Ancient India

The History of India begins with the Indus Valley Civilization and the coming of the
Aryans. These two phases are generally desribed as the pre-Vedic and Vedic periods. The
earliest literary source that sheds light on India's past is the Rig Veda. It is difficult to date
this work with any accuracy on the basis of tradition and ambiguous astronomical information
contained in the hymns. Indus valley civilization, which flourished between 2800 BC and 1800
BC, had an advanced and flourishing economic system. The Indus valley people practiced
agriculture, domesticated animals, made tools and weapons from copper, bronze, and tin and
even traded with some Middle East countries.
VedicCivilization
The next era that India saw was that of the Vedic civilization, flourishing along the river
Saraswati, named after the Vedas, which depict the early literature of the Hindus. The two
greatest epics of this period were the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, still held in great
reverence by the followers of Hinduism.
Buddhist Era
Next came the Buddhist era, during the time of the Mahajanapadas which were the sixteen great
powers, during the 7th and the 6th centuries BC. Prominent powers at the time were the Sakyas
of Kapilavastu and the Licchavis of Vaishali. Buddha, whose original name was Siddhartha
Gautam, was born in Lumbini near Kapilavastu and was the founder of Buddhism - a religion
based on spiritualism. He died at the age of 80 in 480 BC but his teachings spread throughout
southern and eastern Asia and are followed across the world today.

The Invasion of Alexander

When Alexander invaded India in 326 BC, he crossed the Indus river and defeated the Indian
rulers in battle. Noteworthy of the Indians’ attempts at war, was the use of elephants, something
that the Macedonians had never seen before. Alexander then took over the lands of the defeated
kings.

The Gupta Dynasty

The Gupta period has been referred to as the Golden Age of Indian history. When Chandragupt I
received the gift of Pataliputra in dowry when he married the daughter of the chief of the
‘Licchavis’, he started to lay down the foundation of his empire, which extended from the river
Ganges or the Ganga to the city of Allahabad. He ruled for 15 years and was also referred to as
the ‘king of kings’ for his strategic conquests and the flourishing state of India.
Harshavardhana
The last of the ancient kingdoms in India was by the king Harshavardhana, who ascended the
throne at Thanneshwar and Kannauj after his brother died. While successful in a few of his
conquests, he eventually got defeated by the Chalukya Kingdom of Deccan India.
Harshavardhana was well-known for establishing relations with the Chinese, and also for having
high religious tolerance and strong administrative capabilities.

Ancient India and its literature

Indian literature - one of the most ancient of literature has been exemplary for rest of the world.
In ancient times, the literary work used to be imparted orally. The literary tradition in India
dominates a large part of Indian culture. Traditionally Indian literature was one of verse and oral.
The ancient literary creations in India are the Vedas, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata (Hindu
epics) and several other scriptures like Vaastu Shastra in architecture and town planning, and
Arthashastra in political science. Muslim literary traditions also dominate a large part of Indian
culture, mostly made by Muslim Rulers across history.
Characteristics
 Most known characteristic of Indian Literature is its theme present in their compositions.
Clearly evident is its relation to religion, dominantly Hinduism. Another is its theme of
morality, such as deeds, and values like obedience, bravery, love and so on.
 Indian literature is known it standard form of poetry. This form was adpted to their
composition like the Ramayana, which is composed of 24000 verses, and Mahabharata,
in which composed with 100000 verses. It is also adapted to its sacred writings called
Mantras.
 The earliest Indian literature took the form of the canonical Hindu sacred writings, known
as the Veda, which were written in Sanskrit. To the Veda were added prose commentaries
such as the Brahmanas and the Upanishads. The production of Sanskrit literature
extended from about 1500 BCE to about 1000 CE and reached its height of development
in the 1st to 7th centuries CE. In addition to sacred and philosophical writings, such
genres as erotic and devotional lyrics, court poetry, plays, and narrative folktales
emerged.
MAHABHARATA
 The Mahabharata is an epic that comprises one hundred thousand stanzas of verse
divided into eighteen books, or parvas. It is the largest single literary work in existence.
Originally composed in the ancient language of Sanskrit sometime between 400 BC and
400 AD, it is set in a legendary era thought to correspond to the period of Indian culture
and history in approximately the tenth century BC.
 The original “author” was Vyasa who tried to tell about the Great War between the
Pandavas and the Kauravas - cousins who claimed to be the rightful rulers of a kingdom.
The background to get to where the epic starts is very confusing.
Description
The Mahabharata is an ancient Indian epic where the main story revolves around two branches of
a family - thePandavas and Kauravas - who, in the Kurukshetra War, battle for the throne of
Hastinapura. Interwoven into this narrative are several smaller stories about people dead or
living, and philosophical discourses. Krishna-Dwaipayan Vyasa, himself a character in the epic,
composed it; as, according to tradition, he dictated the verses and Ganesha wrote them down.

Historical Background
At 100,000 verses, it is the longest epic poem ever written, generally thought to have been
composed in the 4th century BCE or earlier. The events in the epic play out in the Indian
subcontinent and surrounding areas. It was first narrated by a student of Vyasa at a snake-
sacrifice of the great-grandson of one of the major characters of the story. Including within it the
Bhagavad Gita, the Mahabharata is one of the most important texts of ancient Indian, indeed
world literature.
Characters
From the heroic Pandavas - Yudhishthira, Bhima, Arjuna, Nakula, and Sahadeva, to the
enigmatic Krishna, the mighty warrior Karna, and the virtuous Draupadi, these characters teach
us valuable life lessons through their actions and decisions.
Dilemma
The Mahabharata holds deep moral complexities that invite readers to contemplate the dilemmas
faced by its characters. Whether it's Yudhishthira choosing between duty and truth, Arjuna
grappling with his duty as a warrior on the battlefield, or Krishna guiding his devotees towards
righteousness, these ethical conundrums resonate with readers even today.
Themes
Dharma, the righteous way of living, is a central theme in the Mahabharata. The epic delves into
the intricacies of dharma, exploring its different dimensions and presenting dilemmas where
characters must make difficult choices. Through their actions, the Mahabharata teaches us about
the importance of adhering to one's dharma and the consequences of straying from it.
The Bhagavad Gita
Within the Mahabharata, the Bhagavad Gita stands as a philosophical gem. During the
Kurukshetra War, Lord Krishna imparts profound wisdom to Arjuna, guiding him through his
moral dilemma. The Gita addresses existential questions, explores paths to self-realization, and
provides insights into the nature of the universe.
Timeless Teachings
Despite being an ancient epic, the Mahabharata's teachings are timeless. Its lessons about duty,
loyalty, compassion, and the complexity of human nature remain relevant even in contemporary
times. From the consequences of greed and pride to the importance of forgiveness and love, the
Mahabharata touches upon universal themes that resonate with people across cultures.
Cultural Significance
The Mahabharata is not just a literary work but a cultural treasure. It has influenced art, music,
dance, and theater in Indian culture. Its stories have been enacted in countless adaptations,
showcasing the enduring impact of this epic on Indian society.
Conclusion
The Mahabharata continues to captivate readers with its rich storytelling and profound teachings.
Its characters, moral dilemmas, lessons on dharma, the Bhagavad Gita, timeless wisdom, and
cultural significance make it a true masterpiece of Indian literature. Exploring the Mahabharata is
an invitation to embark on a journey into the depths of human existence and the eternal struggle
between righteousness and self-interest.
RAMAYANA
Characters
1. Rama: The protagonist of the Ramayana, Rama is a virtuous and noble prince who is next in line to
become king. He is exiled from his kingdom and embarks on a journey to rescue his wife, Sita, after she
is kidnapped by Ravana.
2. Sita: Rama's devoted wife, Sita is a paragon of virtue and loyalty. She is kidnapped by Ravana and
remains steadfast in her devotion to Rama throughout her captivity.
3. Ravana: The antagonist of the story, Ravana is the powerful demon king who kidnaps Sita. He
possesses immense strength and magical powers, but his greed and arrogance ultimately lead to his
downfall.
4. Lakshmana: Rama's loyal younger brother, Lakshmana accompanies Rama into exile and provides
support and guidance throughout their journey.
5. Hanuman: The monkey king and loyal friend of Rama, Hanuman assists Rama in his quest to rescue
Sita. He possesses incredible strength and intelligence, and his devotion to Rama is unwavering.
6. Dasharatha: Rama's father and the king of Ayodhya, Dasharatha is a wise and just ruler. He reluctantly
exiles Rama due to political conspiracies within the kingdom. These are just a few of the many characters
that populate the epic Ramayana, which showcases themes of love, loyalty, heroism, and the triumph of
good over evil.
Plot Summary
The Ramayana is an ancient Indian epic that tells the story of Rama, a virtuous prince who is exiled from
his kingdom due to a series of political intrigues. Joined by his loyal brother Lakshmana and his devoted
wife Sita, Rama embarks on a journey to rescue Sita after she is kidnapped by the demon king Ravana.
Along the way, Rama encounters various friends and allies, including the monkey king Hanuman. With
their help, Rama ultimately defeats Ravana and rescues Sita, restoring peace and order to his kingdom.
Theme
The Ramayana, along with Mahabharata, portrays the importance of Dharma, the Hindu concept of the
right way of living or respecting one’s dutys so the cosmos remains in order. In Ramayana, however,
deals with Heroism, and portraying the importance of honor, loyalty, and behaving dutifully to their
family members.