SEMI-FINAL PERIOD

LITERATURE 2 (WORLD LITERATURE)

AFRO-ASIAN LITERATURE

A. INDIA

1. Literary Periods. The Indus Valley civilization flourished in northern India between
2500 and 1500 B.C. The Aryans, a group of nomadic warriors and herders, were the
earliest known migrants into India. They brought with them a well-developed language
and literature and a set of religious beliefs.
a. Vedic Period (1500 B.C.- 500 B.C.). This period is named for the Vedas, a set of hymns
that formed the cornerstone of Aryan culture. Hindus consider the Vedas, which were
transmitted orally by priests, to be the most sacred of all literature for they believe these
to have been revealed to humans directly by the gods.
 The Rigveda which has come to mean “hymns of supreme sacred knowledge,” is
the foremost collection or Samhita made up of 1,028 hymns. The oldest of the
Vedas, it contains strong, energetic, non-speculative hymns, often comparable to
the psalms in the Old Testament. The Hindus regard these hymns as divinely
inspired or ‘heard’ directly from the gods.
b. Epic and Buddhist Age (500 B.C. – A.D.). The period of composition of the two great
epics, Mahabharata and the Ramayana. This time was also the growth of later Vedic
literature, new Sanskrit literature, and Buddhist literature in Pali. The Dhammapada was
also probably composed during this period. The Maurya Empire (322-230 B.C.) ruled by
Ashoka promoted Buddhism and preached goodness, nonviolence, and ‘righteousness’
although this period was known for warfare and iron-fisted rule. The Gupta Dynasty (320
-467 B.C.) was the next great political power. During this time, Hinduism reached a full
flowering and was evident in culture and the arts.
 The Mahabharata, traditionally ascribed to the sage Vyasa, consists of a mass of
legendary and didactic material that tells of the struggle for supremacy between
two groups of cousins, the Kauravas and the Pandavas. Set sometime 3102 BC,
the poem is made up of almost 100,000 couplets divided into 18 parvans or
sections.it is an exposition on dharma (codes of conduct), including the proper
conduct of a king, of a warrior, of a man living in times of calamity, and of a
person seeking to attain emancipation from rebirth.
 The Bhagavad Gita (The Blessed Lord’s Song) is one of the greatest and most
beautiful of the Hindu scriptures. It is regarded by the Hindus in somewhat the
same way as the Gospels are by Christians. It forms part of Book IV and is
written in the form of a dialogue between the warrior Prince Arjuna and his friend
and charioteer, Krishna, who is also an earthly incarnation of the god Vishnu.

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  The Ramayana was composed in Sanskrit, probably not before 300 B.C., by the
poet Valmiki and consists of some 24,000 couplets divided into seven books. It
reflects the Hindu values and forms of social organization, the theory of karma,
the ideals of wifehood, and feelings about caste, honor, and promises. The poems
describes the royal birth of Rama, his tutelage under the sage Visvamitra, and his
success in bending Siva’s mighty bow, thus, winning Sita, the daughter of King
Janaka, for his wife. After Rama is banished from his position as heir by an
intrigue, he retreats to the forest with his wife and his half-brother, Laksmana.
There Ravana, the demon-king of Lanka, carries off Sita, who resolutely rejects
his attentions. After numerous adventures Rama slays Ravana and rescues Sita.
When they return to his Kingdom, however, Rama learns that the people question
the queen’s chastity, and banishes her to the forest where she gives birth to
Rama’s two sons. The family is reunited when the sons come of age, but Sita,
after again protesting her innocence, asks to be received by the earth, which
swallows her up.
c. Classical Period (A.D. – 1000 A.D.). The main literary language of northern India
during this period was Sanskrit, in contrast with the Dravidian languages of southern
India. Sanskrit, which means perfect speech’ is considered a sacred language, the
language spoken by the gods and goddesses. As such, Sanskrit was seen as the only
appropriate language for the noblest literary works. Poetry and drama peaked during this
period. Beast fables such as the Panchatantra were popular and often used by religious
teachers to illustrate moral points.
 The Panchatantra is a collection of Indian beast fables originally written in Sanskrit. In
Europe, the work was known under the title, The Fables of Bidpai after the narrator and
Indian sage named Bidpai, (called Vidyapati in Sanskrit). It is intended as a textbook of
artha (worldly wisdom); the aphorisms tend to glorify shrewdness and cleverness more
than helping others. The original text is a mixture of Sanskrit prose and stanzas of verse,
with the stories contained within one of five frame stories. The introduction, which acts
as an enclosing frame for the entire work, attributes the stories to a learned Brahman
named Vishnusarman, who used the form of animal fables to instruct the three dull-witted
sons of a king.
 Sakuntala, a Sanskrit drama by Kalidasa, tells os the love between Sakuntala and King
Dushyanta. What begins as a physical attraction for both of them becomes spiritual in the
end as their love endures and surpasses all difficulties. King Dushyanta is a noble and
pious king who upholds his duties above personal desire. Sakuntala, on the other hand, is
young girl who matures beautifully because of her kindness, courage, and strength of
will. After a period of suffering, the two eventually reunited. Emotion or rasa dominate
every scene in Sanskrit drama. These emotions vary from love to anger, heroism to
cowardice, joy to terror and allows the audience to take part in the play and be one with
the characters.

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  The Little Clay Cart (Mrcchakatika) is attributed to Shudraka, a king. The characters
in this play include a Brahman merchant who has lost his money through liberality, a rich
courtesan in love with a poor young man, much description of resplendent palaces, and
both comic and tragic or near-tragic emotional situations.
d. Medieval and Modern Age (A.D. 1000 – Present). Persian influence on literature was
considerable during this period. Persian was the court language of the Moslem rulers. In
the 18th century India was directly under the British Crown and remained so until its
Independence in 1947. British influence was strong and modern-day Indians are primarily
educated in English. Many have been brought into the world of Western learning at the
expense of learning about their own culture.
 Gitanjali: Song Offerings was originally published in India in 1910 and its translation
followed in 1912. In these prose translations, Rabindranath Tagore uses imagery from
nature to express the themes of love and the internal conflict between spiritual longings
and earthly desires.
 the Taj Mahal, a poem by Sahir Ludhianvi, is about the mausoleum in North India built
by the Mogul emperor Sha Jahan for his wife Mumtaz-i-Mahal. The façade of this
grandiose structure is made of white marble and is surrounded by water gardens,
gateways, and walks. The tomb at the center of the dome stands on a square block with
towers at each corner. The construction of the building took twenty years to complete
involving some 20,000 workers.
 On Learning to be an Indian, an essay by Santha Rama Rau, illustrates the telling
effects of colonization on the lives of the people particularly the younger generation. The
writer humorously narrates the conflicts that arise between her grandmother’s traditional
Indian values and the author’s own British upbringing.

2. Religions. Indian creativity is evident in religion as the country is the birthplace of two
important faiths: Hinduism, the dominant religion, and Buddhism, which ironically became
extinct in India but spread throughout Asia.

a. Hinduism, literally “the belief of the people of India,” is the predominant faith of India
and of no other nation. The Hindus are deeply absorbed with God and the creation of the
universe.
The Purusarthas are the three ends of man: dharma – virtue, duty, righteousness,
moral law; artha – wealth; and kama – love and pleasure. A fourth end is moksha – the
renunciation of duty, wealth and love in order to seek spiritual perfection. It is achieved
after the release from samsara, the cycle of births and deaths. The Hindus believe that all
reality is one and spiritual, and that each individual soul is identical with this reality and
shares its characteristics: pure being, intelligence, and bliss. Everything that seems to
divide the soul from this reality is maya or illusion.
Life is viewed as an upward development through four stages of effort called the
four asramas: a.) the student stage – applies to the rite of initiation into the study of the

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 Vedas; b.) the householder stage – marries and fulfills the duties as head of the family
where he begets sons and earns a living; c.) the stage of the forest dweller – departs from
home and renounces the social world; and d.) ascetic – stops performing any of the rituals
or social duties of life in the world and devotes time for reflection and meditation.
Kama refers to one of the proper pursuits of man in his role as householder that of
pleasure and love. The kama-sutra is a classic textbook on erotics and other forms of
pleasure and love, which is attributed to the sage Vatsyayana.
The Hindus regard Purusha, the Universal spirit, as the soul and original source of
the universe. As the universal soul, Purusha is the life-giving principle in all animated
beings. As a personified human being, Purusha’s body is the source of all creation. The
four Varnas serve as the theoretical basis for the organization of the Hindu society.
The Upanishads form a highly sophisticated commentary on the religious thought
suggested by the poetic hymns of the Rigveda. The name implies, according to some
traditions, ‘sitting at the feet of the teacher.’ The most important philosophical doctrine is
the concept of the single supreme being, the Brahman, and knowledge is directed toward
reunion with it by the human soul, the Atman or Self. The nature of eternal life is
discussed and such themes as the transmigration of souls and causality in creation.
b. Buddhism originated in India in the 6th century B.C. the religion is based on the
teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, called Buddha, or the Enlightened One.’ Much of
Buddha’s teaching is focused on self-awareness and self-development in order to attain
nirvana or enlightenment.
According to Buddhist beliefs, human beings are bound to the wheel of life which
is a continual cycle of birth, death, and suffering. This cycle is an effect of karma in
which a person’s present life and experiences are the result of past thoughts and actions,
and these present thoughts and actions likewise create those of the future. The Buddhist
scriptures uphold the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path. The Four Noble
Truths are: 1.) life is suffering; 2.) the cause of suffering is desire; 3.) the removal of
desire is the removal of suffering; and 4.) the Noble Eightfold Path leads to the end of
suffering. The Noble Eightfold Path consists of: 1.) right understanding; 2.) right thought;
3.) right speech; 4.) right action; 5.) right means of livelihood; 6.) right effort; 7.) right
concentration; and 8.) right meditation. The Buddhist truth states that bad actions and bad
feelings such as selfishness, greed, hostility, hate are evil not because they harm others
but because of their negative influence on the mental state of the doer. It is in this sense
that evil returns to punish the doer.
 The Dhammapada (Way of Truth) is an anthology of basic Buddhist teaching
in a simple aphoristic style. One of the best known books of the Pali Buddhist
canon, it contains 423 stanzas arranged in 26 chapters. These verses are compared
with the Letters of St. Paul in the Bible or that of Christ’s Sermon on the Mount.

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3. Major Writers.

a) Kalidasa a Sanskrit poet and dramatist is probably the greatest Indian writer of all time.
As with most classical Indian authors, little is known about Kalidasa’s person or his
historical relationships. His poems suggest that he was a Brahman (priest). Many works
are traditionally ascribed to the poet, but scholars have identified only six as genuine.
b) Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941). The son of a Great Sage, Tagore is a Bengali poet
and mystic who won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1913. Tagore managed his father’s
estates and lived in close contact with the villagers. His sympathy for their poverty and
backwardness was later reflected in his works. The death of his wife and two children
brought him years of sadness but this also inspired some of his best poetry. Tagore is also
a gifted composer and a painter.
c) Prem Chand pseudonym of Dhanpat Rai Srivastava (1880-1936). Indian author of
numerous novels and short stories in Hindi and Urdu who pioneered in adapting Indian
themes to Western literary styles. He worked as a teacher before joining Mahatma
Gandhi’s anticolonial Noncooperation Movement.
 Sevasadana (House of Service) his first major novel deals with the problems of
prostitution and moral corruption among the Indian middle class.
 Manasarovar (The Holy Lake). A collection of 250 or so short stories which
contains most of Prem Chand’s best works.
 Godan (The Gift of a Cow). This last novel was Prem Chand’s masterpiece and
it deals with his favorite theme – the hard and unrewarding life of the village
peasants.
d) Kamala Markandaya (1924). Her works concern the struggles of contemporary Indians
with conflicting Eastern and Western values. A Brahman, she studied at Madras
University then settled in England and married an Englishman. In her fiction, Western
values typically are viewed as modern and materialistic, and Indian values as spiritual
and traditional.
 Nectar in a Sieve. Her first novel and most popular work is about an Indian
peasant’s narrative of her difficult life.
e) R.K. Narayan (1906). One of the finest Indian authors of his generation writing in
English. He briefly worked as a teacher before deciding to devote himself full-time to
writing. All of Narayan’s works are set in the fictitious South Indian town of Malgudi.
They typically portray the peculiarities of human relationships and the ironies of Indian
daily life, in which modern urban existence clashes with ancient tradition. His style is
graceful, marked by genial humor, elegance, and simplicity.
 Swami and Friends. His first novel is an episodic narrative recounting the
adventures of a group of schoolboys.
 Novels: The English Teacher (1945), Waiting for the Mahatma (1955), The Guide
(1958), The Man-Eater of Malgudi (1961), and The Vendor of Sweets (1967), A
Tiger for Malgudi (1983), and The World of Nagaraj (1990).
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  Collection of Short Stories: Lawley Road (1956), A Horse and Two Goats and
Other Stories (1970), Under the Banyan Tree and Other Stories (1985), and
Grandmother’s Tale (1992).
f) Anita Desai (1937). An English-language Indian novelist and author of children’s books,
she is considered India’s premier imagist writer. She excelled in evoking character and
mood through visual images. Most of her works reflect Desei’s tragic view of life.
 Cry, the Peacock. Her first novel, addresses the theme of the suppression and
oppression of Indian women.
 Clear Light of Day. Considered the author’s most successful work, this is a
highly evocative portrait of two sisters caught in the lassitude of Indian life. This
was shortlisted for the 1980 Booker Prize.
 Fire on the Mountain. This work was criticized as relying too heavily on
imagery at the expense of plot and characterization, but it was praised for its
poetic symbolism and use of sounds. This won for her the Royal Society of
Literature’s Winifred Holtby Memorial Prize.
g) Vir Singh (1872-1957l). A Sikh writer and theologian, he wrote at a time when Sikh
religion and politics and the Punjabi language were under heavy attack by the English
and Hindus. He extolled Sikh courage, philosophy, and ideals, earning respect for the
Punjabi language as a literary vehicle.
 Kalghi Dhar Chamatkar. This novel is about the life of the 17 th century guru
Gobind Singh.
 Other novels on Sikh philosophy and material excellence include Sundri (1898)
and Bijai Singh (1899).
h) Arundhati Roy. A young female writer whose first book The God of Small Things won
for her a Booker Prize.

B. CHINA

Historical Background. Chinese literature reflects the political and cultural history of China and
the impact of powerful religions that came along within and outside the country. Its tradition
goes back thousands of years and has often been inspired by philosophical questions about the
meaning of life, how to live ethnically in society, and how to live in actual harmony with the
natural order of the universe.

a) Shang Dynasty (1600 B.C.). During this time, the people practiced a religion based on
the belief that nature was inhabited by many powerful gods and spirits. Among the
significant advances of this period were bronze working, decimal system, a twelve-month
calendar and a system of writing consisting of 3,000 characters.
b) Chou Dynasty (1100 B.C. – 221 B.C.). This was the longest of all the dynasties and
throughout most of this period China suffered from severe political disunity and
upheaval. This era was also known as the Hundred Schools period because of many

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 competing philosophers and teachers who emerged the most influential among them
being Lao Tzu, the proponent of Taoism, and Confucius, the proponent under of
Confucianism. Lao Tzu stressed freedom, simplicity, and the mystical contemplation on
nature whereas Confucius emphasized the code of social conduct and stressed the
importance of discipline, morality, and knowledge.
a. The Book of Songs, (Shih Ching) first compiled in the 6th century B.C., is the oldest
collection of Chinese poetry and is considered a model of poetic expression and moral
insight. The poems include songs that entertained the aristocracy, story songs that
recounted Chou dynasty legends, hymns that were sung in the temples accompanied by
dance and brief folk songs and ballads. Although these poems were originally meant to
be sung, their melodies have long been lost.
b. The Parables of the Ancient Philosophers illustrate the Taoist belief and the humanism
of the Chinese thought. In them can be seen the relativity of all things as they pass
through man’s judgment, the virtues of flexibility, and the drawbacks of material
progress.

c) Ch’in Dynasty (221 B.C. – 207 B.C.). This period saw the unification of China and the
strengthening of central government. Roads connecting all parts of the empire we built
and the existing walls on the northern boarders were connected to form the Great Wall of
China.
d) Han Dynasty (207 B.C. – A.D. 220). This period was one of the most glorious eras of
Chinese history and was marked by the introduction of Buddhism from India.
e) T’ang Dynasty (A.D. 618 – 960). Fine arts and literature flourished during this era which
is viewed as the Golden Age of Chinese civilization. Among the technological advances
of this time were the invention of gunpowder and the block printing.
The T’ang Poets. Chinese lyrical poetry reached its height during the T’ang Dynasty.
Inspired by scenes of natural beauty, T’ang poets wrote about the fragile blossoms in
spring, the falling of leaves in autumn, or the changing shape of the moon.
f) Sung Dynasty (A.D. 960 -1279). This period was characterized by delicacy and
refinement although inferior in terms of literary arts but great in learning. Professional
poets were replaced by amateur writers. The practice of Neo-Confucianism grew.
g) Later Dynasties (A.D. 1260 – 1912). During late 13th centuries, northern China was
overrun by Mongol invaders led by Genghis Khan whose grandson Kublai Khan
completed the Mongol conquest of China and established the Yuan dynasty, the first
foreign dynasty in China’s history. It was during this time that Marco Polo visited China.
Chinese rule was reestablished after the Mongols were driven out of China and the Ming
dynasty was established. There was a growth of drama in colloquial language and a
decline of language and learning. A second foreign dynasty, the Ch’ing was established
and China prospered as its population rapidly increased causing major problems for its
government.

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 h) Traditional Chinese Government. The imperial rule lasted in China for over 2,000
years leading to a pyramid-shaped hierarchy in the government. The emperor, known as
the Son of Heaven, was a hereditary ruler and beneath him were bureaucratic officials.
An official government career was considered prestigious and the selection was by means
of government examinations. The civil service examinations tested on the major Chinese
works of philosophy and poetry requiring the composition for verse. Most government
officials were well-versed in literature and philosophy and many famous Chinese poets
also served in the government.

2. Philosophy and Religion. Chinese literature has been profoundly influenced by three great
schools of thought: Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. Unlike Western religions, Chinese
religions are based on the perception of life as a process of continual change in which opposing
forces, such as heaven and earth or light and dark, balance one another. These opposites are
symbolized by the Yin and Yang. Yin, the passive and feminine force, counterbalances Yang, the
active and masculine force, each contains a ‘seed’ of the other, as represented in the traditional
Yin-Yang symbol.

a) Confucianism provides the Chinese with both a moral order and an order for the
universe. It is not a religion but it makes individuals aware of their place in the world and
the behavior appropriate to it. It also provides a political and social philosophy.
Confucianism ethics is humanist. The following are Confucian tenets:
1) Jen or human heartedness is qualities or forms of behavior that set men above the rest
of the life on earth. It is the unique goodness of man which animals cannot aspire to. Also
known as ren, it is the measure of individual character and such, is the goal of self-
cultivation. The ideal individual results from acting according to li, 2) li refers to ritual,
custom, propriety, and manner. Li is thought to be the means by which life should be
regulated. A person of li is a good person and a state ordered by li is a harmonious and
peaceful state. Li or de as a virtue is best understood as a sacred power inherent by the
very presence of the sage. The sage was the inspiration for proper conduct and the model
of behavior.
The Analects (Lun Yu) is one of the four Confusian texts. The sayings range from brief
statements of more extended dialogues between Confucius and his students. Confucius
believes that people should cultivate the inherent goodness within themselves –
unselfishness, courage, and honor – as an ideal of universe moral and social harmony.
The Analects instructs on modernization in all things through moral education, the
building of the harmonious family life, and the development of virtues such as loyalty,
obedience and a sense of justice. It also emphasizes filial piety and concern with social
and religious rituals. To Confucius, a person’s inner virtues can be fully realized only
through concrete acts of ‘ritual propriety’ or proper behavior toward other human beings.
The Book of Changes (I Ching) is one of the Five Classics of Confucian philosophy and
has been primarily used for divination. This book is based on the concept of change – the

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 one constant of the universe. Although change is never-ending, it too proceeds according
to certain universal and observable patterns.
b) Taoism, was expounded by Lao Tzu during the Chou Dynasty. Taoist beliefs and
influences are an important part of classical Chinese culture. “The Tao” or “The Way”
means the natural course that the world follows. To follow the tao of to “go with the
flow’ is both wisdom and happiness. For Taoist, unhappiness comes from parting from
the tao or from trying to flout it.
The Taoist political ideas are very passive: the good king does nothing, and by this
everything is done naturally. This idea presents an interesting foil to Confucian theories
of state, although the Taoist never presented any political threat to the Conducianists.
Whereas Confucianism stressed conformity and reason in solving human problems,
Taoism stressed the individual and the need for human beings to conform to nature rather
than to society.
Lao-tzu. Known as the “old philosopher”, Lao-zi is credited as the founder of Taoism
and an elder contemporary of Confucius who once consulted with him. He was more
pessimistic than Confucius was about what can be accomplished in the world by human
action. He counseled a far more passive approach to the world and once fellows: one
must be cautious and let things speak for themselves. He favored more direct relationship
between the individual self and the dao.
The Tao-Te Ching (Classic of the Way of Power) is believed to have been written
between the 8th and 3rd centuries B.C. the basic concept of the dao is wu-wei or “non-
action” which means no unnatural action, rather than complete passivity. It implies
spontaneity, non-interference, letting things take their natural course i.e., “Do nothing and
everything else is done.” Chaos ceases, quarrels end, and self-righteous feuding
disappears because the dao is allowed to flow unchallenged.
c) Buddhism was imported from India during the Han Dynasty. Buddhist thought stresses
the importance of ridding oneself of earthly desires and of seeking ultimate peace and
enlightenment through detachment. With its stress on living ethnically and its de-
emphasis on material concerns, Buddhism appealed to both Confucians and Taoists.

3. Genres in Chinese Poetry have always been highly valued in Chinese culture and were
considered superior to prose. Chief among its characteristics are lucidity, brevity, subtlety,
suggestiveness or understatement, and its three-fold appeal to intellect, emotion, and calligraphy.

4. Conventions of Chinese Theater. Chinese drama may be traced to the song and dances of the
chi (wizards) and the wu (witches) whom the people consulted to exercise evil spirits, to bring
rain, to insure bountiful harvest, etc., an origin of worship or some sacred ritual.

a) There are four principal roles: sheng, tau, ching, and chao.
 The sheng is the prerogative of the leading actor, usually a male character, a
scholar, a statesman, a warrior patriot and the like.

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  The tau plays all the women’s roles. At least six principal characters are played by
the female impersonator who has taken over the role after women were banned
from the Chinese stage as they were looked down upon as courtesen.
 The ching roles usually assigned the roles of brave warriors, bandits, crafty and
evil ministers, upright judges, loyal statesmen, at times god-like and supernatural
beings. Conventionally, the ching must have broad faces and forehead suitable for
the make-up patters suggestive to his behavior.
 The chau is the clown or jester who is not necessarily a fool and may also do
serious or evil character. He easily recognized for the white patch around his eyes
and nose, his use of colloquial language and adeptness in combining mimicry and
acrobatics.
b) Unlike Greek plays, classical Chinese plays do not follow the unities of time, place, and
action. The ploy may be set in two or more places, the time element sometimes taking
years to develop or end, and action containing may other sub-plots.
c) Chinese drama conveys an ethical lesson in guise of art in order to impress a moral truth
or a Confucian tenet. Dramas uphold virtue, condemn vice, praise fidelity, and filial
piety. Vice is presented on the stage not for its own sake but as contrast to virtue.
d) There are two types of speeches – the dialogue, usually in prose, and the monologues.
While the dialogue carries forward the action of the day, the monologue is the means for
each character to introduce him/herself at the beginning of the first scene of every scene
as well as to outline the plot.
e) Chinese plays are long – six or seven hours if performed completely. The average length
is about four acts with a prologue and an epilogue. The Chinese play is a total theater.
There is singing, recitation of verses, acrobats, dancing, and playing of traditional
musical instruments.
f) Music is an integral part of the classical drama. It has recitatives, arias, and musical
development and rhythm that harmonized perfectly with the sentiments being conveyed
by a character.
g) The poetic dialogue, hsieh tzu (wedge), is placed at the beginning or in between acts and
is an integral part of the play. The stage is bare of props except a table and a pair of chairs
may be converted to a battlefield or a court scene, a bedroom, even a prison through vivid
acting and poetry. Property conventions are rich in symbolism table with a chair at the
side, both place at the side of the stage, represents a hill or a high wall.
h) Dramatic conventions that serve to identify the nature and function of each character.
Make-up identifies the characters and personalities. Costumes help reveal types and
different colors signify ranks and status.
i) Action reflects highly stylized movements. Hand movements may indicate
embarrassment or helplessness or anguish or anger.

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5. Major Chinese Writers.

 Chuang Tzu (4th century B.C.) was the most important early interpreter of the
philosophy of Taoism. Very little is known about his life except that he served as a minor
court official. In his stories, he appears as a quirky character who cares little for either
public approval or material possessions.
 Lieh Tzu (4th century B.C.) was a Taoist teacher who had many philosophical
differences with his forebears Lao-Tzu and Chuan Tzu. He argued that the sequence of
causes predetermines everything that happens, including one’s choice of action.
 Lui An (172 -122 B.C.) was not only the Taoist scholar but the grandson of the founder
of the founder of the Han Dynasty. His royal title was the prince of Haui-nan. Together
with philosophers and under his patronage, he produced a collection of essays on
metaphysics, cosmology, politics, and conduct.
 Ssu-ma Ch’ien (145 – 90 B.C.) was the greatest of China’s Grand Historians’ who
dedicated himself to completing the first history of China the Records of the Historian.
His work covers almost three thousand years of Chinese history in more than half a
million written characters etched onto bamboo tablets.

The T’ang Poets:

 Li Po (701 762) was Wang Wei’s contemporary and he spent a short time in courts, but
seems to have been too much of a romantic and too give to drink to carry out
responsibilities. He was a Taoist, drawing sustenance from nature and his poetry was
often other-worldly and ecstatic. He had no great regard for his poems himself. He is said
to have mad thousands of them into paper boats which he sailed along streams.
 Tu Fu (712-770) is the Confucian moralist, realist, and humanitarian. He was public-
spirited, and his poetry helped chronicle the history of the age: the deterioration.
 Wang Wei (796?-761?) was an 8th century government official who spent the later years
of his life in the country, reading and discussing Buddhism and scholars and monks. He
is known for the pictorial quality of his poetry and for its economy. His word-pictures
parallel Chinese brush artistry in which a few strokes are all suggestive of authority, the
disasters of war, and official extravagance.
 Po Chu-I (772-846) was born two years after Tu Fu died, at a time, when China was still
in turmoil from foreign invasion and internal strife. He wore many poems speaking
bitterly against the social and economic problems that were plaguing China.
 Li Ch’ing-chao (A.D. 1084 – 1151) is regarded as China’s greatest woman poet and was
also one of the most liberated women of her day. She was brought up in court society and
was trained in the arts and classical literature quite an unusual upbringing for a woman of
the Sung dynasty. Many of her poems composed of the t’zu form celebrate her happy
marriage or express her loneliness when her husband was away.

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  Chou-Shu-jen (1881 – 1936) has been called the “father of the modern Chinese short
story because of his introduction of Western techniques. He is also known as Lu Hsun
whose stories deal with themes of social concern, the problems of the poor, women, and
intellectuals.

C. JAPAN

Historical Background. Early Japan borrowed much from Chinese culture but evolved its own
character over time. Early Japan’s political structure was based on clan, or family. Each clan
developed a hierarchy of classes with aristocrats, warriors, and priests at the top and peasants and
workers at the bottom. During the 4th century A.D. the Yamato grew to be most powerful and
imposed the Chinese imperial system on Japan creating an emperor, an imperian bureaucracy,
and a grand capital city.

a) The Heian Age was the period of peace and prosperity, of aesthetic refinement and
artificial manners. The emperor began to diminish in power but continued to be respected
figure. Since the Japanese court had few official responsibilities, they were able to turn
their attention to art, music, and literature.
The Pillow Book by Sei Shōnagon, represents a unique form of the diary genre. It
contains vivid sketches of people and place, shy anecdotes and witticisms, snatches of
poetry, and 164 lists on court life during the Heian period. Primarily intended to be a
private journal, it was discovered and eventually printed. Shōnagon served as a lady-in-
wating to the Empress Sadako in the late 10th century.
b) The Feudal Era was dominated by the samurai class which included the militaristic lords,
the daimyo and the band of warriors, the samurai who adhered to a strict code of conduct
the emphasized bravery, loyalty, and honor. In 1192, Yorimato became the shogun or
chief general one of a series of shoguns who ruled Japan for over 500 years.
c) The Tokugawa Shogonate in the late 1500s crushed the warring feudal lords and
controlled all of Japan from a new capital at Edo, now Tokyo.by 1630 and for two
centuries, Japan was a closed society: all foreigners were expelled, Japanese Christians
were persecuted, and foreign travel was forbidden under penalty of death. The shogonate
was ended in 1868 when Japan began to trade with the Western powers. Under a more
powerful emperor, Japan rapidly acquired the latest technological knowledge, introduced
universal education, and created an impressive industrial economy.

Religious Traditions. Two major faiths were essential elements in the cultural foundations of
Japan society.

a) Shintoism or “the way of the gods,” is the ancient religion that reveres in dwelling
divine spirits called kami, found in natural places and objects. For this reason natural
scenes, such as waterfall, a gnarled tree, or a full moon, inspired reverence in the
Japanese people. The Shinto legends have been accepted as historical fact although in

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 postwar times they were once again regarded as myths. These legends from the Records
of Ancient Matters, of Kokiji, A.D. 712, and the Chronicles of Japan, or Nihongi, A.D.
720 from the earliest writings of ancient Japan. Both collections have been considerably
influenced by Chinese thought.
b) Zen Buddhism emphasized the importance of meditation, concentration, and self-
discipline as the way to enlightenment. Zen rejects the notion that salvation is attained
outside of this life and this world. Instead, Zen disciples believe that one can attain
personal tranquility and insights into the true meaning of life through rigorous physical
and mental discipline.

Socio-political Concepts, Japan has integrated Confucian ethics and Buddhist morality which
India implemented in China. The concepts of giri and on explain why the average Japanese is
patriotic, sometimes ultra-nationalistic, law-abiding. Even seppuku or ritual disembowelment
exemplify to what extent these two socio-political concepts could be morally followed.

a) Giri connotes duty, justice, honor, face, decency, respectability, courtesy, charity,
humanity, love, gratitude, claim. Its sanctions are found in mores, customs, folkways. For
example, in feudal Japan ‘loss of face’ is saved by suicide or vendetta, if not renouncing
the world in the monastery.
b) On suggests a sense of obligation or indebtedness which propels a Japanese to act, as it
binds the person perpetually to other individuals to the group, to parents, teachers,
superiors, and the emperor.

Poetry is one of the oldest and most popular means of expression and communication in the
Japanese culture. It was an integral part of daily life in ancient Japanese society, serving as a
means through which anyone could chronicle experiences and express emotions.

a) The Manyoshu or ‘Book or Ten Thousand Leaves is an anthology by poets from a wide
range of social classes, including the peasantry, the clergy, and the ruling class.
b) There are different poems according to set forms or structures:
 Choka are poems that consist of alternate lines of five and seven syllables with an
additional seven-syllable line at the end. There is no limit to the number of lines
which end with envoys, or pithy summations. These envoys consist of 5-7-5-7-7
syllables that elaborate on or summarize the theme or central idea of the main
poem.
 Tanka is the most prevalent verse form in traditional Japanese literature. It
consists of five lines of 5-7-5-7-7 syllables including at least one caesura, or
pause. Used as a means of communication in ancient Japanese society, the tanka
often tell a brief story or express a single thought or insight and the common
subjects are love and nature.

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  Renga is a chain of interlocking tanka. Each tanka within a renga was divided into
verses of 17 and 14 syllables composed by different poets as it was fashionable
for groups of poets to work together during the age of Japanese feudalism.
 Hokku was the opening verse of renga which developed into a distinct literary
form known as the haiku. The haiku consists of 3 lines of 5-7-5 syllable
characterized by precision, simplicity, and suggestiveness. Almost all haiku
include a kigo or seasonal words such as snow or cherry blossoms that indicates
the time of year being described.

Prose appeared in the early part of the 8 th century focusing on Japanese history. During the
Heian Age, the members of the imperial court, having few administrative or political duties, kept
lengthy diaries and experimented with writing fiction.

 The Tale of Genji by Lady Murasaki Shikibu, a work of tremendous length and
complexity, is considered to be the world’s first true novel. It traces the life of a gifted
and charming prince. Lady Murasaki was an extraordinary woman far more educated
than most upper-class men of her generation. She was appointed to serve in the royal
court of the emperor.
 The Tale of Haike written by an anonymous author during the 13 th century was the most
famous early Japanese novel. It presents a striking portrait of war-torn Japan during the
early stages of the age of feudalism.
 Essays in Idleness by Yoshida Kenko was written during the age of feudalism. It is a
loosely organized collection of insights, reflections, and observations, written during the
14th century. Kenko was born into a high-ranking Shinto family and became a Buddhist
priest.
 In the Grove by Ryunusuke Akutagawa is the author’s most famous story made into the
film Rashomon. The story asks these questions: What is he truth? Who tells the truth?
How is the truth falsified? Six narrators tell their own testimonies about the death of a
husband and the violation of his wife in the woods. The narrators include a woodcutter, a
monk, an old woman, the mother-in-law of the slain man, the wife, and finally, the dead
man whose story is spoken through the mouth of a shameness. Akutagawa’s ability to
blend a feudal setting with deep psychological insights gives this story an ageless quality.

Drama.

a) No plays emerged during the 14th century as the earliest form of Japanese drama. The
plays are performed on an almost bare stage by a small but elaborately costumed cast of
actors wearing masks. The actors are accompanied by a chorus and the plays are written
either in verse or in highly poetic prose. The dramas reflect many Shinto and Buddhist
beliefs, along with a number of dominant Japanese artistic preferences. The Nō
performers’ subtle expressions of inner strength, along with the beauty of the costumes,
the eloquence of the dancing, the mesmerizing quality of the singing, and the mystical,

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 almost supernatural, atmosphere of the performances, has enabled the Nō theater to retain
its popularity.
a. Atsumori by Seami Motokiyo is drawn from an episode of The Tale of Heike, a
medieval Japanese epic based on historical fact that tells the story of the rise and
fall of the Taira family, otherwise known as Heike. The play takes place by the
sea of Ichi no tani. A priest named Rensei, who was once a warrior with the Genji
clan, has decided to return to the scene of the battle to pray for a sixteen-year-old
named Atsumori, whom he killed on the beach during the battle. Rensei had taken
pity on Atsumori and had almost refrained from killing him. He realized though
that if he did not kill the boy, his fellow warriors would. He explained to
Atsumori that he must kill him, and promised to pray for his soul. On his return,
he meets two peasants who are returning home from their fields and Rensei makes
an astonishing discovery about one of them.
b. Kabuki involves lively, melodramatic, acting and is staged using elaborate and
colorful costumes and sets. It is performed with the accompaniment of an
orchestra and generally focuses on the lives of common people rather than
aristocrats.
c. Jorori (now called Bunraku) is staged using puppets and was a great influence
on the development of the Kabuki.
d. Kyogen is a farce traditionally performed between the Nō tragedies.

Novels and Short Stories

 Snow Country by Kawabata tells of love denied by a Tokyo dilettante, Shimamura, to

Komako, a geisha who feels ‘used’ much as she wants to think and feel that she is drawn
sincerely, purely to a man of the world. She has befriended Yoko to whom Shimamura is
equally and passionately drawn because of her virginity, her naivete, as he is to Komako
who loses it, after her affair with him earlier. In the end, Yoko dies in the cocoon-
warehouse in a fire notwithstanding Komako’s attempt to rescue her. Komako embraces
the virgin Yoko in her arms while Shimamura senses the Milky Way ‘flowing down
inside him with a roar.’ Kawabata makes use of contrasting thematic symbols in the title:
death and purification amidst physical decay and corruption.
 The House of Sleeping Beauties by Kawabata tells the escapades of a dirty old man,
Eguchi, to a resort near a sea where young women are given drugs before they are made
to sleep sky-clad. Decorum rules in that these sleeping beauties should not be touched,
lest the customers be driven away by the management. The book lets the reader bare the
deeper recesses of the septuagenarian’s mind. Ironically, this old man who senses beauty
and youth is incapable of expressing, much less having it. Thus, the themes of old age
and loneliness and coping become inseparable.
 The Makioka Sisters by Tanizaki is the story of four sisters whose chief concern is
finding a suitable husband for the third sister, Yukiko, a woman of traditional beliefs who

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 has rejected several suitors. Until Yukiko marries, Taeko, the youngest, most
independent, and most Westernized of the sisters, must remain unmarried. More
important than the plot, the novel tells of middle class daily life in prewar Osaka. It also
delves into such topics as the intrusion of modernity and its effect on the psyche of the
contemporary Japanese, the place of kinship in the daily life of the people, and the
passage of the old order and the coming of the new.
 The Sea of Fertility by Mishima is the four-part epic including Spring Snow, Runaway
Horses, The Temple Dawn, and The Decay of the Angel. The novels are set in Japan
from about 1912 to the 1960s. Each of them depicts a different incarnation of the same
being: as a young aristocrat in 1912, as a political fanatic in the 1930s, as a Thai princess
before the end of WWII, and as an evil young orphan in the 1960s. taken together the
novels are a clear indication of Mishima’s increasing obsession with blood, death, and
suicide, his interest in self-destructive personalities, and his rejection of the sterility of
modern life.
 The Setting Sun by Ozamu is a tragic, vividly painted story of life in postwar Japan. The
narrator is Kazuko, a young woman born to gentility but now impoverished. Though she
wears Western clothes, her outlook is Japanese; her life is static, and she recognizes that
she is spiritually empty. In the course of the novel, she survives the deaths of her
aristocratic mother and her sensitive, drug-addicted brother Naoji, an intellectual ravage
by his own and society’s spiritual failures. She also spends a sad, sordid night with the
writer Uehara, and she conceives a child in the hope that it will be the first step in a moral
revolution.
 In the Grove by Akutagawa is the author’s most famous story made into the film
Rashomon.
 The Wild Geese by Oagi is a melodramatic novel set in Tokyo at the threshold on the
20th century. The novel explores the blighted life of Otama, daughter of a cake vendor.
Because of extreme poverty, she becomes the mistress of a policeman, and later on of a
money-lender, Shazo. In her desire to rise from the pitfall of shame and deprivation, she
tries to befriend Okada, a medical student who she greets everyday by the window as he
passes by on his way to the campus. She is disillusioned however, as Okada, in the end,
prepares for further medical studies in Germany. Ogai’s novel follows the tradition of the
watakushi-shosetsu or the confessional I-novel where the storyteller is the main character.
 The Buddha Tree by Fumio alludes to the awakening of Buddha under the bo tree when
he gets enlightened after fasting 40 days and nights. Similarly, the hero of the novel,
Soshu, attains self-illumination after freeing himself from the way of all flesh. The author
was inspired by personal tragedies that befell their family and this novel made him
transcend his personal agony into artistic achievement.

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