AFRO-ASIAN LITERATURE

PRELIMINARY TOPIC

A. INDIA

1. Literary Periods. The Indus Valley civilization flourished in northern India between
2500 and 1500 B.C. The Aryans, a group of nomadic warriors and herders, were the
earliest known migrants into India. They brought with them a well-developed language
and literature and a set of religious beliefs.
a. Vedic Period (1500 B.C.- 500 B.C.). This period is named for the Vedas, a set of hymns
that formed the cornerstone of Aryan culture. Hindus consider the Vedas, which were
transmitted orally by priests, to be the most sacred of all literature for they believe these
to have been revealed to humans directly by the gods.
 The Rigveda which has come to mean “hymns of supreme sacred knowledge,” is
the foremost collection or Samhita made up of 1,028 hymns. The oldest of the
Vedas, it contains strong, energetic, non-speculative hymns, often comparable to
the psalms in the Old Testament. The Hindus regard these hymns as divinely
inspired or ‘heard’ directly from the gods.
b. Epic and Buddhist Age (500 B.C. – A.D.). The period of composition of the two great
epics, Mahabharata and the Ramayana. This time was also the growth of later Vedic
literature, new Sanskrit literature, and Buddhist literature in Pali. The Dhammapada was
also probably composed during this period. The Maurya Empire (322-230 B.C.) ruled by
Ashoka promoted Buddhism and preached goodness, nonviolence, and ‘righteousness’
although this period was known for warfare and iron-fisted rule. The Gupta Dynasty (320
-467 B.C.) was the next great political power. During this time, Hinduism reached a full
flowering and was evident in culture and the arts.
 The Mahabharata, traditionally ascribed to the sage Vyasa, consists of a mass of
legendary and didactic material that tells of the struggle for supremacy between
two groups of cousins, the Kauravas and the Pandavas. Set sometime 3102 BC,
the poem is made up of almost 100,000 couplets divided into 18 parvans or
sections.it is an exposition on dharma (codes of conduct), including the proper
conduct of a king, of a warrior, of a man living in times of calamity, and of a
person seeking to attain emancipation from rebirth.
 The Bhagavad Gita (The Blessed Lord’s Song) is one of the greatest and most
beautiful of the Hindu scriptures. It is regarded by the Hindus in somewhat the
same way as the Gospels are by Christians. It forms part of Book IV and is
written in the form of a dialogue between the warrior Prince Arjuna and his friend
and charioteer, Krishna, who is also an earthly incarnation of the god Vishnu.

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  The Ramayana was composed in Sanskrit, probably not before 300 B.C., by the
poet Valmiki and consists of some 24,000 couplets divided into seven books. It
reflects the Hindu values and forms of social organization, the theory of karma,
the ideals of wifehood, and feelings about caste, honor, and promises. The poems
describes the royal birth of Rama, his tutelage under the sage Visvamitra, and his
success in bending Siva’s mighty bow, thus, winning Sita, the daughter of King
Janaka, for his wife. After Rama is banished from his position as heir by an
intrigue, he retreats to the forest with his wife and his half-brother, Laksmana.
There Ravana, the demon-king of Lanka, carries off Sita, who resolutely rejects
his attentions. After numerous adventures Rama slays Ravana and rescues Sita.
When they return to his Kingdom, however, Rama learns that the people question
the queen’s chastity,and banishes her to the forest where she gives birth to Rama’s
two sons. The family is reunited when the sons come of age, but Sita, after again
protesting her innocence, asks to be received by the earth, which swallows her up.
c. Classical Period (A.D. – 1000 A.D.). The main literary language of northern India
during this period was Sanskrit, in contrast with the Dravidian languages of southern
India. Sanskrit, which means perfect speech’ is considered a sacred language, the
language spoken by the gods and goddesses. As such, Sanskrit was seen as the only
appropriate language for the noblest literary works. Poetry and drama peaked during this
period. Beast fables such as the Panchatantra were popular and often used by religious
teachers to illustrate moral points.
 The Panchatantrais a collection of Indian beast fables originally written in Sanskrit. In
Europe, the work was known under the title, The Fables of Bidpai after the narrator and
Indian sage named Bidpai, (called Vidyapati in Sanskrit). It is intended as a textbook of
artha (worldly wisdom); the aphorisms tend to glorify shrewdness and cleverness more
than helping others. The original text is a mixture of Sanskrit prose and stanzas of verse,
with the stories contained within one of five frame stories. The introduction, which acts
as an enclosing frame for the entire work, attributes the stories to a learned Brahman
named Vishnusarman, who used the form of animal fables to instruct the three dull-witted
sons of a king.
 Sakuntala, a Sanskrit drama by Kalidasa, tells os the love between Sakuntala and King
Dushyanta. What begins as a physical attraction for both of them becomes spiritual in the
end as their love endures and surpasses all difficulties. King Dushyanta is a noble and
pious king who upholds his duties above personal desire. Sakuntala, on the other hand, is
young girl who matures beautifully because of her kindness, courage, and strength of
will. After a period of suffering, the two eventually reunited. Emotion or rasa dominate
every scene in Sanskrit drama. Theseemotions vary from love to anger, heroism to
cowardice, joy to terror and allows the audience to take part in the play and be one with
the characters.

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  The Little Clay Cart (Mrcchakatika) is attributed to Shudraka, a king. The characters
in this play include a Brahman merchant who has lost his money through liberality, a rich
courtesan in love with a poor young man, much description of resplendent palaces, and
both comic and tragic or near-tragic emotional situations.
d. Medieval and Modern Age (A.D. 1000 – Present). Persian influence on literature was
considerable during this period. Persian was the court language of the Moslem rulers. In
the 18th century India was directly under the British Crown and remained so until its
Independence in 1947. British influence was strong and modern-day Indians are primarily
educated in English. Many have been brought into the world of Western learning at the
expense of learning about their own culture.
 Gitanjali: Song Offerings was originally published in India in 1910 and its translation
followed in 1912. In these prose translations, Rabindranath Tagore uses imagery from
nature to express the themes of love and the internal conflict between spiritual longings
and earthly desires.
 theTajMahal, a poem by SahirLudhianvi, is about the mausoleum in North India built by
the Mogul emperor ShaJahan for his wife Mumtaz-i-Mahal. The façade of this grandiose
structure is made of white marble and is surrounded by water gardens, gateways, and
walks. The tomb at the center of the dome stands on a square block with towers at each
corner. The construction of the building took twenty years to complete involving some
20,000 workers.
 On Learning to be an Indian, an essay by Santha Rama Rau, illustrates the telling
effects of colonization on the lives of the people particularly the younger generation. The
writer humorously narrates the conflicts that arise between her grandmother’s traditional
Indian values and the author’s own British upbringing.

2. Religions. Indian creativity is evident in religion as the country is the birthplace of two
important faiths: Hinduism, the dominant religion, and Buddhism, which ironically became
extinct in India but spread throughout Asia.

a. Hinduism, literally “the belief of the people of India,” is the predominant faith of India
and of no other nation. The Hindus are deeply absorbed with God and the creation of the
universe.
The Purusarthas are the three ends of man: dharma – virtue, duty, righteousness,
moral law; artha – wealth; and kama – love and pleasure. A fourth end is moksha – the
renunciation of duty, wealth and love in order to seek spiritual perfection. It is achieved
after the release from samsara, the cycle of births and deaths. The Hindus believe that all
reality is one and spiritual, and that each individual soul is identical with this reality and
shares its characteristics: pure being, intelligence, and bliss. Everything that seems to
divide the soul from this reality is maya or illusion.
Life is viewed as an upward development through four stages of effort called the
four asramas: a.) the student stage – applies to the rite of initiation into the study of the

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 Vedas; b.) the householder stage – marries and fulfills the duties as head of the family
where he begets sons and earns a living; c.) the stage of the forest dweller – departs from
home and renounces the social world; and d.) ascetic – stops performing any of the rituals
or social duties of life in the world and devotes time for reflection and meditation.
Kama refers to one of the proper pursuits of man in his role as householder that of
pleasure and love. The kama-sutra is a classic textbook on erotics and other forms of
pleasure and love, which is attributed to the sage Vatsyayana.
The Hindus regard Purusha, the Universal spirit, as the soul and original source of
the universe. As the universal soul, Purusha is the life-giving principle in all animated
beings. As a personified human being, Purusha’s body is the source of all creation. The
four Varnas serve as the theoretical basis for the organization of the Hindu society.
The Upanishads form a highly sophisticated commentary on the religious thought
suggested by the poetic hymns of the Rigveda. The name implies, according to some
traditions, ‘sitting at the feet of the teacher.’ The most important philosophical doctrine is
the concept of the single supreme being, the Brahman, and knowledge is directed toward
reunion with it by the human soul, the Atman or Self. The nature of eternal life is
discussed and such themes as the transmigration of souls and causality in creation.
b. Buddhism originated in India in the 6th century B.C. the religion is based on the
teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, called Buddha, or the Enlightened One.’ Much of
Buddha’s teaching is focused on self-awareness and self-development in order to attain
nirvana or enlightenment.
According to Buddhist beliefs, human beings are bound to the wheel of life which
is a continual cycle of birth, death, and suffering. This cycle is an effect of karma in
which a person’s present life and experiences are the result of past thoughts and actions,
and these present thoughts and actions likewise create those of the future. The Buddhist
scriptures uphold the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path. The Four Noble
Truths are: 1.) life is suffering; 2.) the cause of suffering is desire; 3.) the removal of
desire is the removal of suffering; and 4.) the Noble Eightfold Path leads to the end of
suffering. The Noble Eightfold Path consists of: 1.) right understanding; 2.) right thought;
3.) right speech; 4.) right action; 5.) right means of livelihood; 6.) right effort; 7.) right
concentration; and 8.) right meditation. The Buddhist truth states that bad actions and bad
feelings such as selfishness, greed, hostility, hate are evil not because they harm others
but because of their negative influence on the mental state of the doer. It is in this sense
that evil returns to punish the doer.
 The Dhammapada (Way of Truth) is an anthology of basic Buddhist teaching
in a simple aphoristic style. One of the best known books of the Pali Buddhist
canon, it contains 423 stanzas arranged in 26 chapters. These verses are compared
with the Letters of St. Paul in the Bible or that of Christ’s Sermon on the Mount.

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3. Major Writers.

a) Kalidasaa Sanskrit poet and dramatist is probably the greatest Indian writer of all time.
As with most classical Indian authors, little is known about Kalidasa’s person or his
historical relationships. His poems suggest that he was a Brahman (priest). Many works
are traditionally ascribed to the poet, but scholars have identified only six as genuine.
b) Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941). The son of a Great Sage, Tagore is a Bengali poet
and mystic who won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1913. Tagore managed his father’s
estates and lived in close contact with the villagers. His sympathy for their poverty and
backwardness was later reflected in his works. The death of his wife and two children
brought him years of sadness but this also inspired some of his best poetry. Tagore is also
a gifted composer and a painter.
c) Prem Chand pseudonym of DhanpatRaiSrivastava (1880-1936). Indian author of
numerous novels and short stories in Hindi and Urdu who pioneered in adapting Indian
themes to Western literary styles. He worked as a teacher before joining Mahatma
Gandhi’s anticolonial Noncooperation Movement.
 Sevasadana (House of Service) his first major novel deals with the problems of
prostitution and moral corruption among the Indian middle class.
 Manasarovar (The Holy Lake). A collection of 250 or so short stories which
contains most of Prem Chand’s best works.
 Godan (The Gift of a Cow). This last novel was Prem Chand’s masterpiece and
it deals with his favorite theme – the hard and unrewarding life of the village
peasants.
d) Kamala Markandaya (1924). Her works concern the struggles of contemporary Indians
with conflicting Eastern and Western values. A Brahman, she studied at Madras
University then settled in England and married an Englishman. In her fiction, Western
values typically are viewed as modern and materialistic, and Indian values as spiritual
and traditional.
 Nectar in a Sieve. Her first novel and most popular workis about an Indian
peasant’s narrative of her difficult life.
e) R.K. Narayan (1906). One of the finest Indian authors of his generation writing in
English. He briefly worked as a teacher before deciding to devote himself full-time to
writing. All of Narayan’s works are set in the fictitious South Indian town of Malgudi.
They typically portray the peculiarities of human relationships and the ironies of Indian
daily life, in which modern urban existence clashes with ancient tradition. His style is
graceful, marked by genial humor, elegance, and simplicity.
 Swami and Friends. His first novel is an episodic narrative recounting the
adventures of a group of schoolboys.
 Novels: The English Teacher (1945), Waiting for the Mahatma (1955), The Guide
(1958), The Man-Eater of Malgudi (1961), and The Vendor of Sweets (1967), A
Tiger for Malgudi (1983), and The World of Nagaraj (1990).
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  Collection of Short Stories: Lawley Road (1956), A Horse and Two Goats and
Other Stories (1970), Under the Banyan Tree and Other Stories (1985), and
Grandmother’s Tale (1992).
f) Anita Desai (1937). An English-language Indian novelist and author of children’s books,
she is considered India’s premier imagist writer. She excelled in evoking character and
mood through visual images. Most of her works reflect Desei’s tragic view of life.
 Cry, the Peacock. Her first novel, addresses the theme of the suppression and
oppression of Indian women.
 Clear Light of Day. Considered the author’s most successful work, this is a
highly evocative portrait of two sisters caught in the lassitude of Indian life. This
was shortlisted for the 1980 Booker Prize.
 Fire on the Mountain. This work was criticized as relying too heavily on
imagery at the expense of plot and characterization, but it was praised for its
poetic symbolism and use of sounds. This won for her the Royal Society of
Literature’s Winifred Holtby Memorial Prize.
g) Vir Singh (1872-1957l). A Sikh writer and theologian, he wrote at a time when Sikh
religion and politics and the Punjabi language were under heavy attack by the English
and Hindus. He extolled Sikh courage, philosophy, and ideals, earning respect for the
Punjabi language as a literary vehicle.
 KalghiDharChamatkar. This novel is about the life of the 17th century guru
Gobind Singh.
 Other novels on Sikh philosophy and material excellence include Sundri (1898)
and Bijai Singh (1899).
h) Arundhati Roy.A young female writer whose first book The God of Small Things won
for her a Booker Prize.

MIDTERM TOPIC

B. CHINA

Historical Background.Chinese literature reflects the political and cultural history of China and
the impact of powerful religions that came along within and outside the country. Its tradition
goes back thousands of years and has often been inspired by philosophical questions about the
meaning of life, how to live ethnically in society, and how to live in actual harmony with the
natural order of the universe.

a) Shang Dynasty (1600 B.C.). During this time, the people practiced a religion based on
the belief that nature was inhabited by many powerful gods and spirits. Among the
significant advances of this period were bronze working, decimal system, a twelve-month
calendar and a system of writing consisting of 3,000 characters.

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b) Chou Dynasty (1100 B.C. – 221 B.C.). This was the longest of all the dynasties and
throughout most of this period China suffered from severe political disunity and
upheaval. This era was also known as the Hundred Schools period because of many
competing philosophers and teachers who emerged the most influential among them
being Lao Tzu, the proponent of Taoism, and Confucius, the proponent under of
Confucianism. Lao Tzu stressed freedom, simplicity, and the mystical contemplation on
nature whereas Confucius emphasized the code of social conduct and stressed the
importance of discipline, morality, and knowledge.
a. The Book of Songs, (Shih Ching) first compiled in the 6th century B.C., is the oldest
collection of Chinese poetry and is considered a model of poetic expression and moral
insight. The poems include songs that entertained the aristocracy, story songs that
recounted Chou dynasty legends, hymns that were sung in the temples accompanied by
dance and brief folk songs and ballads. Although these poems were originally meant to
be sung, their melodies have long been lost.
b. The Parables of the Ancient Philosophersillustrate the Taoist belief and the humanism
of the Chinese thought. In them can be seen the relativity of all things as they pass
through man’s judgment, the virtues of flexibility, and the drawbacks of material
progress.

c) Ch’in Dynasty (221 B.C. – 207 B.C.). This period saw the unification of China and the
strengthening of central government. Roads connecting all parts of the empire we built
and the existing walls on the northern boarders were connected to form the Great Wall of
China.
d) Han Dynasty (207 B.C. – A.D. 220). This period was one of the most glorious eras of
Chinese history and was marked by the introduction of Buddhism from India.
e) T’ang Dynasty (A.D. 618 – 960). Fine artsand literatureflourished during this era which
is viewed as the Golden Age of Chinese civilization. Among the technological advances
of this time were the invention of gunpowder and the block printing.
TheT’ang Poets. Chinese lyrical poetry reached its height during the T’ang Dynasty.
Inspired by scenes of natural beauty, T’ang poets wrote about the fragile blossoms in
spring, the falling of leaves in autumn, or the changing shape of the moon.
f) Sung Dynasty (A.D. 960 -1279).This period was characterized by delicacy and
refinement although inferior in terms of literary arts but great in learning. Professional
poets were replaced by amateur writers. The practice of Neo-Confucianism grew.
g) Later Dynasties (A.D. 1260 – 1912).During late 13th centuries, northern China was
overrun by Mongol invaders led by Genghis Khan whose grandson Kublai Khan
completed the Mongol conquest of China and established the Yuan dynasty, the first
foreign dynasty in China’s history. It was during this time that Marco Polo visited China.
Chinese rule was reestablished after the Mongols were driven out of China and the Ming
dynasty was established. There was a growth of drama in colloquial language and a
decline of language and learning. A second foreign dynasty, the Ch’ing was established
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 and China prospered as its population rapidly increased causing major problems for its
government.
h) Traditional Chinese Government. The imperial rule lasted in China for over 2,000
years leading to a pyramid-shaped hierarchy in the government. The emperor, known as
the Son of Heaven, was a hereditary ruler and beneath him were bureaucratic officials.
An official government career was considered prestigious and the selection was by means
of government examinations. The civil service examinations tested on the major Chinese
works of philosophy and poetry requiring the composition for verse. Most government
officials were well-versed in literature and philosophy and many famous Chinese poets
also served in the government.

2. Philosophy and Religion. Chinese literature has been profoundly influenced by three great
schools of thought: Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. Unlike Western religions, Chinese
religions are based on the perception of life as a process of continual change in which opposing
forces, such as heaven and earth or light and dark, balance one another. These opposites are
symbolized by the Yin and Yang. Yin, the passive and feminine force, counterbalances Yang, the
active and masculine force, each contains a ‘seed’ of the other, as represented in the traditional
Yin-Yang symbol.

a) Confucianism provides the Chinese with both a moral order and an order for the
universe. It is not a religion but it makes individuals aware of their place in the world and
the behavior appropriate to it. It also provides a political and social philosophy.
Confucianism ethics is humanist. The following are Confucian tenets:
1) Jen or human heartednessis qualities or forms of behaviorthat set men above the rest of
the life on earth. It is the unique goodness of man which animals cannot aspire to. Also
known as ren, it is the measure of individual character and such, is the goal of self-
cultivation. The ideal individual results from acting according to li, 2)li refers to ritual,
custom, propriety, and manner. Li is thought to be the means by which life should be
regulated. A person of li is a good person and a state ordered by li is a harmonious and
peaceful state. Li or de as a virtue is best understood as a sacred power inherent by the
very presence of the sage. The sage was the inspiration for proper conduct and the model
of behavior.
The Analects (Lun Yu) is one of the four Confusian texts. The sayings range from brief
statements of more extended dialogues between Confucius and his students. Confucius
believes that people should cultivate the inherent goodness within themselves –
unselfishness, courage, and honor – as an ideal of universe moral and social harmony.
The Analects instructs on modernization in all things through moral education, the
building of the harmonious family life, and the development of virtues such as loyalty,
obedience and a sense of justice. It also emphasizes filial piety and concern with social
and religious rituals. To Confucius, a person’s inner virtues can be fully realized only
through concrete acts of ‘ritual propriety’ or proper behavior toward other human beings.

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 The Book of Changes (I Ching) is one of the Five Classics of Confucian philosophy and
has been primarily used for divination. This book is based on the concept of change – the
one constant of the universe. Although change is never-ending, it too proceeds according
to certain universal and observable patterns.
b) Taoism, was expounded by Lao Tzu during the Chou Dynasty. Taoist beliefs and
influences are an important part of classical Chinese culture. “The Tao” or “The Way”
means the natural course that the world follows. To follow the tao of to “go with the
flow’ is both wisdom and happiness. For Taoist, unhappiness comes from parting from
the tao or from trying to flout it.
The Taoist political ideas are very passive: the good king does nothing, and by this
everything is done naturally. This idea presents an interesting foil to Confucian theories
of state, although the Taoist never presented any political threat to the Conducianists.
Whereas Confucianism stressed conformity and reason in solving human problems,
Taoism stressed the individual and the need for human beings to conform to nature rather
than to society.
Lao-tzu. Known as the “old philosopher”, Lao-zi is credited as the founder of Taoism
and an elder contemporary of Confucius who once consulted with him. He was more
pessimistic than Confucius was about what can be accomplished in the world by human
action. He counseled a far more passive approach to the world and once fellows: one
must be cautious and let things speak for themselves. He favored more direct relationship
between the individual self and the dao.
The Tao-TeChing (Classic of the Way of Power) is believed to have been written
between the 8th and 3rd centuries B.C. the basic concept of the dao is wu-wei or “non-
action” which means no unnatural action, rather than complete passivity. It implies
spontaneity, non-interference, letting things take their natural course i.e., “Do nothing and
everything else is done.” Chaos ceases, quarrels end, and self-righteous feuding
disappears because the dao is allowed to flow unchallenged.
c) Buddhismwas imported from India during the Han Dynasty. Buddhist thought stresses
the importance of ridding oneself of earthly desires and of seeking ultimate peace and
enlightenment through detachment. With its stress on living ethnically and its de-
emphasis on material concerns, Buddhism appealed to both Confucians and Taoists.

3. Genres in Chinese Poetry have always been highly valued in Chinese culture and were
considered superior to prose. Chief among its characteristics are lucidity, brevity, subtlety,
suggestiveness or understatement, and its three-fold appeal to intellect, emotion, and calligraphy.

4. Conventions of Chinese Theater. Chinese drama may be traced to the song and dances of the
chi (wizards) and the wu (witches) whom the people consulted to exercise evil spirits, to bring
rain, to insure bountiful harvest, etc., an origin of worship or some sacred ritual.

a) There are four principal roles: sheng, tau, ching, and chao.

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  The sheng is the prerogative of the leading actor, usually a male character, a
scholar, a statesman, a warrior patriot and the like.
 The tau plays all the women’s roles. At least six principal characters are played by
the female impersonator who has taken over the role after women were banned
from the Chinese stage as they were looked down upon as courtesen.
 The ching roles usually assigned the roles of brave warriors, bandits, crafty and
evil ministers, upright judges, loyal statesmen, at times god-like and supernatural
beings. Conventionally, the ching must have broad faces and forehead suitable for
the make-up patters suggestive to his behavior.
 The chau is the clown or jester who is not necessarily a fool and may also do
serious or evil character. He easily recognized for the white patch around his eyes
and nose, his use of colloquial language and adeptness in combining mimicry and
acrobatics.
b) Unlike Greek plays, classical Chinese plays do not follow the unities of time, place, and
action. The ploy may be set in two or more places, the time element sometimes taking
years to develop or end, and action containing may other sub-plots.
c) Chinese drama conveys an ethical lesson in guise of art in order to impress a moral truth
or a Confucian tenet. Dramas uphold virtue, condemn vice, praise fidelity, and filial
piety. Vice is presented on the stage not for its own sake but as contrast to virtue.
d) There are two types of speeches – the dialogue, usually in prose, and the monologues.
While the dialogue carries forward the action of the day, the monologue is the means for
each character to introduce him/herself at the beginning of the first scene of every scene
as well as to outline the plot.
e) Chinese plays are long – six or seven hours if performed completely. The average length
is about four acts with a prologue and an epilogue. The Chinese play is a total theater.
There is singing, recitation of verses, acrobats, dancing, and playing of traditional
musical instruments.
f) Music is an integral part of the classical drama. It has recitatives, arias, and musical
development and rhythm that harmonized perfectly with the sentiments being conveyed
by a character.
g) The poetic dialogue, hsiehtzu (wedge), is placed at the beginning or in between acts and
is an integral part of the play. The stage is bare of props except a table and a pair of chairs
may be converted to a battlefield or a court scene, a bedroom, even a prison through vivid
acting and poetry. Property conventions are rich in symbolism table with a chair at the
side, both place at the side of the stage, represents a hill or a high wall.
h) Dramatic conventions that serve to identify the nature and function of each character.
Make-up identifies the characters and personalities. Costumes help reveal types and
different colors signify ranks and status.
i) Action reflects highly stylized movements. Hand movements may indicate
embarrassment or helplessness or anguish or anger.

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5. Major Chinese Writers.

 Chuang Tzu (4th century B.C.) was the most important early interpreter of the
philosophy of Taoism. Very little is known about his life except that he served as a minor
court official. In his stories, he appears as a quirky character who cares little for either
public approval or material possessions.
 Lieh Tzu (4th century B.C.) was a Taoist teacher who had many philosophical
differences with his forebears Lao-Tzu and Chuan Tzu. He argued that the sequence of
causes predetermines everything that happens, including one’s choice of action.
 LuiAn (172 -122 B.C.) was not only the Taoist scholar but the grandson of the founder
of the founder of the Han Dynasty. His royal title was the prince of Haui-nan. Together
with philosophers and under his patronage, he produced a collection of essays on
metaphysics, cosmology, politics, and conduct.
 Ssu-ma Ch’ien (145 – 90 B.C.) was the greatest of China’s Grand Historians’ who
dedicated himself to completing the first history of China the Records of the Historian.
His work covers almost three thousand years of Chinese history in more than half a
million written characters etched onto bamboo tablets.

The T’ang Poets:

 Li Po (701 762) was Wang Wei’s contemporary and he spent a short time in courts, but
seems to have been too much of a romantic and too give to drink to carry out
responsibilities. He was a Taoist, drawing sustenance from nature and his poetry was
often other-worldly and ecstatic. He had no great regard for his poems himself. He is said
to have mad thousands of them into paper boats which he sailed along streams.
 Tu Fu (712-770) is the Confucian moralist, realist, and humanitarian. He was public-
spirited, and his poetry helped chronicle the history of the age: the deterioration.
 Wang Wei (796?-761?) was an 8th century government official who spent the later years
of his life in the country, reading and discussing Buddhism and scholars and monks. He
is known for the pictorial quality of his poetry and for its economy. His word-pictures
parallel Chinese brush artistry in which a few strokes are all suggestive of authority, the
disasters of war, and official extravagance.
 Po Chu-I (772-846) was born two years after Tu Fu died, at a time, when China was still
in turmoil from foreign invasion and internal strife. He wore many poems speaking
bitterly against the social and economic problems that were plaguing China.
 Li Ch’ing-chao (A.D. 1084 – 1151) is regarded as China’s greatest woman poet and was
also one of the most liberated women of her day. She was brought up in court society and
was trained in the arts and classical literature quite an unusual upbringing for a woman of

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 the Sung dynasty. Many of her poems composed of the t’zu form celebrate her happy
marriage or express her loneliness when her husband was away.
 Chou-Shu-jen (1881 – 1936) has been called the “father of the modern Chinese short
story because of his introduction of Western techniques. He is also known as Lu Hsun
whose stories deal with themes of social concern, the problems of the poor, women, and
intellectuals.

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