The 6 Science Process Skills

1. Observing

This is the most basic skill in science. Observations are made by using the 5 senses.
Good observations are essential in learning the other science process skills.

Examples:

The learner will be blind folded and make observations using the sense of touch.

The learner will create observations about a coin using the 5 senses.

The learner will mix primary colors to create more colors.

2. Classifying

After making observations it is important to notice similarities, differences, and group

objects according to a purpose. It is important to create order to help comprehend the
number of objects, events, and living things in the world.

Examples:

The learner will use a magnet to classify objects as magnetic or nonmagnetic.

The learner will use a balance and sort objects according to mass.

The learner will combine different liquids with water to determine which is more or less
dense.

3. Measuring

Measuring is important in collecting, comparing, and interpreting data. It helps us

classify and communicate with others. The metric system should be used to help
understand the scientific world.

Examples:

The learner will find the mass of different liquids that have the same volume.

The learner will use techonology to find the speed of a toy truck.

The learner will measure the distance a marble travels.

4. Communicating

It is important to be able to share our experiences. This can be done with graphs,
diagrams, maps, and spoken word.

Examples:

The learner will create a line graph showing the relationship between speed and the
mass of a marble.

The learner will discuss possible errors with other classmates.

5. Inferring

An inference is an explanation based on an observation. It is a link between what is

observed and what is already known.

Examples:

The learner will write a conclusion at the end of each investigation.

The learner will create inferences about observations they made about a mystery
object. I infer it is solid rather than hollow.

6. Predicting

What do you think will happen? It is an educated guess based on good observations
and inferences about an observed event or prior knowledge.

Examples:

The learner will predict what is a box based on observations using the sense of touch.

The learner will write a hypothesis about the effect of increasing the salt on the boyancy of an egg.
 Teaching The Science Process Skills
What Are the Science Process Skills? Science and teaching students about science
means more than scientific knowledge. There are three dimensions of science that are
all important. The first of these is the content of science, the basic concepts, and our
scientific knowledge. This is the dimension of science that most people first think about,
and it is certainly very important. The other two important dimensions of science in
addition to science knowledge are processes of doing science and scientific attitudes.
The processes of doing science are the science process skills that scientists use in the
process of doing science. Since science is about asking questions and finding answers
to questions, these are actually the same skills that we all use in our daily lives as we try
to figure out everyday questions. When we teach students to use these skills in science,
we are also teaching them skills that they will use in the future in every area of their
lives. The third dimension of science focuses on the characteristic attitudes and
dispositions of science. These include such things as being curious and imaginative, as
well as being enthusiastic about asking questions and solving problems. Another
desirable scientific attitude is a respect for the methods and values of science. These
scientific methods and values include seeking to answer questions using some kind of
evidence, recognizing the importance of rechecking data, and understanding that
scientific knowledge and theories change over time as more information is gathered.

SIX BASIC PROCESS SKILLS

The science process skills form the foundation for scientific methods. There are six
basic science process skills:
• Observation
• Communication
• Classification
• Measurement
• Inference
• Prediction
These basic skills are integrated together when scientists design and carry out
experiments or in everyday life when we all carry out fair test experiments. All the six
basic skills are important individually as well as when they are integrated together. The
six basic skills can be put in a logical order of increasing sophistication, although even
the youngest students will use all of the skills alongside one another at various times. In
the earliest grades students will spend a larger amount of time using skills such as
observation and communication. As students get older they will start to spend more time
using the skills of inference and prediction. Classification and measurement tend to be
used across the grade levels more evenly, partly because there are different ways to do
classifying, in increasingly complex ways, and because methods and systems of
measuring must also be introduced to children gradually over time. Integrating the basic
science process skills together and gradually developing abilities to design fair tests is
increasingly emphasized in successive grade levels, and is an expectation of students
by fourth grade. for example, creating hypotheses and identifying and manipulating
variables in simple experiments. At this level, the students are beginning to really ask
and answer their own questions in a scientific sense. The following Designing an
Experiment and Analyzing Experimental Data sections will focus on using the integrated
science process skills to design experiments and reach conclusions.

SCIENCE BEGINS WITH OBSERVATION

Observing is the fundamental science process skill. We observe objects and
events using all our five senses, and this is how we learn about the world around us.
The ability to make good observations is also essential to the development of the other
science process skills: communicating, classifying, measuring, inferring, and predicting.
The simplest observations, made using only the senses, are qualitative observations.
For example, the leaf is light green in color or the leaf is waxy and smooth.
Observations that involve a number or quantity are quantitative observations. For
example, the mass of one leaf is five grams or the leaves are clustered in groups of five.
Quantitative observations give more precise information than our senses alone. Not
surprisingly, students, especially younger children, need help in order to make good
observations. Good, productive observations are detailed and accurate written or drawn
descriptions, and students need to be prompted to produce these elaborate
descriptions. The reason that observations must be so full of detail is that only then can
students increase their understanding of the concepts being studied. Whether students
are observing with their five senses or with instruments to aid them, we can guide them
to make better more detailed descriptions. We can do this by listening to students’ initial
observations and then prompting them to elaborate.
For example, if a student is describing what he or she can see, they might
describe the color of an object but not its size or shape. A student might describe the
volume of a sound but not its pitch or rhythm. We can prompt students to add details to
their descriptions no matter which of the five senses they are using. There are other
ways that we can prompt students to make more elaborate descriptions. For example, if
something is changing, students should include, before, during, and after appearances
in their observations. If possible, students should be encouraged to name what is being
observed.

OBSERVATION AND COMMUNICATION GO HAND IN HAND

 As implied already, communication, the second of the basic science process
skills, goes hand in hand with observation. Students have to communicate in order to
share their observations with someone else, and the communication must be clear and
effective if the other person is to understand the information. One of the keys to
communicating effectively is to use so-called referents, references to items that the
other person is already familiar with. For example, we often describe colors using
referents. We might say sky blue, grass green, or lemon yellow to describe particular
shades of blue, green, or yellow. The idea is to communicate using descriptive words
for which both people share a common understanding. Without referents, we open the
door to misunderstandings. If we just say hot or rough, for example, our audience might
have a different idea of how hot or how rough. If a student is trying to describe the size
of a pinecone they might use the size of his or her shoe as a referent. The pinecone
could be either larger or smaller than his shoe.
The additional science process skill of measuring is really just a special case of
observing and communicating. When we measure some property, we compare the
property to a defined referent called a unit. A measurement statement contains two
parts, a number to tell us how much or how many, and a name for the unit to tell us how
much of what. The use of the number makes a measurement a quantitative observation.
Students can communicate their observations verbally, in writing, or by drawing
pictures. Other methods of communication that are often used in science include
graphs, charts, maps, diagrams, and visual demonstrations.

CLASSIFYING INTO GROUPS

Students in the early grades are expected to be able to sort objects or
phenomena into groups based on their observations. Grouping objects or events is a
way of imposing order based on similarities, differences, and interrelationships. This is
an important step towards a better understanding of the different objects and events in
the world. There are several different methods of classification. Perhaps the simplest
method is serial ordering. Objects are placed into rank order based on some property.
For example, students can be serial ordered according to height, or different breakfast
cereals can be serial ordered according to number of calories per serving. Two other
methods of classification are binary classification and multistage classification. In a
binary classification system, a set of objects is simply divided into two subsets. This is
usually done on the basis of whether each object has or does not have a particular
property. For example, animals can be classified into two groups: those with backbones
and those with out backbones.
A binary classification can also be carried out using more than one property at
once. Objects in one group must have all of the required properties; otherwise they will
belong to the other group. A multi-stage classification is constructed by performing
consecutive binary classifications on a set of objects and then on each of the ensuing
subsets. The result is a classification system consisting of layers or stages. A multi-
stage classification is complete when each of the objects in the original set has been
separated into a category by itself. The familiar classifications of the animal and plant
kingdoms are examples of multi-stage classifications. A useful activity for younger
children could be to create a multi-stage classification of some local animals using
physical and/or behavioral similarities and differences.
In kindergarten, children are expected to sequence a set of objects according to
size. The kindergarteners are also expected to separate a set of objects into two groups
based on a single physical attribute. In first grade, students should classify and arrange
both objects and events according to various attributes or properties. In second grade,
students should classify items using two or more attributes. In third grade, students
should classify objects with similar characteristics into at least two sets and two subsets,
and they should also sequence natural events chronologically. In fourth grade, students
should classify data to create frequency distributions; in fifth grade, students should
identify rocks, minerals, and organisms using a classification key; and in sixth grade,
students should develop a classification system based on multiple attributes.

MAKING INFERENCES AND PREDICTIONS

Unlike observations, which are direct evidence gathered about an object,
inferences are explanations or interpretations that follow from the observations. For
example, it is an observation to say an insect released a dark, sticky liquid from its
mouth, and it is an inference to state, the insect released a dark, sticky liquid from its
mouth because it is upset and trying to defend itself. When we are able to make
inferences, and interpret and explain events around us, we have a better appreciation of
the environment around us. Scientists’ hypotheses about why events happen as they do
are based on inferences regarding investigations. Students need to be taught the
difference between observations and inferences. They need to be able to differentiate
for themselves the evidence they gather about the world as observations and the
interpretations or inferences they make based on the observations.
We can help students make this distinction by first prompting them to be detailed
and descriptive in their observations. Then, by asking students questions about their
observations we can encourage the students to think about the meaning of the
observations. Thinking about making inferences in this way should remind us that
inferences link what has been observed together with what is already known from
previous experiences. We use our past experiences to help us interpret our
observations. Often many different inferences can be made based on the same
observations. Our inferences also may change as we make additional observations.
We are generally more confident about our inferences when our observations fit
well with our past experiences. We are also more confident about our inferences as we
gather more and more supporting evidence. When students are trying to make
inferences, they will often need to go back and make additional observations in order to
become more confident in their inferences. For example, seeing an insect release a
dark, sticky liquid many times whenever it is picked up and held tightly will increase our
confidence that it does this because it is up-set and trying to defend itself. Sometimes
making additional observations will reinforce our inferences, but sometimes additional
information will cause us to modify or even reject earlier inferences. In science,
inferences about how things work are continually constructed, modified, and even
rejected based on new observations.
Making predictions is making educated guesses about the outcomes of future
events. We are forecasting future observations. The ability to make predictions about
future events allows us to successfully interact with the environment around us.
Prediction is based on both good observation and inferences made about observed
events. Like inferences, predictions are based on both what we observe and also our
past experiences the mental models we have built up from those experiences. So,
predictions are not just guesses! Predictions based on our inferences or hypotheses
about events give us a way to test those inferences or hypotheses. If the prediction
turns out to be correct, then we have greater confidence in our inference/hypothesis.
This is the basis of the scientific process used by scientists who are asking and
answering questions by integrating together the six basic science process skills. In
summary, successfully integrating the science process skills with classroom lessons
and field investigations will make the learning experiences richer and more meaningful
for students. Students will be learning the skills of science as well as science content.
The students will be actively engaged with the science they are learning and thus reach
a deeper understanding of the content.
Finally active engagement with science will likely lead students to become more
interested and have more positive attitudes towards science.

RESOURCES
• A Key to Science Learning. Yockey, J. A. (2001). Science & Children, 38(7),
36-41. An article at the elementary school level, describing a simple writing technique to
help students communicate the important science concepts they have learned.
• Centimeters, Millimeters, & Monsters. Goldston, J. M., Marlette, S., &
Pennington, A. (2001). Science & Children, 39(2), 42-47. An article at the elementary
school level, describing a humorous way to teach metric units.
• Drawing on Student Understanding. Stein, M., McNair, S., & Butcher, J. (2001).
Science & Children, 38(4), 18-22. This article, at the elementary school level, describes
how children can use drawings to communicate their understanding of animals. In the
process, student learning about the animals is reinforced, as the children are
encouraged to think deeply about what they know and have observed.
• Learning and Assessing Science Process Skills. Rezba, R. J., Sprague, C. S.,
Fiel, R. L., Funk, H. J., Okey, J. R., & Jaus, H. H. (3rd Ed.). (1995). Dubuque, IA:
Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company.

ADDITIONAL LEARNINGS

SCIENCE PROCESS SKILLS

Dr. Charles Barman (1992) SCIENCE, CHILDREN, & LEARNING, School of Ed --
IU - Indianapolis

Dr. Barman is a co-author with dr. leyden on the Addison-Wesley science programs.

The following is a developmental sequence of science process skills. The behavior

attributed to the performance of each skill is categorized hierarchically with the most
basic proficiency being identified first (item a) and the highest level of proficiency
listed last. The chart on the last page illustrates how "most" students would develop
each skill if they were provided with the appropriate learning experiences to use these
skills at each grade level (N-12).

BASIC SKILLS

1. Skill--Observation

Making observations is fundamental to all learning. Observations are made by using

one or more of the five senses. When observations are made to accumulate data from
which inferences will be drawn, the precision of the observations is critical. Precision
is often improved by making quantitative observations.
Skill Sequence -- The student will be able to:

a. Distinguish differences in physical properties of objects by direct observation.

b. Manipulate or change an object in order to expose its properties.
c. Use instruments to aid the senses in making observations.
d. Make observations (not inferences).
e. Repeat observations as a means of improving reliability.
f. Use measurement as a means of refining observations.
g. Order events chronologically.
h. Identify changes in properties and measure rates of change.
i. Differentiate constants from other variables.
j. Identify correlational changes in variables.

2. Skill--Classification

Classification is the grouping or ordering of phenomena according to an established

scheme. Objects and events may be classified on the basis of observations.
Classificational keys are used to place items within a scheme as well as to retrieve
information from a scheme.

Skill Sequence -- The student will be able to:

a. Perceive similarities and differences in a set of objects.

b. Separate a set of objects into two groups according to those that have or do not have
a single characteristic.
c. Group a set of objects on the basis of a gross characteristic, such as color or shape,
where many identifiable variations are possible.
d. Develop arbitrary one-stage classificational schemes where all included objects of
phenomena may be put into mutually exclusive categories.
e. Use quantitative measurements as criteria for grouping.
f. Develop classificational schemes of two or more stages of subsets having mutually
exclusive categories.
g. Use an accepted classification system or key to identify objects or phenomena.

3. Skill--Inference

An inference is an idea based on an observation or set of observations. Making an

inference requires evaluation and judgment based on past experiences. Inferences lead
to prediction.
Skill Sequence -- The student will be able to:

a. Demonstrate that inference is based upon observation.

b. Separate pertinent observations upon which given inferences are based from those
which are extraneous.
c. Develop an inference from a set of related observations.
d. Develop a series of inferences from a set of related observations
e. State cause-and-effect relationships from observation of related events.
f. Identify limitations of inferences.
g. Develop plans to test the validity of inferences.
h. Use inferences to suggest further observations.
i. Extend inferences to formulate models.

4. Skill--Prediction

Prediction is the formulation of an expected result based on past experience. The

reliability of prediction depends upon the accuracy of past observations and upon the
nature of the event being predicted. Prediction is based upon inference. An experiment
can verify or contradict a prediction.

Skill Sequence: -- The student will be able to:

a. Distinguish between guessing and predicting.

b. Use repeated observations of an event to predict the next occurrence of that event.
c. Use a series of related observations to predict an unobserved event.
d. Use quantitative measurement as a means of improving the accuracy of predictions.
e. Use interpolation and extrapolation as a means for making predictions.
f. Establish criteria for stating confidence in predictions.

5. Skill--Measuring

Measuring properties of objects and events can be accomplished by direct comparison

or by indirect comparison with arbitrary units which, for purposes of communication,
may be standardized.

Skill Sequence -- The student will be able to:

a. Order objects by inspection in terms of selected common properties such as size,

shape and weight.
b. Order objects in terms of properties by using measuring devices without regard for
quantitative units.
c. Compare quantities such as length, area, volume and weight to arbitrary units.
Compare time to units developed from periodic motions.
d. Use standard units for measurements.
e. Select one system of units for all related measurements.
f. Identify measurable physical quantities which can be used in precise description of
phenomena.
g. Convert from one system of units to another.
h. Use and devise indirect means to measure quantities.
i. Use methods of estimation to measure quantities.

6. Skill--Communication

In order to communicate observations, accurate records must be kept which can be

submitted for checking and re-checking by others. Accumulated records and their
analysis may be represented in many ways. Graphic representations are often used
since they are clear, concise and meaningful. Complete and understandable
experimental reports are essential to scientific communication.

Skill Sequence -- The student will be able to:

a. Describe observations verbally.

b. Describe conditions under which observations were made clear.
c. Record observations in a systematic way.
d. State questions and hypotheses concisely.
e. Construct tables and graphs to communicate data.
f. Plan for communication of procedures and results as an essential part of an
experiment.
g. Report experimental procedures in a form so other persons can replicate the
experiment.
h. Use mathematical analysis to describe interpretations of data to others. Use tables
and graphs to convey possible interpretations of data.

INTEGRATED SKILLS

7. Skill--Interpreting Data

Interpreting data requires the application of other basic process skills-- in particular,
the processes of inferring, predicting, classifying, and communicating. It is through
this complex process that the usefulness of data is determined in answering the
question being investigated. Interpretations are always subject to revision in the light
of new or more refined data.

Skill Sequence -- The student will be able to:

a. Select data pertinent to the question asked.

b. Process raw data to explain trends or relationships.
c. Describe information as it is displayed on tables or graphs.
d. Make and explain inferences from tables or graphs.
e. Set criteria for assessing the validity, precision, and usefulness of data.
f. Compare sets of related data to test the credibility of inferences and generalizations.
g. Select the most acceptable interpretation from multiple interpretations of the same
set of data.
h. State criteria for restricting inferences and generalizations to those inferences and
generalizations supported by data.

8. Skill--Making Operational Definition

Operational definitions are made in order to simplify communication concerning

phenomena being investigated. In making such definitions it is necessary to give the
minimum amount of information needed to differentiate that which is being defined
from other similar phenomena. Operational definitions may be based upon the
observable characteristics of the phenomena and upon the operations to be performed.
Operational definitions are precise and, in some cases, based upon mathematical
relationships.

Skill Sequence -- The student will be able to:

a. Distinguish between an operational definition and a general description.

b. Select characteristics of phenomena suited to use in an operational definition.
c. State minimal observable characteristics required for an operational definition.
d. Evaluate and modify specific operational definitions.
e. Describe the limitations of operational definitions.
f. Use mathematical relationships in making operational definitions.
g. Formulate operational definitions of experimental parameters such as system
boundaries, data gathering procedures and interactions of variables.

9. Skill--Forming Questions and Hypotheses

Questions are formed on the basis of observations made and usually precede an
attempt to evaluate a situation or event. Questions, when precisely stated, are
problems to be solved through application of the other processes of science. The
formulation of hypotheses depends directly upon questions, inferences and prediction.
The process consists of devising a statement which can be tested by experimentation.
When more than one hypothesis is suggested by a set of observations, each must be
stated separately. A workable hypothesis is stated in such a way that, upon testing, its
credibility may be established.

Skill Sequence -- The student will be able to:

a. Answer questions confined to specific observations. b. Separate broad questions

into parts which, when answered, will contribute to a comprehensive explanation.
c. Ask questions to state simple hypotheses which can be tested. d. State hypotheses in
forms which suggest the variable to be manipulated.
e. Differentiate between hypotheses which must be tested qualitatively and those
which can be tested quantitatively.

10. Skill--Experimentation

Experimenting is the process of designing data-gathering procedures as well as the

process of gathering data for the purpose of testing an hypothesis. In a less formal
sense, experiments may be conducted simply to make observations. However, even
here there is a plan to relate cause and effect. In an experiment, variables must be
identified and controlled as much as possible. An experimental test of a hypothesis is
designed to indicate whether the hypothesis is to be accepted, modified or rejected. In
designing an experiment, limitations of method and apparatus must be considered.

Skill Sequence -- The student will be able to:

a. Manipulate materials to make pertinent observations.

b. Identify relevant variables in an experimental situation.
c. Distinguish useful from extraneous data.
d. Maintain an accurate record of experimental procedures and results.
e. Control those variables not part of the hypothesis being tested.
f. Identify sources of experimental error.
g. Describe the limitations of experimental apparatus.
h. Describe the limitations of the experimental design.

11. Skill--Formulating Models

Models, whether physical or mental, are devised on the basis of acceptable hypotheses
or hypotheses that have yet to be tested. Models are used to describe and explain the
interrelationships of ideas. In many cases the model implies new hypotheses; if testing
these hypotheses result in new information, the model must be altered to include it.

Skill Sequence -- The student will be able to:

a. Distinguish between models and reality.

b. Construct a physical representation, a drawing or a mental image to explain
observed phenomena.
c. Modify existing models to include new observations.

12. Skill--Valuing

Valuing is a process that integrates several levels of awareness and decision-making.

Values are formed when a specific behavior is internalized and incorporated into
consistent actions.

Skill Sequence -- The student will be able to:

a. Make choices freely from a list of alternatives after thoughtful consideration.

b. Demonstrate satisfaction of choice by private or public affirmation.
c. Act upon the choice with some repetition.

SCIENTIFIC METHODS FOR GRADE K-12

The scientific method is a problem solving process used during experiments.

It can be modified according to the age and ability of students and also to
develop particular skills.
Asking a question is the first step in the scientific method (e.g., Who, What,
When, Where, Why, How). You’ll can usually find an answer to a broad,
simple question. Answers often lead to more questions. It’s here where the
scientific method really begins. In this article, the scientific method is laid
out in steps.
In practice, though, it’s usually not this neat. Scientists and students will
often have to repeat steps and start over with experiments. It’s part of the
process, the “art of science,” not a sign of failure!
Once complete, the results of an experiment can be used as the starting
point for a new experiment. This is called iteration.

The Four Steps of the Scientific Method:

Step 1: Start with a question.
What do you wonder about? What would you like to know? You might do
some background research to learn more. It can help you define your
question and decide what you want to discover.
Step 2: Form a hypothesis.
A hypothesis is an educated guess or explanation for what you know. It’s a
starting point for the experiment (and further study). You can prove
the hypothesis as observably correct or disprove it through experimentation.
Observably,
—

Step 3: Conduct an experiment, making observations and

tracking results.
Set up a test experiment to see if your hypothesis is right or wrong. Make
observations during your experiment and keep track of them by writing
them down. Often is it necessary to repeat an experiment in the same way
to be sure of your results.
Step 4: Come to a conclusion.
Decide whether your hypothesis was right or wrong.
What were the Click to download! results of your experiment? Can you
tell why it happened that way?
Explain and communicate your results. These principles can be used to
study the natural world and navigate life’s challenges. You can study
anything from plants and rocks to biology or chemical reactions using these
four steps.
Even very young students can use a modified version of the scientific
method to organize their thoughts.
For the Youngest Students:
The youngest students can study practical science using a simple version
of the scientific method. You can use their natural curiosity to guide them
and make it memorable.
Try teaching the earliest grades the same steps, but making the language
easier to understand.
1. Wonder What do I want to know about the world around me?
2. Think - What do I think will happen?
3. Act - Test my idea. What happens?
4. Say - Am I right?
These students can conduct their own experiments to learn about the
world around them. For example, young students can study the states
of matter by melting ice ¡n the sun and shade. Before beginning, ask a
student to predict what will happen to ice placed in the sun vs. ice placed
in the shade. Then test his or her idea, check on the ice cubes over
time, and ask the student to explain what happened. Was the student
right?

Again, before starting, ask a student to tell you what he or she thinks will
happen when you add soap and food coloring to some milk. Test the
experiment, watch for a reaction, and ask the student to explain what
happened. Was the student right? Spurred on by their natural curiosity, the
youngest students can wonder, think, and observe. From the youngest
ages, they can develop the ability to carefully observe and describe what
they see. They can begin to develop the critical thinking skills needed to
determine whether an experiment turned out how they expected the
beginning of scientific reasoning!