2/26/2018

Anatomy and Physiology, Seventh Edition

Rod R. Seeley
Idaho State University
Trent D. Stephens
Idaho State University
Philip Tate
Phoenix College

*See PowerPoint Image Slides for all figures and tables pre-inserted into PowerPoint without notes.

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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Functions of the
Nervous System
• Sensory input: Monitor internal and external
stimuli (change)
– Touch, odor, sound, vision, taste, bp, body temp.
• Integration. Brain and spinal cord process
sensory input and initiate responses
• Motor output: Controls of muscles and glands
• Homeostasis. Regulate and coordinate
physiology
• Mental activity. Consciousness, thinking,
memory, emotion
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The Nervous System

• Components
–Brain, spinal cord, nerves, and
sensory receptors
• Subdivisions
–Central nervous system (CNS):
brain and spinal cord
–Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
• Nerves: Sensory and Motor
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Peripheral Nervous System

• Outside the CNS
• Divided into
– Sensory (Afferent) Division -incoming information
– Motor (Efferent Division - outgoing information
• Sensory Division
– Use sensory neurons to transmit nerve impulses toward
the brain and spinal cord
– Receptors in various body locations react to stimuli
(touch, pressure, heat, stretch, light, etc) and trigger a
nerve impulse in the sensory neuron
• Motor Division
– Use motor neurons to transmit nerve impulses away
from the brain and spinal cord
– Stimulate effectors (muscle and glands) 11-4

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Divisions of PNS
• Sensory (afferent):
transmits nerve impulses
from receptors to CNS.

• Motor (efferent):
transmits nerve impulses
from CNS to effectors
(muscles, glands)
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Types of Sensory and Motor

Information

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Sensory Division of the PNS

• Transmit nerve impulses over sensory
neurons to the CNS from receptors
• Receptors are classified as:
– Somatic receptors - those found in skin, joints,
skeletal muscles, and special sense organs
• Respond to touch, pressure, heat, stretch, pain, light
– Visceral receptors - located in walls of viscera
• Respond to stretch, pain, temperature, chemical
stimuli (CO2)

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Motor Division of PNS

• Transmits impulses away from the CNS to effectors
– Effector - any muscle or gland
• Somatic nervous system:
– Regulates contraction of skeletal muscles.
– Under our voluntary control - I.e., under conscious control
• Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
– Regulates contraction of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and
glands (visceral organs)
– Subconscious or involuntary control.
– Divisions of the ANS
• Sympathetic. Prepares body for physical activity.
• Parasympathetic. Regulates resting or vegetative functions
such as digesting food or emptying of the urinary bladder.

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Cells of Nervous System

• Neurons
– The functional unit of the nervous system
– Transmit electrical signals (action potentials) to other
neurons or effectors
• Neuroglia (Glial cells)
– Nonexcitable
– Support and protect neurons

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The Neuron
• Special characteristics of neurons
– Longevity – can live and function for a lifetime
– Do not divide (amitotic) – fetal neurons lose their
ability to undergo mitosis; neural stem cells are an
exception
– High metabolic rate – require abundant oxygen and
glucose

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Parts of the Neuron

• Cell Body. Aka Soma or Perikaryon
– Contains usual organelles plus
other structures
• Nissl bodies = chromatophilic
substance = rough E.R: primary
site of protein synthesis
• Cytoskeleton of neurofilaments
and neurotubules
• No centrioles (hence its amitotic
nature)
– Major biosynthetic center
– Most neuronal cell bodies
• Located within CNS
• Ganglia - clusters of cell bodies
that lie along nerves in PNS
– Tapers to form axon hillock

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Neuron Processes
• Dendrites: short, often highly branched.
– Receptive regions of the neuron
• Axons. Long cytoplasmic process
capable of propagating a nerve impulse
– Neuron has only one
– Transmits impulse away from soma
– Axon hillock: Initial segment
– Few, if any, branches along length
– Multiple branches at end of axon
• Terminal branches (telodendria)
– End in knobs called axon
terminals (aka synaptic
terminals, end bulbs, boutons,
synaptic knobs)
» Contain vesicles filled with
neuro- transmitter (NT) 11-12

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Axoplasmic Transport
• Anterograde:
– Axoplasm moved from cell body toward terminals.
– Supply materials for growth, repair, renewal.
– Can move cytoskeletal proteins, organelles away from
cell body toward axon terminals.
• Retrograde
– Away from axonal terminal toward the cell body
– Damaged organelles, recycled plasma membrane, and
substances taken in by endocytosis can be transported
up axon to cell body.
– Rabies and herpes virus can enter axons in damaged
skin and be transported to CNS. Would include toxins
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such as heavy metals (the chemical, not the noise)

Classification of Neurons

• Structural classification
– Multipolar – possess more than two processes
• Numerous dendrites and one axon
– Bipolar – possess two processes
• Rare neurons – found in some special sensory organs
– Unipolar (pseudounipolar) – possess one short,
single process
• Start as bipolar neurons during development

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Neurons Classified by Structure

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Figure 12.10a–c

Structural Classes of Neurons

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Table 11.1.2

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Functional Classification of
Neurons
• According to the direction the nerve
impulse travels
• Sensory (afferent) neurons –
transmit impulses toward the CNS
– Virtually all are unipolar neurons
– Cell bodies in ganglia outside the CNS
• Short, single process divides into
– The central process – runs centrally into the
CNS
– The peripheral process – extends
peripherally to the receptors
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Functional Classification of
Neurons
• Motor (efferent) neurons
– Carry impulses away from the CNS to
effector organs
– Most motor neurons are multipolar
– Cell bodies are within the CNS
– Form junctions with effector cells
• Interneurons (association neurons) –
most are multipolar
– Lie between 2 neurons
– Confined to the CNS
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Neurons Classified by
Function

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Figure 12.11

Supporting Cells (Neuroglial

Cells) in the CNS
• Neuroglia – usually only refers to
supporting cells in the CNS
– Glial cells have branching processes and a
central cell body
– Outnumber neurons 10 to 1
– Make up half the mass of the brain
– Can divide throughout life
• May divide abnormally - glioma - brain cancer
– Do not transmit nerve impulses
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Neuroglia of CNS: Astrocytes

• Largest and most numerous
• Functions include:
1. Form the blood-brain barrier
• Take up and release ions (Na, K)
to control the environment
around neurons
• Regulate what substances reach
the CNS from the blood
2. Recapture and recycle neurotrans-
mitters
3. Involved with synapse formation in
developing neural tissue
4. Aid in repair of damaged neural
tissue
5. Produce molecules necessary for
neural growth (BDTF)
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Neuroglia of CNS: Ependymal Cells

• Line brain ventricles

and spinal cord central
canal.
– Specialized versions of
ependymal form choroid
plexuses.
• Choroid plexus
– Secrete cerebrospinal
fluid. Cilia help move
fluid thru the cavities of
the brain.

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Neuroglia of CNS: Microglia

and Oligodendrocytes

• Microglia: specialized macrophages. Respond to

inflammation, phagocytize necrotic tissue,
microorganisms, and foreign substances that invade
the CNS.
• Oligodendrocytes: form myelin sheaths if surrounding
axon. Single oligodendrocytes can form myelin sheaths
around portions of several axons. 11-23

Neuroglia of PNS

• Schwann cells or neurolemmocytes:

– Wrap around portion of only one axon to form myelin sheath.
– Wrap around many times.
– As cells grow around axon, cytoplasm is squeezed out and
multiple layers of cell membrane wrap the axon. Cell
membrane primarily phospholipid.
– Outer surface of Schwann cell called the neurilemma
• Satellite cells: surround neuron cell bodies in
ganglia, provide support and nutrients 11-24

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Myelin Sheaths
• Segmented structures composed of the
lipoprotein myelin
• Surround thicker axons
• Form an insulating layer
– Prevent leakage of electrical current
• Increase the speed of impulse conduction

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Myelin Sheaths in the PNS

• Formed by Schwann cells
• Develop during fetal period and in
the first year of postnatal life
• Schwann cells wrap in concentric
layers around the axon
– Cover the axon in a tightly
packed coil of membranes
• Neurilemma – material external
to myelin layers
• Nodes of Ranvier – gaps along
axon
• Degeneration of myelin
sheaths occurs in multiple
sclerosis and some cases of
diabetes mellitus.
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Nerves
• Nerves - bundles of axons wrapped in
connective tissue
– If only sensory axons, called sensory nerves
– If only motor axons, called motor nerves
– If both sensory and motor axons, called mixed nerves
• Connective Tissue Coverings
– Endoneurium – layer of delicate connective tissue
surrounding the axon
• Nerve fascicles – groups of axons bound into bundles
– Perineurium – connective tissue wrapping
surrounding a nerve fascicle
– Epineurium – whole nerve is surrounded by tough
fibrous sheath
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Structure of a Nerve
A. Note the similarity of a nerve to a
muscle
1. Just as a muscle is a collection of
muscle fibers, a nerve is a
collection of nerve fibers (axons).
2. Each is broken up in smaller units
known as fascicles
3. Each is covered by connective
tissue:
• Epimysium vs. Epineurium
• Perimysium vs. Perineurium
• Endomysium vs. Endoneurium

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Figure 12.16a

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Nerve Fiber Types

• Type A fibers
– large-diameter nerve
– Heavily myelinated; conduct impulses at 15-120 m/sec
– Motor neurons supplying skeletal muscles
• Type B
– medium-diameter nerves
– lightly myelinated; conduct at 3-15 m/sec
– Sensory nerves from sensory receptors
• Type C:
– Very small diameter
– Unmyelinated; conduct at 2 m/sec or less
– Part of ANS
• Innervate visceral smooth muscle and glands
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The Synapse
• Site at which neurons communicate
• Signals pass across synapse in one direction
• Types of cells in synapse
– Presynaptic neuron - conducts impulse toward the
synapse
– Postsynaptic neuron - conducts impulse away from the
synapse
• Average postsynaptic neuron has up to 10,000
synapses
• Some in cerebellum have up to 100,000 synapses
• Two major types of synapses
– Electrical - not common in nervous system
– Chemical - most common type
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Types of Chemical Synapses

• Axodendritic
– Between axon terminals of presynaptic neuron and
dendrite of postsynaptic neuron
– Most common type of synapse
• Axosomatic
– Between axon of pre- and soma (cell body) of post-
synaptic neuron
• Axoaxonic
– Between two axons
– Not common

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Types of Neural Synapses

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Chemical Synapse
• Presynaptic bulb has secretory
vesicles that contain neurotrans-
mitter chemical (NT)
• NT must pass across the
synaptic cleft, space that
separates pre- and
postsynaptic membranes
• Postsynaptic membrane
contains receptors specific
for each type of NT
• Binding of NT to its receptor
causes ion channels to open
or close
• Postsynaptic membrane is thus
either stimulated or inhibited

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Basic Neuronal Organization

of the Nervous System

• Reflex arcs – simple chains of neurons

– Explain reflex behaviors
– Determine structural plan of the nervous
system
– Responsible for reflexes
• Rapid, autonomic motor responses
– Can be visceral or somatic

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Five Essential Components to

the Reflex Arc
• Receptor – site where
stimulus acts
• Sensory neuron – transmits
afferent impulses to the CNS
• Integration center – consists
of one or more synapses in
the CNS
• Motor neuron – conducts
efferent impulses from
integration center to an
effector
• Effector – muscle or gland
– Responds to efferent
impulses
• Contracting or
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secreting

Types of Reflexes

• Monosynaptic reflex – simplest of all reflexes

– Just one synapse
– The fastest of all reflexes
– Example – knee-jerk reflex
• Polysynaptic reflex – more common type of
reflex
– Most have a single interneuron between the
sensory and motor neuron
– Example – withdrawal reflexes
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Types of Reflexes

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Simplified Design of the

Nervous System

• Three-neuron reflex arcs

– Basis of the structural plan of the nervous
system
– Similar reflexes are associated with the
brain

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Simplified Design of the

Nervous System
• Sensory neurons – located dorsally
– Cell bodies outside the CNS in sensory ganglia
– Central processes enter dorsal aspect of the spinal
cord
• Motor neurons – located ventrally
– Axons exit the ventral aspect of the spinal cord
• Interneurons – located centrally
– Synapse with sensory neurons

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Simplified Design of the

Nervous System

• Human nervous system is complex

• Interneurons also include neurons
confined to CNS
– Long chains of interneurons between
sensory and motor neurons

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Simplified Design of the Nervous System

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Neuronal Pathways and Circuits

• Organization of neurons in CNS varies in complexity

– Convergent pathways: many neurons converge and synapse
with smaller number of neurons. E.g., synthesis of data in brain.
– Divergent pathways: small number of presynaptic neurons
synapse with large number of postsynaptic neurons. E.g., important
information can be transmitted to many parts of the brain.
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Disorders of the Nervous

System

• Multiple sclerosis – common cause of

neural disability
– Varies widely in intensity among those
affected
– Cause is incompletely understood
– An autoimmune disease
• Immune system attacks the myelin around
axons in the CNS

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Neuronal Regeneration
• Neural injuries may cause permanent
dysfunction
• If axons alone are destroyed, cells bodies
often survive and the axons may regenerate
– PNS – macrophages invade and destroy axon
distal to the injury
• Axon filaments grow peripherally from injured site
• Partial recovery is sometimes possible
– CNS – neuroglia never form bands to guide
regrowing axons and may hinder axon growth with
growth-inhibiting chemicals
– No effective regeneration after injury to the spinal
chord and brain
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Regeneration of
the Peripheral
Nerve Fiber

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Thank You.

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