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Agro-Industry Profiles
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ETHANOL
F2
 PROFILES IN THIS SERIES:

OILCROPS - OVERVIEW ........... FAU-01

OIL SEEDS .................. ....... FAU-02

OIL PALMe.................... .. FAU-03

COCONUT. . . . . ..... e. ........... .FAU-04

SUGAR. .. . . . ......... o......... FAU-05

ETHANOL. ... . . . ..... e ............ FAU-06

WHEAT. .. .. ................ .. . FAU-07

e.......e..............FAU-08
RICE .....

CORN. ...... . . ........... ..... FAU-09

CASSAVAe . ....... . . . . . . . .... FAU-10

ANIMAL FEEDS ................ . FAU-11

FRUITS AND VEGETABLES ....... . FAU-12

RUBBER. .. . . ....... oe
.......... . FAU-13

COFFEE. .. . . . ..........e......o . FAU-14

TEA ..e..e......e......e.....e..FAU-15

COCOA .e.....................e..... FAU-16

COTTON .......
. ................... FAU-17

MEAT NDE.....e.e.......... .eeeFAU-18

FAU-19
SPICES AND ESSENTIAL OILS .................
 ABSTRACT

The objective of this Profile is to provide a technical review of

the production of ethanol, in particular from sugarcane. It
explores the ethanol industry from production to uses and
investment costs. It contains specifications of ethanol yields
of sugarcane and other main biomass raw materials, a glossary
defining key words, and indicates useful references. It traces
the production process, including the conversion of simple sugars
to ethanol, while identifying both advantages and disadvantages
of the use of sugarcane as a raw material. Clarification of cane
juice, fermentation and distillation of the fermented wash are
covered, as are uses of ethanol. Environmental concerns and
plant capacity are addressed, and examples of investment and
operating costs are provided in an Annex.

-w
l

I~~~~~~~~~
 FOREWORD

The nature of project and sector work in the World Bank is such
that staff are often called upon to work outside their major
fields of specialization, if only to make an initial judgement on
the utility of further, often costly, investigation. Under these
circumstances, up-to-date and authoritative reference material is
essential.
The profiles in this series are designed for use by operational
staff with experience in the agricultural sector but who do not
have a technical knowledge of the particular commodity under
discussion. Their purpose is not to substitute for technical
expertise but to provide a reliable inhouse reference which will
help Bank staff to determine when and what expertise is needed in
the detailed evalutation of investment proposals in agro-
processing.
The conditions for any particular proposal are bound to be unique
in a number of respects, and the use of norms and general data in
project analyses could give rise to significant errors. On the
other hand, by providing responsible staff with a guide to the
issues on which appropriate expertise should be sought, these
profiles can contribute to the overall quality of agro processing
investment. Used with care, they should also facilitate broad
pre-screening such as may occur during sector work and
reconnaissance.
Questions, comments and further inquiries should be addressed to:
Agro-Industries Adviser
Finance and Agro Industry Unit
Agriculture and Rural Development Department

The contribution of Tate & Lyle Enterprises, Inc. in the review

of this profile is gratefully acknowledged.

September 1985

0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
 Ethanol from Sugarcane

CONTENTS

DATA SHEET ..................... i

INTRODUCTION .................

GLOSSARY ............... ... .2

PROCESSING ..................

OTHER FACTORS .................

BIBLIOGRAPHY ............... . .... . . . . . 12

ANNEX I EXAMPLES OF INVESTMENTS AND OPERATING COSTS

ANNEX II CONVERSION TABLES (METRIC/US)

a
I

-~~~~~~~~
 Ethanol from SuQarcane

DATA SHEET

Indicative Ethanol Yield of Sugarcane (World Bank, 1980):

- 70 liters per ton, although this varies with the sugar

content of the cane.

Table 1: Ethanol Yields of Main Biomass Raw Materials

Source: World Bank (1980)

Ethanol Yield Raw Material Yielda/ Ethanol Yield

Raw Macerial (liters/con) (ton/ha ) (Liters/ha/vr.)

Sugarcane 70 50.0 3,500

Molasses 280 NA NA
Cassava 180 12.0 2,160
(20.0) b/ (3,600) bj
Sweet Sorghum 86 35.0 c/ 3,010 c/
Sweet Potacoes 125 15.0 1,875
Babassu 80 2.5 200
Corn 370 6.0 2,220
Wood 160 20.0 3,200

NA - Not applLcable.

a/ Based on current average yields in Brazil, excepc for corn which is

based on the average in the US.
b/ Potencial with improved production technology.
c/ Tons of stalks/hectare/crop. Two crops per year may be possible in some
locacions.

*
I

I I
 INTRODUCTION

Ethanol can be produced from three groups of biomass sources

(World Bank, 1980): sugar-bearing crops, such as sugarcane,
sugar beets, and sweet sorghum; starch crops, such as corn,
cassava, and potatoes; and cellulosic matter, such as crop
residues and forage grasses. The production process involves the
conversion of simple sugars to ethanol with the aid of enzymes
produced by living organisms. Before starch crops and cellulosic
matter can be processed they must first be converted to simple
sugars. This can be done either naturally, as germinating seeds
convert their stored starch to sugar (malting), or artificially,
by the addition of the necessary enzyme to the starch raw
material. Because sugar crops are already in a fermentable form,
their use obviates this sometimes costly step.
The use of sugar cane as a raw material is advantageous for three
reasons (Ibid). First, as a sugar crop, its juice contains
simple sugars in a fermentable form. Secondly, it is energy
efficient, i.e., virtually the full amount of fuel required for
processing is provided by bagasse. Thirdly, its ethanol yield in
liters/ha/yr, at 3,500, exceeds that of competing raw materials
such as cassava (2160), sweet sorghum (3010), sweet potatoes
(1875), and wood (3200).
Its principal disadvantage lies in its poor storing quality, as
discussed under sugar processing (Lipinsky, 1977). Avoidance of
spoilage is possible when cane juice is concentrated to a syrup
and inverted prior to storage.
With minor exceptions, the preparation of cane juice for
conversion to ethanol is the same as that for sugar production.
Conversion of the prepared juice takes place through
fermentation. Alcohol together with some water is stripped from
the fermented wash by distillation in the first (beer) column.
The alcohol is then concentrated by removing the water in a
rectification column followed by azeotropic distillation or use
of a molecular sieve.
This process is documented in detail in Fuel from Farms: A Guide
to Small Scale Ethanol Production (1980).

e
GLOSSARY

Anhydrous Dry, i.e., without water. Anhydrous ethanol

is 99.5% pure or better.
Beer Fermented cane juice (or any fermented
substrate).
Ethanol Ethyl alcohol; produced by fermentation of
simple sugars.
Fermentation Process in which a particular strain of yeast
is introduced into the simple-sugar base to
convert it into ethanol.
Fusel Oil Heavy, acrid, oily residue removed from
certain trays of the rectification column;
occurs as a contaminant in ethanol,
particularly if the fermentation process is
not very well controlled (typically iso-amyl
alcohol, iso-butyl alcohol and N-propanol.)
Hydrous Containing water. Hydrous ethanol usually
contains about 5-6% water.
Saccharification The process whereby certain carbohydrates
and complex sugar molecules are broken down
to simpler sugar molecules.
Stillage (slops) Residue left after removal of alcohol from
fermented wash; contains water, fibrous and
mineral matter.

2
 PROCESSING

The flowchart on the following page portrays the major steps in

ethanol production.
Cane preparation and juice extraction proceed as in sugar
production. In the interests of maximizing energy yields,
however, cane tops and leaves, both of which contain sugar,
albeit in lesser concentrations than in cane, are being used on
an experimental basis (Lipinsky, 1977).
In claryifying the juice a small amount of lime is added to
produce a pH of 6 which will cause the precipitation of
impurities. A pH of about 4.0-4.5 is best for fermentation. A
reduction of the pH takes place when the low pH yeast mixes with
the prepared juice and any further reduction required is achieved
by the addition of acid. A portion of the clarified juice is
sterilized and used for the preparation of fresh yeast when
required. Yeasts, which are living plants, must have access to
carbohydrates for metabolism, as well as amino acids, vitamins,
and minerals for healthy growth. The quantities and proportions
of each depend on the particular species cultivated.

* Fermentation
Fermentation is the process whereby an organic material is
converted from one form to another with enzymes produced by
living micro-organisms. In the fermentation of pasteurized cane
juice, sucrose is converted to ethanol, carbon dioxide, and heat.
About 5% of the sugar is consumed by the yeast in the process
(Solar Research Institute, 1980).
Most commonly used in cane juice fermentation are yeasts
belonging to the genus Saccharomvces. Their sensitivity to
variables such as temperature and pH affect fermentation
efficiency and ethanol yields.
The cane juice must be concentrated and pasteurized prior to its
innoculation with a yeast culture totalling 5-8% of its volume
(Paturau, 1969). Following a fermentation period of 24-72 hours,
a beer of 8-10% ethanol concentration is produced. The amount of
time required depends on the concentration of yeast cells in the
mash: greater concentrations result in faster conversion.
However, there is a point of diminishing returns, beyond which
the rate of increase in speed of conversion falls with an

3
 Figure 1: Flowchart of Ethanol Production

Cane

Bagasse Mil

Juice
f --Filtrate
Clarification -Mud Fitratin
Filter Cake

Sterilizati7on I'Ev'aporation

| Yeast | Coin
Preparation Antfoa
s ~~~~~~~~Antifoam
~~~a
Waer.
Acid 'Treatment Fermentation Carbon Dioxide

Recyclable Fermented
Yeast WaphCla

L ~~~~Centrif:ugi:ng-- P -Wash

Stripping |-* Stillage

I oI ~~Column

Ethanol (50% approx.)

Water Rectifcation

Hydrous Ethanol (95% approx.)

Benzene or
Cyclohexane for Dehydration Water &
Azeotropic Ethanol
Distillation
Anhydrous Ethanol

4
 increase in yeast concentration. Using a yeast concentration of
150-180 grams/liter, a fermentation time of 12-18 hours has been
achieved in Brazil.

Variables which must be controlled during fermentation include

(Solar Research Institute, 1980):
-pjH, which should be in the range of 3.0-5.0.
-temperature, which shouldn't exceed 95 degrees F (35
degrees C) nor fall below 80 degrees F (27 degrees C)
in the interests of maximizing yeast effectiveness while
minimizing ethanol losses by evaporation.
-suQar concentration, which is optimal in the range
of 16-22% by volume. Higher concentrations can result
in retarded growth of yeast cells. Continuous fermen-
tations with yeast recycle can tolerate much higher
concentrations.
-infections caused by microbial contaminants, which
reduce ethanol yields by consuming sugar and producing
enzymes which alter fermentation conditions.

-ethanol concentration, which, if too high, is lethal

to yeast. If such a level is attained prior to consumption
of all the sugar in the solution, the unconsumed sugar is
wasted.
-carbon dioxide given off during fermentation is
frequently scrubbed to recover traces of ethanol. The
weight of carbon dioxide produced is approximately equal to
the weight of ethanol produced. A recovery plant can be
added to purify and liquefy the carbon dioxide for
commercial use.
It is sometimes necessary to add an antifoam agent to the
fermenting mash. When fermentation is complete, the yeast is
removed from the fermented juice, or beer, by centrifuging. It
is then treated and recycled to the fermentation operation.
Cultivation of fresh yeast from a laboratory culture is required
periodically. The wash (or beer) is sent to the stripping column
where an ethanol/water solution (as vapor) is removed leaving the
stillage, a waste stream consisting of fermentation solids and
the bulk of the water. Stillage contains about 10% solids, 1-2%
of which are nutrients (World Bank, 1980). Hence, it is often
used in limited quantities as a fertilizer.

5
.
Distillation
Distillation is the operation whereby ethanol is separated from
the stripped fermented wash. This is effected by a process of
repeated evaporation and condensation, which is possible because
of the difference in boiling temperatures between ethanol (172
degrees F or 77.7 degrees C) and water (212 degrees F or 100
degrees C) (Solar Research Institute, 1980). Evaporation causes
more ethanol than water to leave the solution; when the resulting
vapor is condensed, the concentration of ethanol is higher than
that of the original solution. This process is repeated until
the ethanol concentration reaches 95% (Ibid). At this level, the
ratio of ethanol molecules to water molecules in the vapor remain
constant and no further concentration is possible through
evaporation. This is known as a constant boiling point mixture
or azeotrope. The residual liquid containing relatively small
amounts of ethanol is recycled so that no ethanol is lost during
distillation.
A distillation column consists of two sections: a stripping
(beer) column and a rectifying (enrichment) column. (Figure 1.)
The bottom of the stripping column is heated by steam injection
or by an external calandria (known as a reboiler) if the stillage
is not to be diluted. The latter method would be used if the
stillage were substantially to be concentrated by evaporation.
Evaporation at one level occurs when the solution comes into
contact with a heating stage at the next lower level.
Condensation occurs when the vapor at a given level comes into
contact with the cooler stage immediately above it. The
concentrated ethanol vapor from the top of the rectification
column is condensed in an external condenser and a portion
refluxed to the column.
The 95% concentration of ethanol resulting from the distillation
operation is known as hydrous ethanol, i.e., ethanol containing
water. Anhydrous ethanol, which is usually 99.8% pure, is
produced by adding benzene to the hydrous solution and distilling
in another distillation column. The addition of benzene or
cyclohexane eliminates the constant boiling point mixture of 95%
ethanol/5% water, thereby allowing the evaporation of greater
concentrations of ethanol. The benzene is later separated from
the solution and recycled. Because alcohol vapor/air and
benzene/air mixtures are highly flamable, extreme care is needed
to avoid leaks of vapors and possible ignition.

6
An alternative to dehydration by azeotropic distillation is
dehydration by use of a molecular sieve. The hydrous ethanol is
passed through a column of desiccant which absorbs only the
water. The desiccant is periodically regenerated by blowing a
hot gas through it or even by using a side stream of anhydrous
ethanol vapor. There are molecular sieves available that employ
either the liquid or the vapor phase.

OTHER FACTORS

Uses
Applications of ethanol fall into four principal categories
(World Bank, 1980): (1) as an alcoholic beverage; (2) as an
intermediate chemical for use in toiletries, cosmetics,
pharmaceuticals, etc.; (3) as a feedstock for the production of
other chemical materials; and (4) as a petroleum substitute and
octane enchancer.
The latter has acquired increasing importance with the rise of
petroleum prices during the past decade and its octane
enhancement value is becoming more important since the decision
to phase out lead in gasoline in the USA. As a petroleum
substitute ethanol can be used as a boiler fuel, a chemical
product or feedstock, a diesel substitute, or a gasoline
substitute.

7
 Figure 1: Distillation Column
Source: Fuel from Farms (1980)

F~~~~~e I
1~~~~~~~~~~~~

Condenser
Noncondensibles

To
Pump(^_ Ethanol
Oehydration
or Storage

Stillage
to
Storage

Stam

Beer
Column

Rectitying
Column

8
 Ethanol as a substitute for gasoline is either used in its
hydrous form as straight alcohol (94-95% pure) or mixed in its
anhydrous form with gasoline, up to a 20% ratio (Ibid). In
either case, it can significantly improve combustion efficiency
and octane rating. Use of pure ethanol requires modification of
gasolene engines, as does the use of 50% diesel/ethanol for
diesel engines. Little modification is needed when 20% ethanol
in gasolene is used. Ethanol is potentially important to
petroleum-deficit countries (such as Brazil, where the potential
has been partially realized) which are able to produce a sizeable
* biomass supply relatively cheaply.
Fermentation ethanol can be converted into the chemical raw
material ethylene by a dehydration process. Ethylene is the
single most important intermediate product in the petrochemical
industry, for the production of most large volume petrochemical
products. Dehydrogenation and oxidation convert fermentation
ethanol to acetaldehyde, another important chemical raw material.
Some of the chemicals which can be produced from ethylene and
acetaldehyde are illustrated in Figure 2.

Environmental Concerns
Disposal of stillage can cause environmental problems, in part
because of the large quantities produced: the volume of stillage
produced is equal to 10-13 times that of alcohol (World Bank,
1980). When this mix of 10% solids is concentrated to about 50%
solids and mixed with concentrates, it can be used as animal feed
(Ibid). But high evaporation costs may make the resulting feed
prices uncompetitive. Stillage can also be applied directly as a
fertilizer, however, because of its level of dilution (1%
nitrogen, 0.2% phosphate, and 1.5% potash), large volumes must be
applied to supply the necessary concentrations of nutrients
(Ibid). This results in high transport costs for all but the
closest of farms. A possible solution to this problem, as
attempted in parts of Brazil, is to pump the stillage to the top
of neighboring hills using surplus steam from bagasse to power
the pumps, and then use a system of gravity irrigation to
disperse the stillage. The excess is transported to more-distant
fields and sprayed on the soil. (Excessive application can
acidify soils and cause nutrient imbalances.) If use of the
. stillage is uneconomical, it must be treated in settling ponds
and aerated in order to reduce the biological oxygen demand level
(B.O.D.) before it can be discharged into rivers and streams.
The aeration of large volumes of stillage consumes a great deal
of electrical energy and even after the B.O.D. has been reduced

0 9
to a level where the treated stillage will not harm aquatic life
the stillage retains a dark reddish brown color which causes
discoloration to rivers and streams.
The ultimate solution is incineration of the stillage, which can
be achieved when it is concentrated to approximately 60% solids.
This produces sufficient heat to generate steam for the
evaporator with some to spare, but the capital investment for
this solution is usually prohibitive.

Plant Capacity
While cost estimates for sugarcane-based alcohol production units
reveal that there are significant economies of scale in the
output range of 20,000 to 300,000 liters/day, the optimal plant
size is principally determined by raw material availability, fuel
consumption requirements, and operating days per year (World
Bank, 1980). Capital costs are relatively less critical.
Brazil is currently working on mini distilleries designed to
produce 5000 liters/day of ethanol, using stillage and residues
for biogas production.

10
 Figure 2: Alcohol from Biomass:
Production of Chemicals from Ethanol by Major Process Routes
Source: World Bank (1980)
Intermediates End Products
By Dehydration Process

Ethanol
t y ene Oxide ~ ~ ~ ~ Etylee Clycols
Synthetic Fibers
+NH Anti-freeze
. Ethanol-amines
Surfactants
(+Alcohol) Gas Scrubbing
Glycol Ethers
Paints
Varnishes
Textiles
-Pipes and Tubes
+Chlorine Shoe Soles
Electrical

-Chlorinated Ceng
Degreasing

PE -Ld HP or
Hd LP grades

By Dehydrogenation Process

EthanolAcetal -Ad Baeiol Polyesters

Crotohalde- ' Plasticizers

Hydrogen hyde n-Ethanol (Dieutyl Phtalate)
(Butenal) Solvents

\ NButyralde- | Butylene Diol

\hyde
| | Glycol Polyesters
Fibers

Ethyl 2-Ethy Plasticizers

I(Dibual)FlHxanol~Octyl Acetate
| (Dibutal) | | § (Paints and Varnish)

By Oxydation Process Acetates

-Ethyl
* ~~ ~ ~ ~ tanlc ctc-Butyl
Acid ~~~~~-Octyl
-Ethylglycol
' Retene (Paint Solvents,
Coatings ...)
Cellulose Acetate
Oxidatio Anhydride (Textile Yarns,
Oxidation Cigarette Filters)

25% 1
I _4
Vinyl Polyvinyl Acetates
_L... Acetate Latices
Monomer Resins

11
BIBLIOGRAPHY

01. Lipinsky, E.S., et al (1977) Systems Study of Fuels from

Sugarcane, Sweet Sorghum, and Sugar Beets.
Columbus, Ohio: Battelle Memorial Institute
02. Louisiana Department of Natural Resources (No Date) A
Manual on Ethanol and Gasahol Production in Louisiana.
03. Nathan, R.A., Ed. (1978) Fuels from Sugar Crops: Systems
Study for Sugarcane, Sweet Sorghum, and Sugar Beets.
Oak Ridge, TN: USDOE Technical Information Center.
04. Paul, J.K., Ed. (1979) Ethyl Alcohol Production and Use
as a Motor Fuel.
Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes Data Corporation.
05. Paturau, J.M. (1969) By-Products of the Cane Sugar
Industry: An Introduction to their Industrial Utilization.
Amsterdam: Elsevier Publishing Company.
06. Solar Energy Research Institute (1982) A Selected
Bibliography on Alcohol Fuels (1901 through November
1981).
Springfield, VA: Technical Information Service.
07. Solar Research Institute (1980) Fuel From Farms: A Guide
to Small Scale Ethanol Production.
Springfield, VA: National Technical Information Center.
08. World Bank (1980) Alcohol Production from Biomass in the
Developing Countries.
Washington: The World Bank.
09. World Bank (1981) Staff Appraisal Report: Brazil's Alcohol
and Biomass Energv Development Project. Report No.3214.
Washington: The World Bank.

12
 ANNEX I:

EXAMPLES OF INVESTMENT AND OPERATING COSTS

0
0
ETHANOL
EXAMPLE 1
Page 1 of 2

Representative Investment and Operating Costs

DISTILLERY USING CASSAVA

Establishment of an anhydrous ethanol distillery using

cassava with a capacity of 150 m3/day.

COUNTRY: Brazil

NOTE: These data are intended as representative and are unique

to the time, country, and circumstance of the identified
investment. Their applicability to other situations may
vary considerably.

ANNUAL FULL DEVELOPMENT PRODUCTION:

49,500 m3 of ethanol

PER CENT OF FULL CAPACITY UTILIZATION: not available

US $ '000
Total Cost
(1978 prices)
Fixed Capital Investment
________________________

(factory, equipment, land) 16800.00

-
 ETHANOL
EXAMPLE 1
Page 2 of 2

Representative Investment and Operating Costs

---------------------------------------------

NOTE: These data are intended as representative and are unique

to the time, country, and circumstance of the identified
investment. Their applicability to other situations may
vary considerably.

US $ '000
Total Cost
(1978 prices)

Annual Full Development Operating Costs

(excluding raw materials)
---------------------------------------

Fixed Costs
depreciation 1683.00
maintenance, administration 891.00
Sub-Total Fixed Costs 2574.00

Variable Costs
chemicals, utilities 2871.00
labor 495.00
Sub-Total Variable Costs 3366.00

Total Operating Costs 5940.00

DATA SOURCE: Adapted from Wilson N, Milfont, "Prospects of

Fuel Alcohol in Brazil", technical paper
presented in CASSAVA HARVESTING AND PROCESSING,
Proceedings of a Workshop held at Centro
Internacional de Agricultura Tropical, Cali,
Colombia, 24-28 April, 1978.

NOTES:
1. Exchange rate Brazilian Cr. $ 17.00 = US $ 1.00
2. Data are net of contingencies.
3. Local/foreign cost breakdown not available.
4. Production based on 150 m3/day x 330 working days/year.
0
ETHANOL
EXAMPLE 2
Page 1 of 2

Representative Investment and Operating Costs

DISTILLERY USING SUGAR CANE

Establishment of an anhydrous ethanol distillery using

sugar cane with a capacity of 150 m3/day.

COUNTRY: Brazil

NOTE: These data are intended as representative and are unique

to the time, country, and circumstance of the identified
investment. Their applicability to other situations may
vary considerably.

ANNUAL FULL DEVELOPMENT PRODUCTION:

27,000 m3 of ethanol

O PER CENT OF FULL CAPACITY UTILIZATION: not available

US $ '000
Total Cost
(1978 prices)
Fixed Capital Investment
________________________

(factory, equipment, land) 14000.00

-
 ETHANOL
EXAMPLE 2
Page 2 of 2

Representative Investment and Operating Costs

NOTE: These data are intended as representative and are unique

to the time, country, and circumstance of the identified
investment. Their applicability to other situations may
vary considerably.

US $ '000
Total Cost
(1978 prices)

Annual Full Development Operating Costs

(excluding raw materials)
---------------------------------------

Fixed Costs
depreciation 1350.00
maintenance, administration 702.00
Sub-Total Fixed Costs 2052.00

Variable Costs
chemicals, utilities 135.00
labor 324.00
Sub-Total Variable Costs 459.00

Total Operating Costs 2511.00

DATA SOURCE: Adapted from Wilson N, Milfont, "Prospects of

Fuel Alcohol in Brazil", technical paper
presented in CASSAVA HARVESTING AND PROCESSING,
Proceedings of a Workshop held at Centro
Internacionalde Agricultura Tropical, Cali,
Colombia, 24-28 April, 1978.

NOTES:
1. Exchange rate Brazilian Cr. $ 17.00 = US $ 1.00
2. Data are net of contingencies.
3. Local/foreign cost breakdown not available.
4. Production based on 150 m3/day x 180 working days/year.
X

ANNEX II:

CONVERSION TABLES

a .

S
 I
I
I i

i
i

i
f
i

i
 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

avoirdupois
Ton: short ton 20 short hundredweight, 2000 pounds;
0.907 metric tons;
long ton 20 long hundredweight, 2240 pounds;
1.016 metric tons.
Hundredweight cwt;
short hundredweight 100 pounds, 0.05 short tons; 45.359
kilograms;
long hundred weight 112 pounds, 0.05 long tons; 50.802
kilograms.
Pound lb or lb av; also *;
16 ounces, 7000 grains; 0.453 kilograms.
Ounce oz or oz av;
16 drams, 437.5 grains; 28.349 grams.
Dram dr or dr av;
27.343 grains, 0.0625 ounces; 1.771 grams.
Grain gr;
0.036 drams, 0.002285 ounces; 0.0648 grams.

Tro"
Pound lb t;
12 ounces, 240 pennyweight, 5760 grains; 0.373
kilograms.
Ounce oz t;
20 pennyweight, 480 grains; 31.103 grams.
Pennyweight dwt also pwt;
24 grains, 0.05 ounces; 1.555 grams.
Grain gr;
0.042 pennyweight, 0.002083 ounces; 0.0648 grams.

.
 METRIC SYSTEM

Square kilometer 2
sq km or km2;
1,000,000 square meters;
0.3861 square mile.
Hectare ha;
10,000 square meters;
2.47 acres.
Hectoliter hl;
100 liters; 3.53 cubic feet; 2.84 bushels;
Liter 1;
1 liter; 61.02 cubic inches; 0.908 quart
(dry); 1.057 quarts (liquid).
Deciliter dl;
0.10 liters; 6.1 cubic inchs; 0.18 pint
(dry); 0.21 pint (liquid).
Centiliter cl;
0.01 liters; 0.6 cubic inch; 0.338
fluidounce.
Metric ton MT or t;
1,000,000 grams; 1.1 US tons.
Quintal q;
100,000 grams; 220.46 US pounds.
Kilogram kg;
1,000 grams; 2.2046 US pounds.
Gram g or gm;
1 gram; 0.035 ounce.
 0

a4
 I

.4I
6I