestinal epithelium
health conditions are established.
[86]. Research literature suggests that phytosterols [87] and
phospholipids [88] may reduce cholesterol absorption when
4. DISABLING ANTINUTRIENTS
added to nonfat foods. Some foods can interfere with
medication absorption [89]. The most well publicized food- Removing undesirable food components is essential to
drug interaction is that of grapefruit and a variety of drugs. their quality improvement. Different techniques i.e. soaking,
Bergamottin found in grapefruit juice inactivates drug- cooking, fermentation, radiation, germination and chemical
metabolizing enzymes. This is the reason why food interaction treatment can come in as handy instruments for antinutritional
warnings are listed on some medical labels. Studies have found disabling [98, 99]. The combination of several of the above-
that resveratrol, found in red wine and peanuts, inhibits platelet mentioned methods may be more effective in removing anti-
aggregation, and high intakes could increase the risk of nutrients than using a sole technique.
bleeding when consumed with anticoagulant drugs [90]. Soaking: Soaking can be seen as one of the easiest
Canadian researchers have documented that black tea was a physical processes to remove soluble antinutritional factors.
more powerful enzyme inhibitor than single-ingredient herbal Soaking in distilled water, 1% NaHCO3 and mixed salt solu-
teas (St. John’s Wort, feverfew, cat’s claw, etc.) [91]. Another tions reduced total phenols, ortho-dihydroxyphenols, tannins
well-known food-drug interaction is that of foods containing and phytates by 33, 41, 35 and 21 percentages respectively
tyramine (chocolate, beer, wine, avocados, etc.) and mono- [100]. Soaking decreased the total protein, soluble sugar and
amine oxidase inhibitors (type of antidepressant) [92]. The tannins, in soybean flour [101]. Soaking and sprouting grains,
most medically consequential food-drug interaction is that of nuts, seeds, and beans are an excellent way to deactivate
vitamin K-rich foods (e.g. broccoli, spinach) and Coumadin, an enzyme inhibitors [102]. However, lectin is not affected by this
anticoagulant prescribed to thin the blood and prevent clots method of deactivation.
[93].
Fermentation: Fermenting assorted grain flour with L.
3. ANTINUTRIENTS AND HUMAN HEALTH acidophilus at 37°C for 24 h led to the reduction of phytic acid
and polyphenol content [103]. Recent research has shown a
While antinutrients can be problematic, some may also
general noticeable reduction in the entire antinutrient properties
provide health benefits. The consumers should be aware of any
of soybean for a day of fermentation [104]. Ojokoh et al. [105]
possible effect whether beneficial and/or negative. Moreover,
have studied the effect of fermentation on the antinutritional
concentration-dependent effects must be considered. Data may
composition of breadfruit and cowpea flours showing a
be manipulated in respect of health related advantages so that
significant reduction of the hydrogen cyanide, oxalate and
chronic diseases management becomes possible [32].
phytate content. Fermentation is reported to increase the
Antinutrients are valuable active ingredients in food and protein content in chickpea by 13% and decrease the content of
drinks. When used at low levels, phytic acid, lectins and phytic acid by 45% [106]. Adeyemo et al. [107] assessed the
phenolic compounds as well as enzyme inhibitors and saponins effects of fermentation of sorghum at 0, 72 and 120 hours on
have been shown to reduce blood glucose and/or plasma chol- trypsin inhibitor, protease inhibitor, phytate and tannin. A
esterol and triacylglycerols. Furtermore, saponins are reported significant reduction of trypsin inhibitor (69%); protease
to act effectively in maintaining liver function, preventing inhibitor (30%); phytate (60%) and tannin (72%) was observed
steoporosis as well as platelet agglutination [94]. Meanwhile, at 120 h with L. plantarum used as starter culture. On the other
phenolic compounds from plant sources, phytic acid, protease hand, L. brevis as starter appeared to be effective at 120h with
inhibitors, saponins, lignans and phytoestrogens have been 58% reduction of trypsin inhibitor; 40% of protease inhibitor;
demonstrated to reduce cancer risks. Another group of anti- 70% of phytate and 56% of tannin.
nutrient compounds, like tannins, were found to possess
Sprouting (Germination): Germination is one of the most
possible antiviral [95], antibacterial [96] and antiparasitic
effective processes for the reduction of anti-nutritive com-
effects [97].
pounds i.e. phytate levels [108]. The trypsin inhibitor activity,
Some compounds such as phytoestrogens and lignans have amylase inhibitor activity and phytate content of soy-bean
also been linked to induction of infertility in humans. There- variety MACS-13 decreased with sprouting [109]. Kanensi et
fore, it is prudent to examine all aspects of food antinutrients, al. [110] report a lower antinutrient level of germi-nated
including their potential health benefits and methods of amaranth seeds. The levels of tannins and phytate were
analyses [32]. insignificant. To overcome the antinutritional levels, Kajla et
al. [111] also adopted the germination process in flax seeds.
The above mentioned implies that antinutrients could be
Other authors reaffirm that germination leads to increased
valuable tools for managing various diseases. They might not
nutritional and decreased anti-nutrients content in plant-based
always be harmful even though they lack nutritional value.
foods [112].
What is most important is focusing on dosage intake in order to
find the balance between beneficial and hazardous effects of Heating: Cooking whole grains, beans and vegetables can
Antinutrients in Plant-based Foods The Open Biotechnology Journal, 2019, Volume 13 73

reduce certain antinutrients such as phytic acid, tannins, and CONFLICT OF INTEREST
oxalic acid. Protease inhibitors are easily denatured by heat
The authors declare no conflict of interest, financial or
treatment due to their protein nature [113]. Research has shown
otherwise.
that antinutrient levels are reduced with controlled heating at a
temperature less than boiling for at least 15 minutes [114]. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Autoclaving can also drastically decrease the content of
tannins, phytic acid, hydrogen cyanide, trypsin inhibitors and Declared none.
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