CSCE Annual Conference

Growing with youth – Croître avec les jeunes

Laval (Greater Montreal)

June 12 - 15, 2019

SELF-HEALING CONCRETE: A REVIEW OF RECENT RESEARCH

DEVELOPMENTS AND EXISTING RESEARCH GAPS

Sina Mahmoodi1,2, Pedram Sadeghian1

1 Dalhousie University, Canada
2 [email protected]

Abstract: Self-healing materials are defined as the materials that are able to partially or completely restore
their original functionality after they have been damaged. In cementitious materials, such as concrete, this
concept is referred to the capability of material to seal the cracks without any manual interventions after
damage, accompanied by regaining of the mechanical properties, which results in a more durable and
sustainable structure. In addition to the available literature which fully describes different methods of
applying self-healing into cement-based materials and evaluates their efficiency, new approaches and
novel techniques have been proposed for this purpose. This paper presents a brief review of both
autogenous and autonomous mechanisms of self-healing, with an emphasize on the recent research
advancements. Since the major concern regarding the application of autonomous self-healing in concrete
structures is the additional cost caused by the healing agents, the improvement of autogenous self-healing
which is an inherent performance of cementitious materials by providing a favorable condition for the
process (e.g. high-performance fiber reinforced cementitious composites) may pave the way towards
construction industry. However, there are still a few aspects of self-healing concrete missing in the literature
that inhibits this technology from being utilized in the construction. Therefore, a comprehensive section is
proposed in this paper discussing the major gaps and outlooks in the field of self-healing concrete.

1 INTRODUCTION
Concrete is a frequently used construction material worldwide due to its relatively low cost and design
flexibility. Despite its proven advantages, concrete often exhibits cracks which appear due to excessive
tensile stresses or environmental conditions. These cracks are allowed to happen and are not considered
as a failure in reinforced concrete (RC) members, as long as their width does not exceed a specified
criterion. However, via these cracks, aggressive substances enter into concrete causing degradation and
reinforcement corrosion. As a result of these phenomena, durability and mechanical performance of the
concrete structure is compromised and its service life will be reduced. Therefore, it is vivid that the
monitoring, maintenance, and repair of concrete cracks is of great importance.
However, the continuous inspection of cracks and repairing them is difficult, especially when it comes to
cracks in infrastructures such as bridges, highways or tunnels. In spite of the fact that cracks in
infrastructures are not easily accessible and require a considerable amount of labor and budget, many of
these infrastructures are in continuous service which makes repairing even more difficult. It was also
reported that in Europe, 50% of the annual construction budget is spent on repair works to prolong the
service life of the structures (Cailleux and Pollet 2009). Apart from the high costs demanded for repair, most
of the conventional repairs can only last for ten to fifteen years (Van Breugel 2007). Under such
circumstances, the most effective method for repairing the cracks is to provide an automatic healing

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mechanism that triggers upon necessity and regains the functionality of the concrete structure without
human intervention.
Self-healing mechanism is defined as “any process by the material itself involving the recovery and hence
improvement of a performance after an earlier action that had reduced the performance of the material”
(De Rooij, Van Tittelboom et al. 2013). Different mechanisms of self-healing have been introduced during
the years, however the history of self-healing phenomena can be tracked back to ancient structures and
buildings, where cracks being filled with white crystalline materials were observed (Nijland, Larbi et al. 2007,
Ghosh 2009). This intrinsic property of concrete that fills the cracks with hydrated pozzolanic binders or
crystalline materials in the proper condition is called “autogenous self-healing”. By realizing the whole
concept that concrete is capable of sealing and healing the cracks without external activation, the
researchers were persuaded to develop “Autonomous self-healing” by designing and adding engineered
materials into concrete to act upon cracking. They aimed at tailoring novel mechanisms that expected to
be more efficient than autogenous self-healing. However, the initial cost for these techniques used in this
category rises a significant concern for its industrial application. To overcome the mentioned impediments,
researchers came up with a self-healing mechanism called "Improved autogenous" that follows the basics
of autonomous self-healing, i. e. engineered conditions, yet the whole function and healing products are
identical to autogenous self-healing. Figure 1 which is essentially based on Venn Diagram of self-
healing/repairing of cracking reported by the technical committee TC-075B from the Japan Concrete
Institute (JCI) (Igarashi, Kunieda et al. 2009), explains the relationship between different major self-healing
mechanisms.
The scope of this paper is to present a brief review of all major mechanisms for self-healing in cementitious
materials, also express the most recent works on every mechanism and highlight their flaws and strengths.
Based on the existing research gaps, outlooks for further investigation on self-healing in engineering
practice are proposed.

Figure 1: Schematic diagram illustrating self-healing mechanisms

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2 AUTONOMOUS SELF-HEALING

RILEM technical committee 221-SHC (De Rooij, Van Tittelboom et al. 2013) defines autonomous self-
healing as the process of healing with the material components that are specifically in concrete for this
purpose (engineered additions). Utilization of bacteria that results in the precipitation of calcium carbonate
(CaCO3) when contacted with water (De Muynck, De Belie et al. 2010, Jonkers, Thijssen et al. 2010, Van
Tittelboom, De Belie et al. 2010, Wiktor and Jonkers 2011) ,mineral admixtures that are capable of forming
crystalline or expansive productions in response to a crack (Ahn and Kishi 2010, Jaroenratanapirom and
Sahamitmongkol 2011, Qureshi, Kanellopoulos et al. 2016) , and encapsulations of chemical healing agents
(Van Tittelboom, De Belie et al. 2011, Yang, Hollar et al. 2011, Hilloulin, Van Tittelboom et al. 2015) are the
main methods of autonomous self-healing that have received the bulk of attention from researchers in the
past decades. Despite the promising results that have been reported, the high initial cost of some of these
techniques keeps them off the table when it comes to industrial application. Cultivation of bacteria or
tailoring encapsulation techniques with materials that should withstand the harsh and alkaline environment
of concrete, may sometimes become more expensive than expected (De Muynck, De Belie et al. 2010,
Dong, Wang et al. 2015, Silva, Boon et al. 2015). Still, novel approaches were carried out by researchers
in this field that indicates the potential that lies in this mechanism.
Among all autonomous methods, the pace of development in bacteria-based healing has been striking.
Now researchers have identified types of bacteria that not only show reliable results in self-healing of
cracks; they can also enhance the strength properties of concrete (Nain, Surabhi et al. 2019). Moreover,
Nanomaterials have been introduced in the last few years as a suitable complementary mechanism for self-
healing in concrete (Lee, Yoon et al. 2016, Huseien, Shah et al. 2019). Faster hydration rate for cement
and other pozzolanic binders, reduction of porosity, plus improved interfacial bonding between hardened
cement paste and other components has been reported to be the main effects of nanomaterials on
concrete, which also have positive effects on self-healing as well (Zhang and Islam 2012). Nevertheless,
other applications such as inner water providing by nanocalys or increased formulation of C-S-H by
nanosilica were found to be also effective on self-healing process (Qian, Zhou et al. 2010, Sikora, Abd
Elrahman et al. 2018).

3 AUTOGENOUS SELF-HEALING

Autogenous self-healing can be considered as the pioneer of self-healing mechanisms since this
phenomenon was first observed about 200 years ago in water retaining structures and pipes by the French
Academy of Science (Lauer 1956). Further hydration of unhydrated cement, calcite precipitation, and
swelling of cement paste are of the intrinsic characteristics of ordinary concrete that all together could
perform as a barrier against ingression of harmful substances, or might even regain the mechanical
properties of concrete in a favorable environment (Figure. 2). However, the mentioned characteristics bring
up limitations for this mechanism as well. It is reported that almost 80% of the hydration process in concrete
is completed by the first 28 days. Besides, the formation of calcite which is the primary cause of autogenous
self-healing at later ages (Neville 2002) is extremely dependant on the surrounding environment (e. g.
Presence of water or moisture is mandatory; also sufficient carbonates or bicarbonates should exist to react
with 𝐶𝑎2+ ions). The shape of the induced crack is also influential on the results (Ter Heide 2005). All these
uncontrollable effective parameters may explain the reason for the wide range of healed crack width (5 µm
to 300 µm) reported by researchers due to autogenous self-healing (Clear 1985, Jacobsen and Sellevold
1996, Reinhardt and Jooss 2003).

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 Figure 2: Main mechanisms of autogenous self-healing in concrete

4 IMPROVED AUTOGENOUS SELF-HEALING

Since the entire process of autogenous healing is quite recognized to the researchers, favorable conditions
have been engineered to improve the limitations discussed in the previous section. As mentioned, the crack
geometry is of utmost importance while assessing the autogenous self-healing efficiency; thus, tailoring
fibres in concrete such that results in microcracking behavior (i. e. restricted crack widths (~<100µm) and
exhibiting a semi-uniform distribution of microcracks instead of a major crack) will significantly enhance the
intrinsic self-healing of concrete (Homma, Mihashi et al. 2009, Cuenca and Ferrara 2017). Moreover, by
replacing the cement content with other pozzolanic binders (e. g. fly ash and Ground Granulated Blast
Furnace Slag (GGBFS)) that demonstrated to have slower hydration rates, autogenous healing based on
further hydration will be promoted even in later ages (Sahmaran, Yildirim et al. 2013). Also, compatible
supplementary materials that result in crystallization (CA) and Super Absorbent Polymers that provide water
into the cracks (SAP) have been reported to be effective in terms of autogenous healing (Ferrara, Krelani
et al. 2016, Park and Choi 2018, Tenório Filho, Snoeck et al. 2018).
Engineered Cementitious Composite (ECC) is a special category of High-Performance Fiber Reinforced
Cementitious Composites (HPFRCC), introduced by Victor Li and his co-workers at University of Michigan
(Li 1998). The main characteristic of ECC that distinguishes it from other fiber reinforced cementitious
composites is its strain-hardening behavior that results in desirable inelastic deformations and multiple
crack bridging with control property under tensile stresses (Figure 3). A typical ECC mixture consist of
cement, flay ash/slag, sand, superplasticizer, Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA) fibers and water. The fibers and
ingredients in ECC are tailored based on micromechanics material design theory, which results in a
synergetic interaction between fibers, cementitious matrix and the interface (Li 1998, Yıldırım, Keskin et al.
2015). Considering the well-controlled crack width behavior and the fact that fly ash/slag do exist in the
mixture of ECC, this composite material has been preferred by many researchers for its promising results
on improved autogenous self-healing.

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Figure 3: Stress-strain curve for ECC with crack width development and crack pattern (Şahmaran and Li
2009)
Several investigations have been carried out toward determining the optimum mixture and conditioning for
ECC. The main variables considered for this purpose included fiber's material type and fraction (Homma,
Mihashi et al. 2009, Snoeck and De Belie 2012, Snoeck and De Belie 2015), binder replacement (Özbay,
Sahmaran et al. 2013, Sahmaran, Yildirim et al. 2013), the age of preloading and exposure condition (Li
and Li 2011). A recent approach in this regard was replacing the cement by environmental friendly Reactive
Magnesia-based Cement (RMC) in strain hardening composites, which proved that crack sealing and
significant mechanical recovery could be achieved through proper environmental conditioning (Qiu, Ruan
et al. 2019).

5 RESEARCH GAPS AND OUTLOOKS

5.1 Repeatability
All the available self-healing mechanisms demonstrated to be "feasible" to different extents; however, it is
necessary for every individual mechanism in a sustainable infrastructure to be “robust" as well. To assure
a healing mechanism is robust, it needs to meet at least six robustness criteria including shelf life,
pervasiveness, quality, reliability, versatility, and repeatability (Li and Herbert 2012). Despite highlighting
the advantages and weaknesses of every approach, the robustness criteria could be considered as a filter
for these approaches, which identifies the practical methods for self-healing in infrastructure.
Among all six, the repeatability criterion raises a significant challenge into the healing mechanisms due to
the inevitable repeating nature of different external loads over the lifetime of the infrastructure, causing
repetitious cracking. Therefore, a robust healing method is required to be able to function not just once, but
to trigger upon multiple cracking over the lifetime of the infrastructure. Micro and macro encapsulating
techniques employed for self-healing based on bacteria and adhesive agents have shown promising results
regarding their healing functionality, yet they are less likely to be repeatable. The repeatability index for
these methods highly depends on their proportion in the cement matrix. However, high ratios of healing
agents may result in strength degradation (Khaliq and Ehsan 2016), plus it increases the initial cost of
producing a robust self-healing concrete which is still a substantial concern for the commercial use of these
type of materials.
With the development of Engineered Cementitious Composites in the last few years, the repeatability of
improved autogenous self-healing has brought the attention to the researchers. M. Li (Li and Fan 2016)
confirmed that for a self-healing mechanism to be repeatable, a set of physical, chemical and environmental
conditions must be satisfied. Fibers that bridge the cracks to control the damage and provide nucleation
sites, plus high pozzolanic ingredients and unhydrated cement that promote the formation of C-S-H- are

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suggested to be most effective. A thorough study carried out by Sahmaran (Sahmaran, Yildirim et al. 2015)
on the repeatability of improved autogenous self-healing in ECC proved that under certain condition (i.e.,
the presence of water), the healing method demonstrates acceptable results even after nine cycles of
loading and unloading. V. Li (Li and Herbert 2012) also claimed that Improved autogenous healing in ECC
is repeatable in the natural environment, but highly dependent on the amount of damage and weather
conditions. To overcome the water-supplying problem of autogenous self-healing in repeated loadings, D.
Snoeck (Snoeck and De Belie 2015) implemented SAP (Super Absorbent Polymer) in strain-hardening
cementitious composites. He compared the results for two consecutive loading and unloading cycles and
found out that SAP can play a significant role in the regain of mechanical properties of the damaged
concrete under repeated loads.
Nevertheless, it is difficult to determine a single load pattern in lab that simulates the exact condition of the
external repeating loads. Since almost all of the research conducted on assessing the repeatability of self-
healing mechanisms employed a simple series of loading and unloading, it is possible that with a more
precise loading approach, different results would be achieved not only for the repeatability index, but also
the whole robustness criteria. Different magnitudes, frequencies and directions of loading should be tested
for this purpose. Unfortunately, the lack of field studies in this case expands the existing research gap.

5.2 Self-healing in reinforced concrete

Majority of the experiments carried out toward demonstrating the performance of self-healing methods were
based on small-scale unreinforced specimens. However, since most of the concrete structures are
reinforced, it is essential to consider the possible difference in self-healing process and outcomes while the
steel is present. In one of the few researches in this regard, Keskin et al. confirmed the effectiveness of
intrinsic self-healing of ECC in large scale reinforced beams (Keskin, Keskin et al. 2016). It is reasonable
to believe that the difference is negligible, yet two main concerns with respect to reinforced concrete is the
physical and chemical reactions due to corrosion that can manipulate the self-healing process and also the
plastic deformation in steel which causes permanent deformations in concrete. To cover the research gaps
mentioned, a thorough research should be conducted to assess the effects of corrosion process on each
of the healing methods and also evaluate the effectiveness of employed methods in case of sustained
cracks.

5.3 Effects of surrounding environment

Concrete members serve under different environmental exposure conditions based on their role in the
structure. Through extensive investigations carried out in the last decades, the fact that the effect of the
surrounding environment is inevitable on almost all of the self-healing mechanisms has been well
established (Huang, Ye et al. 2016, Suleiman and Nehdi 2018). Therefore, adoption of a unique and
effective self-healing method for a concrete structure highly depends on the exposure condition that the
structure is expected to face throughout its service life. For example, while the presence of water is
necessary for some of the self-healing mechanisms such as autogenous and improved autogenous healing
and self-healing based on bacteria, it could have negative impacts on self-healing based on adhesive
agents, due to the fact that water may inhibit the release of adhesive agents into cracks.
Usually, the curing conditions employed in the lab for assessing the effectiveness of a self-healing method
are either based on their potential positive effects on the self-healing process or they are representing the
anticipated field of application of the structure. Exposure to local climate, submerging in water, applying
freeze/thaw and wet/dry cycles, controlled temperature and relative humidity are the most common curing
conditions investigated by the researchers (Qian, Zhou et al. 2010, Zhu, Yang et al. 2012, Suleiman and
Nehdi 2018). By collecting more in-depth knowledge of the surrounding environment and its effects on self-
healing, the favorable self-healing mechanism can be adopted, plus in some cases, the surrounding
environment can be tailored or promoted in a way that enhances the self-healing function. The studies
carried out by Yildirim (Yıldırım, Khiavi et al. 2018) proved that increasing the concentration of dissolved
𝐶𝑂3 2− ions in the surrounding water of ECC specimens promotes the precipitation of calcite which is the

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main source of autogenous healing at later ages, even for crack widths more than 200 µm (Fig. 4). The
mentioned curing condition can also be considered as a nutrient-rich environment for bacteria that produces
the same healing product (Huang, Ye et al. 2016).

Figure 4: Self-healing improvement in ECC specimens under multiple curing conditions and different
crack widths; (a) CW<100 µm, (b) 100 µm<CW<200 µm and, (c) CW>200 µm (Yıldırım, Khiavi et al.
2018)
However, the effects of different type of soils as the surrounding environment of a concrete member have
been missing in the literature. Concrete pipes, tunnels, and also foundations of concrete and steel
structures are of the main structural members that have soil as their surrounding environment through their
lifetime. Since soil is full of chemical substances, and these substances may transfer into cracks by
dissolving in the groundwater or water due to rain, there is a high possibility that by examining soil as the
surrounding environment, different types of soil demonstrate different results for self-healing of cracks. To
cover the research gap here, a thorough study requires to be carried out to identify the proper types of soil
that exhibit the highest improvements in the self-healing results of cracks.

6 CONCLUSION
A review of recent research developments and existing research gaps has been presented in this paper.
With considering both cost and efficiency, improved autogenous healing can be claimed to be the optimum
mechanism for now. Autonomous healing is efficient in crack healing (300 µm to 1 mm), but the initial cost
is still a matter. Autogenous healing is a free method but requires time and is highly dependent on the
surrounding environment. On the other hand, the initial cost for Improved-autogenous healing is not
considerable compared to autonomous healing, plus it performs in a reasonable time and heals crack up
to 100-150 Mm (Good results for ECC). However, recent achievements in bacteria based healing and
nanomaterial treatment for self-healing in concrete may be able to pave the way towards industrial
application, since they are offering a full package; a more sustainable, environment-friendly self-healing
concrete with higher performance.

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As mentioned, robustness is a crucial factor for a self-healing mechanism in sustainable infrastructure. The
six robustness criteria reviewed in this paper (specially repeatability), have to be considered while
employing a self-healing mechanism for sustainable infrastructure. Moreover, since researchers tend to
develop engineered conditions into concrete to improve its self-healing behavior, studying the surrounding
environment for possible engineered condition that boosts the intended healing mechanism is of high
importance. Besides the research gaps mentioned in this paper, field study reports regarding self-healing
mechanisms and a standard/code that defines the benchmarks for the quality of an acceptable self-healing
mechanism is still missing from the literature. In addition, to establish a standard/code for self-healing, it is
necessary to study the most common assessment approaches as well.

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