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Agro-Industry Profiles
Public Disclosure Authorized

CASSAVA

0
 PROFILES IN THIS SERIES:

OILCROPS - OVERVIEW ...........FAU-01

OIL SEEDS ..................... FAU-02

OIL PA LM
...................... FAU-03

COCONUTO ...................... FAU-04

SUGAR ..................... e. FAU-05

......................
EHANOL. FAU-06

WHEAT o..e.o....ooo.o..eee... FAU-07

RICE o......oo.eo...o.o.ee..oFAU-08

CORN o.ooo.o.oooses..o...o.eeoAU-09

o
CASSAVA ...................... FAU-10

oFAU-11
ANIMAL FEEDS..o .............

FRUITS AND VEGETABLES..o...o.. FAU-12

RUBBER ...................... FAU-13

COFFEE...o................... FAU-14
TEAeo.eo.o.oooo.....e...o.e.oFAU-15

COCOA ....o.o.ooo...oo..oe.e.oFAU-16

COTTONooooo.eeo.o.o.ooo..o.oo FAU-17

MSEATS AND ESSeNTIAL oILe...- FAU-18

FAU-19
SPICES AND ESSENTIAL OILSo ................
 ABSTRACT

The purpose of this Profile is to review the cassava processing

industry, from its initial production and harvesting stages to
its final processing and marketing aspects. The Profile includes
yields and production figures for various countries, a glossary
of terms, and a bibliography of useful references. It outlines
the various steps in the processing of cassava for human
consumption, including debarking, washing, and fermentation. It
also describes the manufacture of both starch and animal feed
from cassava. A short discussion of the use of cassava in
alcohol production is also included. Examples of investment and
operating costs, as well as conversion tables (Metric/US) are
found in Annexes at the end of the Profile.

0
I
 FOREWORD
The nature of project and sector work in the World Bank is such
that staff are often called upon to work outside their major
fields of specialization, if only to make an initial judgement on
the utility of further, often costly, investigation. Under these
circumstances, up-to-date and authoritative reference material is
essential.
The profiles in this series are designed for use by operational
staff with experience in the agricultural sector but who do not
have a technical knowledge of the particular commodity under
discussion. Their purpose is not to substitute for technical
expertise but to provide a reliable inhouse reference which will
help Bank staff to determine when and what expertise is needed in
the detailed evaluation of investment proposals in agro-
processing.
The conditions for any particular proposal are- bound to be unique
in a number of respects, and the use of norms and general data in
project analyses could give rise to significant errors. On the
other hand, by providing responsible staff with a guide to the
issues on which appropriate expertise should be sought, these
profiles can contribute to the overall quality of agro processing
investment. Used with care, they should also facilitate broad
pre-screening such as may occur during sector work and
reconnaissance.
Questions, comments and further inquiries should be addressed to:

Agro-Industries Adviser
Finance and Agro Industry Unit
Agriculture and Rural Development Department

The contribution of Minster Agriculture Limited and Mr. D. Forno

in the review of this profile is gratefully acknowledged.

October 1985

0
I
 Cassava

CONTENTS

DATAS SHEET.i
DATSHET..............................................

INTRODUCTION ......................... 1
GLOSSARY .......................... 1
RAW MATERIALS ......................... 2
PROCESSING .......................... 11
MARKET CHARACTERISTICS ......................... 27
OTHER FACTORS ......................... 30
BIBLTOGRAPHY ............................ . . . . . . . 33
ANNEX I EXAMPLES OF INVESTMENT AND OPERATING COSTS

ANNEX II CONVERSION TABLES (METRIC/US)

ANNEX III TOXIC SUBSTANCES IN CASSAVA AND PROCESSED CASSAVA
PRODUCTS

0
~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
-

-~
~~~
~~~~
~~~~
~~~~
~~~~
~~~ ~ ~~~ ~ ~~~ ~ ~~~ ~ ~~~ ~ ~~~ ~~~~~ ~~~~ ~~~~ ~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
 0
Cassava

DATA SHEET

Cassava Yields: Thailand: 18,653 kg/ha (16,660 lbs/acre).

(1983) World Average: 9,122 kg/ha (8,118 lbs/acre).
Varieties developed are capable of yielding
50-70 tons/ha.
.

Processing Conversions: Starch Recovery Conversion Rate*

Rate (product/input)
Small-Scale Starch Prod. 50-70% 20%
(250 kg starch/day)
Medium-Scale Starch Prod. 60-70% 18%
(1-5 tons starch/day)
Large-Scale Starch Prod. 75-93% 20-25%
(10-25 tons starch/day)
Chip Production 38-40%
* Pellet Production 33-40%
*Moisture and quality levels of starch vary with type of
processing.

Approximate Composition of Cassava Roots:

Water - 65-70%
Starch - 20-30%
Sugars and Fats - 5%
Protein - 1.2%
Fiber - 1-2%
Ash - 0.5-1.0%

Residual Pulp = 10% of cassava root weight

Approximate Composition of Residual Pulp

Starch - 56%
Fiber - 36%
, Protein - 5.3%
Ash - 2.7%
Fat - 0.1%

*0
Composition of Some Cassava Products in Comparison to Other
Staple Foods Source: Bruinsma, et al, (1983)

Composition per 100 g edible portion Adult male

Fresh Cassava Rice Maize Potato daily
cassava flour (milled and meal requirement
tubers polished (95% per day
extr)
Water (g) 60 12 12 12 80
Energy (kJ) 658 1470 1522 1557 322 12900
Protein (g) 0.7 1.5 7.0 9.5 2.0 37
Fat (g) 0.2 - 0.5 4.0 -
Carbohydrate (g) 37 84 s0 72 17
Fibre (g) 1.0 1.5 0.2 1.5 0.4
Calcium (mg) a 55 5 12 10 400-500
Iron (mg) 1.0 2.0 1.0 2.5 0.7 5-9
Vitamin A (I.U.) - - - - - 7500
Thiamin (Vit. Ba) (mg) 0.07 0.04 0.06 0.30 0.1 1.2
Riboflavin (Vit. B2 ) (mg) 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.13 0.03 1.8
Nicotinamide (mg) 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.5 1.5 19.8
Ascorbic acid (Vit. C) (mg) 30 - - - 15 30

ii~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
 INTRODUCTION

Cassava, along with rice, sugar cane, and maize, is one of the
most important source-crops of calories in the tropics. It is
mainly grown by small farmers using labor-intensive methods and
is consumed mostly in rural areas close to the production site.
It should not be regarded solely as a subsistence crop, however,
as most cassava is traded outside the farm where it is produced.
I

Traditional methods of producing foodstuffs from cassava have led

to the development of processing activities which convert the
freshly harvested roots into a range of products for industry, as
well as for livestock and human consumption. This report
provides a brief background to the cassava crop, and some insight
into the various processing technologies currently practiced. A
small section describing the toxic elements contained in the
cassava plant is included to draw attention to the importance of
their elimination during processing. A bibliography, which
should be consulted for in-depth information is included.

GLOSSARY

Aipim A sweet variety of cassava.

'Bitter' cultivars Cultivars which are considered to be
toxic (although there is no
established correlation between
toxicity and taste).
Branded pellets In Thailand, a superior quality
cassava pellet, generally produced by
firms of European origin;
characterized by uniformity of quality
and good composition.
Cassava Usually refers to the roots of the
cassava plant.
Cassava meal The powdered residue of chips and
tubers after processing to extract the
edible starch; used as animal feed.

0
Cassava chips Dried pieces of sliced or chipped
tuber.
Farinha A form of cassava meal processed for
human consumption in Brazil.
Cassava flour Finely ground dried tubers consisting
almost entirely of starch.
Gari A West African staple made by
macerating, leaching, fementing, and
drying cassava; similar to farinha.
Cassava starch Fine powdery material obtained by
wet-extraction from pulped cassava
roots; usually referred to as tapioca.
Starch milk The aqueous solution of suspended
starch remaining after the removal of
wet cassava pulp.
'Sweet' cultivars Cultivars which are considered to be
non-toxic.
Tapioca Usually applies to pearl, flake, or
bead forms of cassava starch produced
by wet extraction methods; also used
as another general name for cassava.

RAW MATERIALS

Cassava is widely grown throughout the humid and semi-humid

tropics and in some sub-tropical areas. Table 1 presents the
area grown, national average yields, and total production for the
main producer countries. Major producers include Brazil (approx.
21 million tons annually), Thailand, and Indonesia (approx. 20
and 14 millions tons, respectively), Zaire (15 million tons) and
Nigeria (12 millions tons). Processing is not limited to major
producer countries and extensive processing industries exist in
countries whose production is too small to appear in Table 1,
e.g., Malaysia. Similarly the importance of cassava processing
does not necessarily reflect the size of the national crop;
almost all the Thai crop is processed; in comparison relatively
little is processed in Zaire.

2
 Table 1: Cassava Production Statistics
Source: FAO (1985)

Area Yield Production

('000,000 ha) (tons/ha) ('000,000 tons)
AFRICA
Zaire 2.15 6.80 14.80
Nigeria 1.25 9.44 11.80
Tanzania 0.45 12.44 5.60
Mozambique 0.55 5.73 3.15
Madagascar 0.34 6.02 2.04
Angola 0.13 15.00 1.95
Ghana 0.25 7.60 1.90
Uganda 0.50 3.30 1.65
Cent. African Rep. 0.30 3.00 0.90
Ivory Coast 0.22 3.55 0.80
Kenya 0.08 8.19 0.68
Cameroon 0.40 1.55 0.62
Congo 0.09 6.38 0.60
Burundi 0.04 10.75 0.43
Togo 0.01 19.72 0.34
_ TOTAL (Africa) 6.76 7.29 47.26
ASIA
Thailand 1.33 14.97 19.98
Indonesia 1.42 9.85 14.00
India 0.30 19.04 5.80
China 0.25 16.13 4.06
Vietnam 0.50 5.80 2.90
Philippines 0.25 8.00 2.00
Sri Lanka 0.05 11.81 0.65
TOTAL (Asia) 4.10 12.23 49.39
SOUTH AMERICA
Brazil 1.81 11.71 21.27
Paraguay 0.15 14.66 2.20
Colombia 0.21 10.00 2.10
Peru 0.03 10.90 0.36
TOTAL (S. America) 2.20 11.81 25.93
Central America 0.16 5.57 0.92
& Caribbean

0 3
The size of the national crop only partly indicates
cassava's
importance in some countries. There are countries in which
cassava is a very important component of the diet,
although
national production is too small to merit inclusion
in Table 1.
The consumption of cassava in selected countries
is given in
Table 2.

Table 2: Consumption of Cassava in Selected Countries

Source: Cock, 1984

Country Cal/person/ % of dietary

day energy
Zaire 1,287 56
Congo 1,128 55
Central African Republic 839 39
Mozambique 697 36
Angola 660 32
Tanzania 503 24
Liberia 501 21
Togo 402 20
Ghana 380 19
Gabon 439 18

Yields vary and are influenced by climate, soils,

diseases,
pests, the inherent capability of the cultivar grown,
and the
skill of the producer. The crop has the potential to produce
yields in excess of 25 tons per ha under extensive
production and
up to 70 tons per ha in small research plots; but
as the figures
in Table 1 show, national yields are all well below
this level.
These low levels probably reflect lack of fertilizer
inputs by
predominately subsistence-level producers.

Cassava's importance as a source of calories in the

human diet of
tropical regions is demonstrated in Table 3 on the
following
page.

4
 Table 3: Human Dietary Sources of Calories
in Tropical Zones
Source: Cock, 1984

Crop Content
(billion cal/day)

Rice 924
Sugar 311
Maize 307
Cassava 172
Sorghum 147
Millet 128
Wheat 100
Potato 54
Banana 32
Plantain 30
Sweet Potato 30

The Plant

The economically useful portion of the cassava plant is the

cluster of starchy swollen roots which form underground and are
attached to the base of the woody stem. The leaves also play an
important dietary role in some areas but as yet are not used in
processing. They have significant potential, however, as protein
rich leaf-meal, equivalent in many respects to alfalfa (Webb et
al, 1978).
Cassava (Manihot esculeuta Crantz) is a member of the
Euphorbiaceae family and a relative of rubber and castor bean.
It is native to the tropics of the Western Hemisphere where it
was brought into cultivation in the pre-Columbian era. Its wild
ancestors are unknown. Its introduction into Africa was related
to the return of liberated slaves from Brazil. The crop spread
via traditional trading routes through southern and eastern
Africa, reaching India and Southeast Asia during the 18th and
19th Centuries.

0 5
The cassava plant is a short-lived perennial woody shrub which
usually branches a number of times during its life. At maturity
it reaches 1.5-2.5 m in height, although some non-branching types
can exceed three meters. The stem is characteristically knobby
in appearance and the leaves are dark green, with three to five
lobes appearing during the first few weeks. Leaves increase in
size and domplexity, (up to 11 lobes) with age, reverting to
fewer lobes when the plant attains maximum size.
The plant is grown commercially by planting a piece of woody
stem, normally 15-30 cm in length. This 'cutting' gives rise to
one or more shoots within a month and after two-to three months
swollen roots containing starch can be found in the soil. The
crop can be lifted for consumption as soon as starchy roots are
available, but economic yields of processable roots are normally
only available after nine months of growth.
Under good conditions nine or more swollen roots are produced per
plant. They vary in size from 25 to 40 cm in length and 5 to 15
cm in diameter. Three main components of the roots are
immediately recognizable:
- the outer brown corky periderm, usually referred to as
the 'bark';
- the white/pinkish 'peel' (three to five mm thick); and
- the white inner cortex or 'flesh'.

The 'bark' is removed in all except the most crude processes

(e.g. chipping and sun drying for animal feed) as particles of
bark discolor the resulting starch/meal/gari. The ease with
which the bark is removed varies with variety. A good processing
type can be 'de-barked' easily using a 'tumbling washer' device.
The peel is only removed during processing in the manufacture of
gari. The cyanide content of the peel is proportionally higher
than the flesh of the root. Peel is not normally removed during
starch processing as the peel itself contains a proportion of
starch.
At the core of the 'flesh' of the root lie bundles of fibrous
xylem vessels. These become undesirably woody as the root
increases in age, reducing root acceptability as a foodstuff, and
increasing the fiber content of processed cassava.

6
0
Cassava is limited to cultivation in the hotter parts of the
world and thrives best in areas with long rainy seasons and mean
temperatures exceeding 20°C. Lower temperatures reduce growth
rate and light frost will defoliate the plant. More severe frost
will kill the above-ground portions of the stem. If the frost is
not too severe, regrowth will occur from the stem base protected
by the soil.
Cassava is well-adapted to areas receiving rainfall exceeding
1,000 mm per year, but it requires good drainage as rotting of
the storage roots occurs after only short periods of
waterlogging. Once established, cassava will tolerate prolonged
periods of drought; this accounts for its important role as a
subisistence crop in areas with unreliable climates. The crop
adapts to drought by shedding leaves and reducing shoot growth
until moisture once more becomes available. Unlike many crops,
especially cereals, cassava has no critical growth period during
which moisture is essential to prevent crop failure. An extended
drought results in a delayed harvest rather than a crop failure.
The ability to withstand drought during different phases of its
growth means that the crop can be planted virtually any time
during the rainy season except during the last few weeks. In
order to harvest a crop within one calendar year, the rainfall
and temperature must be adequate to support growth for six to
nine months of the year (the higher figure if industrial scale
processing is contemplated). If environmental conditions do not
permit this, the growing period can be extended over 18-24
months, taking in two or more short rainy seasons.
Agronomy of Cassava
In common with other root crops, thorough land preparation
results in better root yields. However, much of the world's
cassava is grown by manual techniques; therefore, inadequate soil
tilling results in depressed yields. Cassava cuttings are
planted horizontally, inclined, or vertically, completely covered
or protruding from the soil, according to local preference. The
use of fresh healthy cuttings is important. They are best taken
from the woody part of the plants over 10 months old, and should
be 2.5-3.5 cm in diameter. Plants are spaced 0.80-1.20 m apart,
providing 6-16 thousand plants per hectare. For planning
purposes a plant population of 10,000 per hectare is recommended.
Where available, fertilizers are applied before, during, or soon
after planting. The crop responds dramatically to fertilisers,
especially balanced applications of potassium and nitrogen in

0 7
impoverished soils. The crop will tolerate soil acidity beyond
the range of many crops, which gives cassava an ecological
advantage over crops such as maize. High yields at circa pH 4.0
are regularly obtained on highly leached soils in Southeast Asia.
Cassava reacts unfavorably to high concentrations of salts in the
soil, and at pH levels of 7 and above growth and yield are
affected seriously.
Weeds compete with cassava during the first three months after
planting. Weeding, during this period, usually by hand, is
crucial to optimize yields. Weeds encroach later in the life of
the crop when the leaf canopy becomes sparse. They can hinder
harvesting operations.
Cassava roots are available for harvest singly, per plant, or per
area, as soon as they are fit for consumption or processing. The
period of availability can extend over several months until the
fiber content renders the root unpalatable or causes the starch
content to be too low. Cassava can therefore be 'stored' in the
ground until required for consumption or when market
circumstances are most favorable. In famine-prone areas a small
area of cassava is often maintained by smallholders as a
'famine-reserve'. The lack of a distinct harvest time is a
factor in favor of cassava as a crop for environmentally fragile
areas.
After weed control, harvesting is the single most expensive
operation in terms of labor input. (Table 4). it has been
estimated that even in a high-yielding crop the maximum that one
person can harvest per day is 750 kg. This quantity is not
limiting in a subsistence or small farm situation, but can be a
drawback in the supply of raw material for large-scale
processing, where smallholders are relied upon for root suppply.

Table 4: Labor Requirements for Cassava Production

Method of Land Preparation

Manual Mechanical
(Man days/hectare)
Land preparation 25 --
Planting 11 9
Weeding 44 47
Harvesting 25 31
TOTAL 105 87

8
 Mechanization for the crop is available but little used as the
majority of the producers are subsistence/small-scale farmers.
The few large-scale producers use mechanization for land
preparation and fertiliser application. Mechanical planters and
harvesters are available but perform with mixed results.
Harvesters generally have a high power requirement and their
success depends on the root distribution pattern of the variety
grown as well as soil type. It is not only necessary to remove
the above-ground parts of the plant before harvesting but also to
remove weeds and crop debris to prevent blockage of mechanical
harvesters. Mechanical harvesting also requires a machine to
pulverize the stem and leaves of the crop.

Post-Harvest Behavior and Root Quality

Harvesting for processing normally coincides with maximum starch

content of cassava roots. Varieties used for processing may be
too dense, because of high starch content, to make-them desirable
eating varieties, but this depends on the preferred method of
preparation. Maximum starch content of the root varies with
variety and conditions under which the crop was grown. Dry
matter content of the root typically ranges from 30 to 35 per
cent and between 85 and 90 per cent of this is in the form of
starch. The extractability of this starch depends largely on the
efficiency of the starch processing equipment.
Over-mature roots become fibrous and starch content falls,
resulting in lower recovery during processing. Similarly, roots
produced in nitrogen-rich soils, such as those recently cleared
of forest, may be low in starch compared with roots grown on more
impoverished soils.
Cassava roots have a very short life once detached from the
plant. Deterioration begins after 24-48 hours and first
indications are brown/blue/black streaking in the flesh of roots.
Secondary deterioration follows, characterised by a softening of
the roots, followed by a general decomposition into a rotting
mass with a foul stench.
Varieties exist which have a longer root 'shelf life' than most.
However, the difference is too small to be of much commercial
importance to processors. Basically, cassava roots must be
transported to the processing plant and processed within 24 hours
of being lifted from the ground; otherwise, starch content of

0 -9
roots will decrease and the quality of the starch recovered will
deteriorate.
Techniques for extending shelf life for markets demanding fresh
roots for human consumption have been developed. Methods include
dipping into hot paraffin wax, refrigeration, and curing. The
latter method utilises the natural wound-healing properties
the intact root which produces a protective layer to keep outof
pathogenic organisms responsible for deterioration. Placing
roots into a warm humid environment (e.g. boxes of sawdust or
polythene bags) stimulates 'curing' which prolongs shelf life for
weeks and even months. The system is, however, uneconomic for
the large-scale storage necessary for processing requirements.

10
0
PROCESSING

Approximately one third of the world's cassava is consumed fresh.

The rest is fed directly to livestock or processed into human
food, livestock feed for export, or converted into starch and
starch derivatives (including alcohol). Table 5 shows how the
pattern of utilization varies from continent to continent. In
Africa, more than half of the cassava is processed for human
food, with little or no industrial utilization. In contrast,
Asia processes a similar proportion of its cassava, but the
majority of this is converted into animal feed for export
(chips/pellets) and starch, etc. The situation in the Americas
is influenced by the huge Brazilian cassava industry which
processes much of its crop into farinha, flour, and meal for
human consumption, as well as starch and alcohol.
Table 5: Utilization of Cassava, 1975-1977
Source: Adapted from Cock, 1984
(Figures show percentage of total cassava produced)

0 Area
Area
Human Food Animal Feed Industrial
UJse Other*
Fresh Processed Local Exported(starch etc)

Africa 38 51 1 - - 10
Americas 19 24 33 - 10 14
Asia 34 22 3 23 9 9
All World 31 34 .12 7 6 10

* Includes waste and changes in stocks

Processing into Human Food

Cassava is processed at the domestic, artisanal, and industrial

scale into a range of human food products in all continents. The
range of products is very wide, but relatively few processes have
been mechanized to any great extent. Figure 1 shows the
processing stages required to produce four of the major human
food-stuffs produced from cassava: Farinha (Brazil); Gari (West
Africa); Chickwange and Nshima (West and Central/Southern
Africa); Gaplek (Indonesia); and cassava meal. To date, only the
processing of farinha, gari, and cassava meal have been
mechanized to any significnt degree, although plans have been

0 11
drawn up for the mechanized processing of nshima meal (Atkinson
et al, 1981). Farinha, gari, and cassava meal processing are
discussed in more detail on the following pages.
Figure 1: Processing Flowchart for Major Human
Foodstuffs Derived from Cassava

DFRESH ROOTS

a,b,d | Soak

eb d cp, e

a,b j _= c d

a c,d

Press # b I|Grind/Poun

a,b lcdc e

DTD PRODUC

(a =Farinha, b =Gari, c .Chickwange/nshima, d =Gaplek, e =meal)

* 12
 Farinha Processing
Farinha is an important foodstuff in Brazil where traditional
* processing methods have been mechanized on an industrial scale.
Peeled roots are grated and the resulting mash is squeezed to
remove much of the hydrocyanic acid released from the roots
during the grating operation. The liquid also contains starch
and soluble materials and is used as a base for stews and soups;
cooking drives off the toxic elements. The moist cake of grated
A cassava is then roasted until dry, when it is packed in bags for
storage and sale.
Water is only required-for root washing, but energy is required
to drive various motors and to roast and dry the finished
product. Peeling cassava roots results in a loss of up to 30 per
cent of the raw material, depending on peel thickness and ease of
peeling, which are both varietal characteristics. Published work
rates for peeling cassava are scarce but estimates from Indonesia
indicate between 3.3 and 4.6 man days are required to peel a ton
of cassava roots. The operation is difficult to mechanize
effectively although some machines exist which indiscriminately
remove the outer layer of the root by abrasion.

Gari Processing
It is assumed that the techniques for farinha processing were
transferred from Brazil to Africa in conjunction with cassava
planting material and cultural techniques when freed slaves were
repatriated from Brazil. The indigenous population modified the
farinha process to include a fermentation stage, giving rise to
an end-product which resembles farinha in physical appearance,
but tastes quite different.
The steps required to process cassava into gari are shown in
Figure 1. The procedure is similar to that described previously
for farinha and Brazilian equipment designed for farinha
processing has been successfully imported into West Africa for
gari production.
The additional fermentation stage is achieved by maintaining the
wet mash, produced by rasping peeled roots, in anaerobic
conditions for three to four days. Traditionally, this was
achieved by placing the mash into sacks which were tied and left
for two to three days before squeezing out the liquor by pressing
the sack with stones and/or logs. Modern processing factories
achieve fermentation by allowing the mash to remain in

* 13
plastic/fiber glass bins for three to four days. The
fermentation process involves micro-organisms which reduce the pH
level of the mash, which in turn brings about the liberation of
hydrocyanic acid from the cassava mash by hydrolysis. Squeezing
out the water from the fermented mash removes most of the soluble
hydrocyanic acid, the rest being driven off when the cake is
roasted or fried.
Gari processing is carried out on different scales throughout
coastal West Africa. Traditional village-scale processing
satisfies rural areas, with each village claiming to produce the
best quality gari. Urban areas are supplied by surplus gari from
village-scale processing plants and increasingly large
industrial-scale gari factories. These produce up to 10 tons of
gari per day and some types use horizontally rotating drum
roasters and dryers which are heated with oil-fired furnaces.
As with farinha, gari requires water for root washing and fuel to
drive motors and heat the roasters. Peeling presents the same
problem and an additional consideration is the press-water from
the gari process. This is high in starch and dissolved material
from the mash as well hydrocyanic acid. The BOD and toxic nature
of this liquid makes it a serious pollutant to rivers and
streams.

Processing of Cassava Meal

In many countries, simple processing systems have been developed
to produce cereal-type meal from cassava roots. Some systems,
e.g. chickwange and nshima) involve leaving the whole cassava
roots under water for a few days before drying. While soaking,
the tissues soften and much of the hydrocyanic acid is hydrolyzed
to dissolve into the water. Other systems, e.g. gaplek, kokonte,
merely dry the chopped-up roots, (usually after peeling), in the
sun until the moisture content is reduced to 10-12 percent, at
which point the material can be stored without the usual
deterioration problems that affect cassava.
The dried chips are then pounded or milled into a meal to be used
in traditional redipes as a dough, porridge or gruel type of
dish. In addition to traditional processing, some countries are
eager to produce cassava meal as an extender in bread-making,
typically to reduce wheat imports. In Brazil, large mechanized
factories rasp washed roots, the resulting material being dried
in furnaces before milling and using in bread making.

14
 Animal Feed Processin4
Cassava is valued as a high-energy, easily-digestible animal
feed. Because it is low in protein, vitamins, and minerals, it
must be combined with other feeds for a balanced ration.
Cassava is fed fresh to animals in many parts of the world but
cassava roots must be dried for transportation and storage. Most
cassava-derived animal feed which enters international trade is
in the form of pelletized sun-dried chips.
Thailand dominates the production and export of cassava for
animal feed. Most exports go the EC as a cereal substitute in
dairy and pig rations. Other countries exporting pellets and
chips include Indonesia and China.
Chip Processing
Roots are chipped and spread to dry in the sun without washing or
peeling. If field conditions are wet at harvesting, soil
contamination increases, but chain elevators used to feed
chipping machines remove most of the soil by abrasion and
vibration.
Roots are 'chipped' into small pieces by machines equipped with
circular discs in which holes are made to effect the cutting
action (mimicking the kitchen vegetable shredder). In Thailand,
chipping machines are commercially available in different sizes
(10-50 tons/hr) and are usually diesel-powered. Each machine has
a short rubber-belt conveyor which carries the chips away from
the cutting blade. A conveyance for transporting the chips to
the drying yard is located under the end of the belt. This may
range from a hand cart to a specially constructed 'sprinkler'
developed in Thailand to spread chips evenly on the drying floor.
Special front-loader type mechanical shovels in Thailand are also
used.
The drying floor is usually concrete surface and represents the
major investment of a chipping enterprise. Chips are spread in a
thin layer usually less than five centimeters deep, and are
turned at frequent intervals to ensure even drying during the two
to three days of exposure to the sun and wind required to reduce
moisture content to less than 18 percent.
Turning the chips is done by pushing wooden rakes through the
chips. Recently, small petrol-powered 'go-carts' equipped with
metal rakes have appeared in Thailand.

- 15
During periods of rain, the chips are quickly pushed together
into heaps on the drying floor and protected with small
purpose-built portable roofs or, more recently, plastic sheets.
Reduction in chip quality results from such interruptions
drying. in

When the chips have dried to less than 18 per cent moisture,
are collected using motorized shovels (front-end loaders) they
loaded into trucks for transport to the pelletizing mills. and
are ususally located near the port, but some are constructed These
inland in order to reduce the transport costs of the
A number of artificially-heated cassava dryers which bulky chips.
started
operations in Southeast Asia during the mid-1970s have all
due to high energy costs. closed

Cassava chip production in Indonesia is done more on a

cottage-industry scale. Roots are harvested and peeled in the
field before chipping by hand and sun drying. Surpluses
human food requirements are put into sacks to be collectedbeyond
by
'assemblers' who transport the dried chips to ports. Pelletizers,
located at the ports, convert the bulky chips into pellets,
are, in general, superior in quality to Thai pellets. This which
due to less soil content and to peel removal, which results is
whiter pellet with less fiber. in a

Pelletizing
Almost all the cassava animal feed entering the export
trade is
pelletized. This is because pelletizing increases the bulk
density of the material and reduces shipping costs.
In Thailand early imported pelletizers which produced 'hard'
pellets were copied locally and gave rise to poorly-formed
pellets. The 'soft' pellets, known in the trade as 'native 'soft'
pellets', break up during transportation and handling and
rise to dust problems which are especially frowned upon bygive
environmentalists in Europe. The trade prefers hard pellets,
known as 'brand pellets', but price premiums are inadequate
stimulate the use of good-quality pelletizing equipment. to

Chips used in pelletizing are processed very crudely in the

'native' pellet mills. The chips are pressed through large
diameter dies without grinding. The pellets are not cooled;
therefore, they tend to break up as the bound-in moisture
escapes. Hard pellet mills both grind chips and cool pellets
but

16
0
they are expensive to operate.
During the passage of the chips through the pelleting dies,
friction heats up the machinery. This heat drives off the
moisture from the chips reducing the moisture content from an
initial 18 per cent down to 12.5-13 per cent which is acceptable
to importers.
Current EC standards for cassava pellets and chips are:
Fiber - not more than 5%
Ash - not more than 3%
Starch - a minimum of 62%
Moisture - Not more than 13%

(An additional 1/2% of moisture is tolerated during Thailand's

rainy season.)

Industrial Processing
By far the most important industrial processing of cassava
involves the extraction of starch. Starch granules are produced
in the cells of the root and it is necessary to rupture the cell
to recover the starch. Starch extraction occurs in many
countries but is most common in parts of South America where
cassava starch is used in recipes for speciality breads, etc.,
and in Southeast Asia where medium- and large-scale starch
factories are found. It is likely that cassava starch plants in
Southeast Asia have taken over from the sago processing industry
which has declined in recent years. (Apart from the obvious
differences between raw materials, the extraction and separation
techniques are relatively similar.)
Traditional starch processing plants relied on sedimentation
techniques to separate the starch granules from the water used to
wash the rasped-root material. The procedure is slow and labor
intensive, however, and is giving way to centrifugal and vacuum
separators.
The two main processing systems for starch extraction are shown
in Figure 2. The main steps of this process are described
individually.

0 17
Figure 2: Flowchart for Starch Extraction Using
Sedimentation and/or Centrifugal Separators

| jCASSAVA
ROOTS

ter Washing

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I
Wter De-barkin

Water pn

creening
1S

fl | ~~~~~~~Separating|
Seimentation|1

|De-watering

\1gs ~~~~~~Drying Vt

STARCH l
0
Washing
Cassava should be processed according to the order of its arrival
at the factory, to avoid deterioration of root quality. Removal
of extraneous soils is the first step in processing. This is
accomplished by hand or by the use of specialized equipment, the
sophistication of which is largely determined by the scale of
operation. Among the machinery employed in cassava washing are:
- simple paddle washers consisting of troughs with
agitating paddles along a horizontal shaft;
- perforated cylindrical tanks which are immersed in
water while spiral brushes scrub the roots contained
within; and
- rotary drums equipped with interior pipes from which
water sprays are emitted. Washing is a result of the
spraying action as well as the abrasive action of roots
rubbing against each other and against the sides of the
cylinder.
O Debarking

As the peel of cassava contains significant amounts of starch,

only the brown corky outer layer is removed from the roots. In
most starch factories this is done in conjunction with root
washing. Rarely is the bark removed entirely, but this is not a
problem in modern factories as the centrifugal separators easily
remove remaining particles of bark. In small traditional starch
plants, hand peeling is occasionally practiced, but labor costs
seriously constrain this type of operation.
Rasping and Pulping
Rasping is the mechanical tearing of the flesh of the cassava
root into a fine pulp in order to rupture all cell walls and
release the starch granules contained within. The percentage of
starch released in this way is known as the rasping efficiency.
Final recovery of starch in processing is largely dependent on
rasping efficiency.
A range of rasping exquipment exists, from the locally-
constructed, hand- or foot-driven roll or disc rasps with a
maximum capacity of 1 ton/day, to the sophisticated,
electrically-operated revolving drum rasps which are fitted with
replaceable blades. All operate by pressing the tubers against a

0 19
rapidly-moving surface which is punctuated at regular intervals
with sharp protrusions. Since only 70-90% of the starch is
usually released during rasping, double or triple rasping is
common.
Due to the presence of hydrocyanic acid in the rasped root
material, contact with iron is often detrimental to starch
quality. Hence, stainless steel rasping equipment is
recommended.

Separation of Starch
Once the cassava cells have been ruptured, the starch must be
washed out of the cells with water. The starch milk, or starch
suspended in solution, is then separated from the pulp and fiber.
Wet screening combines both of these operations, as the rasped
mass is rinsed with water on a screen.
Wet screening can be performed in a variety of ways:

- by hand, in a cloth bag which is formed by attaching

the four corners of the cloth to four poles;
- with a shaking flat-bed screen, which is a slightly
inclined gauze-covered horizontal frame, mechanically
shaken at regular intervals;
- with multi-stage DSM-screens (sieve bends), in which
the mass of pulp is rinsed in several counter-current
stages;
- with centrifugal sieves, in which the mass of pulp is
rinsed two to five times in a conical-framed, quickly
rotating screen; and
- with a jet extractor, or continuous perforated-basket
centrifuge.
The separated starch milk contains a concentration of about 54 kg
of dry starch per cubic meter.

Sedimentation/Purification
In addition to starch, starch milk contains fruit water (an
aqueous extract of soluble sugars, proteins, salts, and amino

20
 acids). Fruit water must be removed to prevent:
(i) chemical and enzymatic reactions which lower the value
of the starch; and
(ii) micro-organism growth, resulting in fermentation.
Purification is accomplished through sedimentation or centrifugal
separation.
Chemicals are sometimes added to the starch milk to facilitate
sedimentation, to lower starch milk viscosity, and to whiten the
final starch. Among those used are sulphuric acid, sulphur
dioxide (0.3-0.4 g/liter starch milk), aluminum sulphate (21
g/liter), and chlorine (1 ml/liter).
Purification of the starch milk is generally accomplished by one
of the following methods:
_ Gravity Sedimentation. This is the oldest and
simplest method. The starch milk is washed with clean
water in a large wooden or concrete tank. It is then
allowed to settle; over a period of six hours, most of
the starch accumulates at the base of the tank. The
fruit water, which may contain 5-10 percent of the
total starch, is removed by decanting (stoppers are
removed from holes in the upper portion of the tank).
More water is added to the remaining starch and the
operation is repeated for a cleaner final product.
Usually the top layer of the settled flour is removed,
since it contains a high concentration of any
remaining impurities. The resulting layers of starch
are often sold at price differentials reflecting the
quality (the highest quality is at the bottom).
- Settling Tables. In this method the starch milk is
fed in at one end of a long (50-100 m) table at a
controlled rate. As it flows to the other end, the
starch slowly settles out along the length of the
table. -This is an improved method of gravity
sedimentation since the contact time between the
starch and the fruit water is reduced. Also, since
the vertical sedimentation path is shorter and
drainage is gradual, starch losses from decanting are
lower. With gravity sedimentation in tanks or tables,
however, contaminating particles which are heavier
than the starch, e.g, sand and clay, are not

* 21
 separated. The final moisture content of the starch
from settling tables is 450-500 grams water per kg.
- Centrifugal Separation. A variety of centrifuges can
be used, with the principal classification being batch
or continuous. The advantages of this method are that
it:
(i) further reduces the time starch and fruit water
are in contact;
(ii) increases processing capacity; and
(iii) eliminates the impurities in colloidal
suspension.
Centrifugal separation is sometimes followed by
gravity settling to free the starch from any solid
impurities which may remain.
- Hydrocyclones. These are centrifuges with counter-
current washing.
In modern starch-producing plants, the time lapse between rasping
and drying has been reduced to about one hour.

De-watering
The starch in pure water solutions resulting from purification is
further concentrated by mechanical means in an operation known as
de-watering. The moisture content of the thickened slurry is
thus reduced to 35-40% prior to drying.
De-watering is achieved.through centrifugal action. A
basket-type centrifuge consisting of a perforated bowl lined with
a cloth filter or fine-mesh wire netting is generally used.
While the starch collects along the sides of the bowl, the water
is filtered out. A fine layer of fiber and dirt which often
covers the centrifuged starch, is scraped off and discarded.
Vacuum de-waterers are also used. In these, a perforated drum
covered with a muslin cloth is rotated in a shalllow tank into
which concentrated starch milk is allowed to run. A vacuum is
created inside the drum which attracts the starch milk to the
muslin. Water passes through the muslin and the perforation into
the drum and is ejected. The deposit of starch is scraped from
the muslin cloth as the drum rotates.

22
 Drying
The de-watered starch receives a final drying by evaporation in
its final transformation to a stable, transportable starch.
Three principal methods are used:
(i) sun-drying;
(ii) hot air drying; and
(iii) contact drying.
Sun-drying on flat, shallow baskets is the cheapest and simplest
method. The de-watered starch-cake is spread manually, usually
early in the morning, so as to take full advantage of the day's
sunshine. Lumps of starch should be crumbled to facilitate
drying. Depending on the weather conditions, a single day may be
sufficient to dry the starch to a moisture content of 15-20%. If
not, the baskets are moved inside, where they are stacked during
the night, and moved outside again the next day. Drying capacity
is usally limited to three to five tons of dry starch per day,
with limits imposed by internal transport and space requirements.
Disadvantages of this method include contamination by dust and a
chemical degradation which adversely affects the starch quality.
An advantage is the bleaching action of the ultra-violet rays of
the sun; a whiter product results.
Hot air dryers are used in larger, more modern operations. Oven
and chamber dryers are among the most common types of batch
dryers; belt, revolving drum, and tunnel dryers are examples of
commonly-used continuous hot air drying systems. The advantages
of hot air dryers lie in their expanded capacity, independence of
weather conditions uniformity in drying, and in the cleanliness
of the starch thus obtained. This must be weighed against the
increased costs of energy which result.
Larger operations often use pneumatic 'flash' dryers, in which
the starch is dried in a matter of seconds as it is pneumatically
conveyed upwards from the bottom of the drier, and then deflected
downwards6 The air through which it is transported is heated to
about 200 C.
In contact drying, wet starch is dried on a heated surface in
plate ovens and with roller driers. Care must be taken to avoid
gelatinization (cooking) of the starch due to the high
temperatures involved.
In general, starch moisture contents should be reduced to 10-13%.
At higher levels, the risk of mold development and subsequent

i * 23
 spoilage increases. Lower levels may damage the starch and
reduce its re-moistening capacity.
Packaging
Crude dry cassava starch generally contains hard lumps. It must
be pulverized and dry-screened for ease in handling and use.
This is known as 'bolting'. Bolting is only profitable for
large-scale operations with substantial output. Otherwise,
several smaller mills are typically serviced by a single bolting
factory.
Roller bolting involves the passage of crude dry starch through a
pair of rollers going in opposite directions at the same speed.
This pulverizes lumps of starch while fiber and impurities are
left intact. A conical rotary screen (100-200 mesh/inch) then
removes small lumps, fiber, and impurities, which are discharged
and re-fed into the rollers. The rollers may be hand-driven for
medium-scale operations.
Disintegrater bolting, a faster and more efficient process, is
used in large-scale operations. Beater disintegrators pulverize
-all starch lumps, fiber, and impurities; hence, the purity of the
final product is much more dependent on the purity of the
starting material.
Cassava starch is usally packaged in gunny sacks with polythene
liners for shipment, although multi-wall paper bags are becoming
more and more popular. Cassava starch is known in the trade as
cassava 'flour' which causes considerable confusion. It is
frequently confused with cassava 'meal' - milled dried whole
root.

Foodstuffs Produced from Cassava Starch

A range of products are manufactured from cassava starch, often
on the same premises in which the starch is extracted.
There is a variety of baked, partially-gelatinized products from
cassava starch in which the starch molecules are radically
transformed in arrangement and properties. Prior to
gelatinization, cassava starch molecules are almost insoluble,
and of a semi-crystalline structure; afterwards, they are
swollen, amorphous, and miscible with water at high temperatures.
Upon coooling, the starch assumes the texture of a gel or jelly.

24
 Flake, pearl, and seed production involves drying, partially
gelatinizing, and shaping of the starch. It begins at the wet
stage of starch production, following sedimentation. The starch
* used must be of the highest quality. If a sulfurous acid has
been added during sedimentation, it must be thoroughly rinsed out
in order to maintain the quality of the-end product. The use of
active chlorine preparations should be avoided during
sedimentation.
Following sedimentation the starch is in a cake form, with a
moisture content of about 45 percent. It is broken into large
pieces with a small roller milll, spades, or a very coarse-mesh
wire screen and then passed through a 20 mesh/inch screen. The
resulting coarse-grained moist starch is then ready for flake
production.
Starch flakes are gelatinized 1/ in shallow pans placed in a
brick oven at a moderate heat. The pans are wiped with oil or
fat to prevent burning. Shorea (tentawang fat) or bassia (illipe
fat), which are similar to cocoa butter, are preferred; groundnut
oil is also used. The starch must be raked periodically during
baking to ensure uniform gelatinization.
0 'Pearl' and 'seed' production requires an additional step, in
which the coarse, moist starch grain are built up and
consolidated to the size and level of strength desired. This is
accomplished in cylindrical rotating pans, typically 0.9 meters
in diameter and 1.2 meters deep. As the pans rotate, the starch
grains form small particles or beads, the size of which depends
on the speed and period of rotation. This is followed by
screening and sorting.
Beads and pearls are spread on plates or trays in a thick layer
and transported through a steam-charged tunnel. This ensures
uniformity in gelatinization.
Gelatinized flakes, beads, and pearls must be dried to a moisture
level of about 12%. This is accomplished in chamber driers with
circulating air. Drying of pearls and beads should begin at a
i/ Gelatinization is caused byoheating the starch in an aqueous
medium. It begins at about 60 C and is completed at 80 C,
depending in part on the size of the starch granules. Flake and
pearl production requires gelatinization of only the outer layer
of starch. Hence, each flake, bead, or pearl consists of a raw
starch base enclosed by an outer coating of tough, gelatinized
starch.

0 25
temperature of no more than 400 C to prevent further
gelatinization and bursting. Towards the end of 8he drying
cycle, this temperature should be raised to 60-70 C. In an
efficient system, drying can be accomplished in as little as two
hours.
Sixteen tons of wet starch yields about 10 tons of tapioca
products (Grace, 1977).

ALCOHOL PRODUCTION
Cassava is an attractive source of alcohol for countries without
fossil fuels, as it can be produced on marginal land and
therefore need not compete for land used for food production.
Sugar cane is a marginally more efficient source of fermentable
material for alcohol than cassava but sugar cane requires prime
agricultural land and usually requires irrigation, both of which
are needed for food production. (Brazil is one of a number of
countries using cassava as a source of alcohol, but sugar cane is
more efficient as the bagasse [woody debris remaining after sugar
extraction] can be burnt to generate heat required during the
process.)
The conversion of cassava to alcohol involves rasping the washed
roots into a mash. This is then heated to gelatinize the starch
in the mash, which is then liquefied by addition of an enzyme,
alpha-amylase. Following hydrolysis of the liquefied starch to
sugars, yeasts are added to convert the sugars to alcohol by
fermentation. Alcohol is removed by distillation. (For a more
detailed discussion of this process, see the Ethanol Profile in
this series.)
Brazilian alcohol plants have produced 170 liters of alcohol per
ton of fresh cassava. These high yields are achieved by using
enzymes to convert starch to sugar in place of the acid
hydrolysis method which is less efficient.

26
 MARKET CHARACTERISTICS

Fresh cassava must be sold to the consumer within one to two days
of harvesting the roots. In fact, the rapid post-harvest
deterioration of the crop is a major factor which has led to the
many processing alternatives. After the market for fresh
cassava, and processed cassava products for human consumption,
the third major market is for animal feed products for export,
and the fourth market is for starch and starch-derivatives.
Market for Cassava Processed into Human Foods
Farinha and gari play an important role in the nutrition of the
urban as well as rural population. Gari, especially, is popular
in the large cities of West Africa, where going to the market
every day to obtain fresh cassava is inconvenient. It is a
convenicence food which only requires the addition of boiling
water to convert it into a hot doughy staple. The growing urban
metropolis promises to provide an increasing outlet for gari and
other processed cassava foodstuffs. In addition, expatriate West
Africans in Europe and North America represent a small but steady
* source of demand.-
This demand for gari is being satisfied by the installation of
factory-scale gari processing plants (Nigeria, Ghana, Guinea,
etc.); the large daily requirements of fresh roots usually
necessitate a cassava plantation, however, as an integral part of
the processing facility.
As cities in the tropics increase in size, it is likely that
medium to large-scale processing plants for indigenous crops such
as cassava will become a viable commercial venture. The current
trend towards wheat-flour based convenience foods involves
spending scarce foreign exchange.
There is a recent trend towards small-scale mechanization of
cassava processing using locally manufactured equipment. This
trend is likely to take the drudgery out of of some operations
performed traditionally by hand, e.g. root rasping and gari
roasting. It also caters for a pragmatic scale of operations
intermediate between 'cottage industry' and 'factory-scale'.
Market for Cassava Processed into Livestock Feed
The EC has paved the way to demonstrate cassava's utility as a
cheap source of dietary energy for livestock. However, the

* 27
market exists mainly because of the artificially high prices for
cereals within the EC. This means that the advantage offered by
cassava pellets to European feed millers is not necessarily
available for feed millers elsewhere.
Nevertheless, there are many Third World countries spending
scarce foreign exchange to import corn and other cereals for use
in animal feeds, when they could be replacing at least a
proportion with locally grown and processed cassava.
The international trade in cassava feedstuffs is dominated by the
trade between Thailand and the EC, which is currently around 5.5
million tons per year. Other countries also export to the EC,
notably Indonesia, China, and Brazil. Vietnam is likely to
attempt to enter the world market in the near future.
Although the prices are less attractive than those offered in the
EC, other countries import cassava pellets and chips, mainly for
livestock feed, but also as raw material for alcohol
fermentation, and other industrial uses. The USSR, faced with
chronic cereal shortages, finds it difficult to maintain its
livestock production and imports cassava pellets from time to
time. South Korea and other eastern countries have also made
purchases.
The Market for Cassava Starch
The largest importers of cassava starch are the United States,
Japan, and Canada, although imports to the U.S. have declined in
recent years. The cassava starch market has been adversely
affected by problems of poor product quality and erratic supply.
Thailand, the largest supplier, has, however, modern factories
capable of sustaining a steady flow of high-quality starch.
The international starch market is highly complex and with newly
developed 'modified' and 'specialty' starches entering the arena
it is likely to become even more complex.
-Cassava starch enjoys a relatively small overall share of the
total starch market and experiences a relatively high level of
variation in demand because of a number of factors including:
- substitute starches from corn, potato, and wheat are
available at competitive prices;
- corn starches are available for specialty uses without
modification;

28
 - traditional markets for cassava starch are protected,
e.g. Japan, or monopolized by large companies, e.g.
the U.S.A. and Canada; and
- freight rates from Southeast Asia across the Pacific
are expensive, making cassava starch less competitive.
Quality specifications for cassava starch have been compiled for
a number of countries in Table 6:
Table 6: Quality Specifications for Cassava Starch
Source: Edwards (1974)

USA India UK _F Sri Lanka

Grade Grade Grade Edible Cotton Commercial Papermaking Papermaking

A B C use textiles use Grade A Grade B

Moisture (max) Z3.5 IZ.5 14.0 13.0 15.0 8-1Z.0 15.0 15.0
Ash (max) 0.15 0.25 0.50 0.4 0.4 - 4.0 4.0
Fibre (max) - - - 0.2 0.6 - -
Protein (max) _ _ _ - 0.3 -
Ether extract (max) _- - - O.Z -
Viscosity g/ml water (max) 11/150 17/150 Z0/150
Is _
Viscosity of Z% paste in SeCS - - - 44.0 - -
in Redwood
No. I Viscometer at 75°C (min) pH 4.5-6.5 4.5-6.5 4.5-6.5 4.5-7.0 4.8 . 5-8.3 5-8.5

Cassava starch is preferred for the preparation of certain foods,

for papermaking, and the cardboard industry, indicating that a
small export demand will continue.
It is likely to be the local markets for starch and starch
derivatives which offer the best opportunities to the cassava
starch industy. Many cassava growing countries import corn and
potato starch for their textile and pharmaceutical industries.
The increase consumption of soft drinks is likely to create a
demand for fructose syrup which can be derived from cassava
starch. For countries which are not self-sufficient in sugar,
there is an opportunity for import substitution.

29
OTHER FACTORS

There are a number of factors which influence the cassava

processing industry. The following section presents a brief
discussion of some of these.

Location
The cassava processing plant should be located in an area
producing regular supplies of surplus cassava of a quantity and
quality suitable to support operations for as near as year-round
operation as possible. Estimates of raw material requirements
are presented in Table 7:

Table 7: Estimated Raw Material Requirements

and Necessary Cultivated Area
Source: Bruinsma, et al (1983)

Raw Raw Yield Cultivated

Scale of Sca fproduction material
requcio.Ire perating
period material of area
reqtured (d/y) required tubers required
(t/d) Y W(t/y) (t/ha per y) (ha

Starch small 1.0 150-170 150-200 10 15-Z0

Starch intermediate 6-30 250 1,500-7,500 10 150-750
Starch large 40-100 250 10,000-25,000 15 700-1,700
Chips pellets small 10 Z00 2,000 10 200
Chips pellets large 56 250 14,000 15 1,000

Water Quality and Quantity

Most cassava processing factories require supplies of water.
Only chipping and pelleting operations are independent of the
requirement. Roots require washing in most factory processes,
and in modern starch manufacture processes up to 4,300 liters of
water are required for every ton of starch recovered. In older,
less efficient processes, as much as 16,000 liters of water per
ton of starch are required.
The quality of water is important as it comes into direct
contact
with the starch granules. The water should be free of toxic

30
 bacteria and mould spores, and should also be free of copper and
iodine ions which discolor the starch.
Accessibility
The desire to site a processing plant close to the production
area sometimes results in it being in a remote location. An
all-weather road and/or rail link is necessary to facilitate the
provision of inputs and raw material as well as providing the
finished products with access to the market.
Availability of Labor
A processing plant must be located where labor is available,
preferably without the need to construct housing for staff, which
can significantly increase the capital cost of the processing
scheme.
Environment
Waste disposal problems will depend on the production process
utilised, the plant treatment capacity, and the location of the
* operation. Large-scale operations will have to make provision
for treatment of waste before it is discharged. This is
particularly relevant due to the concentration of cyanide and
suspended organic solids in unutilised cassava peels and in the
water used for cleaning and processing.
Economies of Scale
A comparison of technical data on starch processing at different
scales of operation is presented in Table 8:
It is claimed that large-scale operations:
- make more efficient use of raw materials;
- have higher recovery rates and conversions rates, and
lower handling costs;
- have higher labor productivity;
- make more efficient use of energy; and
- produce starch of more uniform quality.

9 31
 Competition for Raw Materials
The availability of cassava roots for processing will depend
the outcome of the following competitive situations (Bruinsma,onet
al., 1983):

(i) The farmer's decision between planting cassava and

planting all other crops;
(ii) The availability of surplus cassava after food
requirements have been met; and
(iii) Competition for roots among different processing
plants, e.g., starch vs. pellets.
As a result of the above, raw material supply is particularly
susceptible to fluctuation.
Table 8: Comparison of Technical Data on Starch Processing
at Different Scales
Source: Bruinsma et al, 1983

Criteria Small Scale Intermediate Scale Large Scale

Raw material required (tonne/year) 150 - 200 1,500 - 7,500 10,000 - Z5,000
Production starch (tonne/year) 30 - 40 Z70 - 1,350 Z,000 - 6, ZS0
Recovery rate of starch (%;) 50 - 70 60 - 70 75 - 93
Conversion rate produce/input (57) 20 18 Z0 - Z5
Number of employees 4 40 50 - 60
Production per employee (tonne/year) 7.5 - 10 6.5 - 33 33 - 1Z5
Required operating skills low low high
Percentage of unskilled labour (&) 75 70 4Z
Use of energy,
Electricity (kwh/starch)
(not essential) 100 - 175
Fuel oil (tonne/tonne starch) 0.0Z 0.02 0.04 - 0.07
Use of water (m'/tonne starch)- ZS 43 12 - 35
Quality of product Variable, good to Reasonable - not Good - export
reasonable - not for export quality
for export
Origin of machinery and equipment Locally made Locally made Imported
Maintenance requirements High Medium Medium
Origin of spare parts Local Local Imported
Organisational complexity Small Small Moderate
Amount of waste produced:
- pulp and peel (tonne/year) 100 - 130 1,150 - 5,780 20,000 - 50,000
- waste water (m'/year) 750 - 1,000 11,250 - 56,250 80,000 - 160,000

32
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BIBLIOGRAPHY

01. Atkinson, D. R., D. W. Wholey, T. R. W. Jarman & J. W.

Turnbull (1983) A Factory Concept for Integrated Cassava
Operations.
Vienna : UNIDO

02. Baker, J. C. (1981) "Structure and Outlook: Tapioca

Processing Industry in Thailand" IN The Planter No. 57
(66), September 1981
Kuala Lumpur

03. Black, R. P., W. Peyayopanakul & S. Piyapongse (1979)

"Thailand: Cassava Pelletising Technology" IN Industrial
Research Institutes: Their Role in the Application of
Appropriate Technolocry and Development.
Boulder: Westview Press.

04. Bruinsma, D. H., W. W. Witsenburg & W. Wurdemann (1983)

Selection of Technoloay for Food Processing in Developinq
Countries.
9 Wageningen: PUDOC

05. Cock, J. H. (1984) Cassava: New Potential for a Neglected

Crop.
Boulder: Westview Press

06. Considine, D. M., Editor (1982) Food and Food Production

Encyclopedia.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.

07. Dalton, G. E. & F. Akwetey (1971) Cassava Production and

Processing in S.E. Ghana.
Legon: University of Ghana

08. Edwards, D. (1974) The Industrial Manufacture of Cassava

Products: An Economic Study.
London: TPI

09. FAO (1985) FAO Agricultural Production Yearbook 1984.

Rome: FAO
10. Grace, M. R. (1977) Cassava Processing.
Rome: FAO
11. Nestel, B. & R. MacIntyre (1973) Chronic Cassava

9t 33
 Toxicity: Proceedings of an Inter-Disciplinary Workshor
London, England: January 29-30, 1973.
Ottawa: IRDC
12. Nestel, B. & M. Graham (1977) Cassava as Animal Feed:
Proceedings of a workshop held at the University of
Guelph, April 18-20, 1977.
Ottawa: IRDC
13. UNCTAD Secretariat (1982) Technology and Food Processing
in Thailand: The Case of Cassava Pelletising and
Pineapple Canning.
Geneva: UNCTAD
14. UNIDO (unpublished) Evaluation of Cassava Chip Production
Consultancy Study.
Vienna: Available from UNIDO

34
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ANNEX I:

EXAMPLES OF INVESTMENT AND OPERATING COSTS

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 CASSAVA
EXAMPLE 1
Page 1 of 2

Representative Investment and Operating Costs

CASSAVA PELLET PRODUCTION

Establishment of a factory to produce soft cassava

pellets.

COUNTRY: Thailand

NOTE: These data are intended as representative only and

unique to the time, country and circumstance of the
identified investment. Their applicability to other
situations may vary considerably.

ANNUAL FULL DEVELOPMENT PRODUCTION:

4,800 tons of pellets

PER CENT OF FULL CAPACITY UTILIZATION: not available

US$ '000
Total
(1978 prices)
I. Investment Costs

Land 4.90
Land Improvement 0.98
Factory (1300 m2) 31.88
Machinery & Equipment
pressing machine & 7.85
accessories
motor, 160 h.p. 5.89
motors for conveyor 2.21
transformer 9.81
magnetic switch 3.43
payloader 8.34
scales 0.32
carts 0.15
Sub-Total Machinery
& Equipment 37.98

Total Investment Costs 75.75

Ip
 CASSAVA
EXAMPLE 1
Page 2 of 2
Representative Investment and Operating Costs

NOTE: These data are intended as representative only and

unique to the time, country and circumstance of the
identified investment. Their applicability to other
situations may vary considerably.

US$ '000
Total
(1978 prices)
II. Annual Full Development Operating Costs
(excluding raw materials)

Fixed Costs
administration . 1.71
depreciation 2.47
repair & maintenance 3.24
Sub-Total Fixed Costs 7.42
Variable Costs
packing materials 4.71
other raw materials 0.65
labor 3.73
utilities 8.35
Sub-Total Variable Costs 17.43
Total Operating Costs 24.85

DATA SOURCE: All information was adapted from

Black, Ronald P. Wanawan P. and Sachee P.
THAILAND: Cassava Pelletizing Technology,
University of Denver Research Institute/
U.S. Agency for International Development,
December, 1979.

NOTES:
1. Exchange rate - Thai Baht 20.39 - US $ 1.00
IMF International Financial Statistics, May, 1985
2. Data are net of contingencies.
3. Full development production based on 200 working
days/year @ 24 tons/day.
4. Foreign/local cost breakdown not available.
 CASSAVA
EXAMPLE 2
Page 1 of 2

Representative Investment and Operating Costs

PRODUCTION OF GARI FROM CASSAVA TUBERS

Establishment of a factory to produce gari from fresh

cassava tubers.

COUNTRY: Nigeria

NOTE: These data are intended as representative only, and are

unique to the time, circumstance, and country of the
identified investment. Their applicability to other sit-
uations may vary considerably.

ANNUAL FULL DEVELOPMENT PRODUCTION:

5,400 tons of gari

PER CENT OF FULL CAPACITY UTILIZATION: not available

US $ '000
Total
(1983 prices)
I. Investment Costs

Site Preparation 21.55

Building 239.40
Equipment 478.80
Transport & Installation 13.41
Installation of Utilities 222.64
Drainage Facilities 14.36

Total Investment Costs 990.16

 CASSAVA
EXAMPLE 2
Page 2 of 2
NOTE: These data are intended as representative only, and are
unique to the time, circumstance, and country of the
identified investment. Their applicability to other sit-
uations may vary considerably.

US $ '000
Total
(1983 prices)
II. Full Development Annual Operating Costs
(excluding raw materials)

Fixed Costs
administration 6.44
insurance 19.85
maintenance 14.48
Sub-Total Fixed Costs 40.77
Variable Costs
labor 26.28
fuel 8.31
utilities 5.36
packaging materials 10.19
Sub-Total Variable Costs 50.15
Total Operating Costs 90.92

DATA SOURCE: Nyanin Ph.D., Ohene Owusu

Some Economic Aspects of Industrial Processing of
Cassava. Paper presented at FAO Workshop on
Processing Technologies for Cassava and Other
Tropical Root Crops, 28 Nov. - 2 Dec., 1983,
Abidjan, Ivory Coast. -

NOTES:
1. Data are net of contingencies.
2. Full development production based on 36 work weeks per year,
at five shifts per week producing three tons of gari/shift.
3. Costs converted from Naira to US $ at exchange rate of
US $ 1.49 - Naira 1.00.
 CASSAVA
EXAMPLE 3
Representative Investment and Operating Costs

CASSAVA CHIPPER AND DRYING FLOOR

Construction of a cassava chipping machine, powered by a 3-hp

gasoline engine, and of a 100 m2 concrete drying floor or
bamboo trays and frames for drying cassava.

COUNTRY: Colombia

NOTE: These data are intended as representative only and are unique
to the time, country and circumstance of the identified
investment. Their applicability to other situations may vary
considerably.
US$ '000
Total
(1977 prices)
I. Investment Costs

Cassava Chipping Machine 220.00

3-hp Gasoline Engine 180.00
Total 400.00

Concrete Drying Floor - 100 m2

cement (forty 50 kg sack) 60.00

sand (5 m3) 15.00
gravel (10 m3) 41.00
black pigment (20 kg) 28.00
wood boards (30) 33.00
Total Concrete Drying Floor 177.00

Bamboo Trays and Frame

(60 trays at 1.85 x 0.90 x

0.025 m/tray)
wood (42 boards) 113.40
one inch chicken wire 60.50
(3.2 0.90 x 36m rolls)
mosquito netting (plastic) 43.70
* (3.8 30 x 0.90 m rolls)
nails (10 kg) 8.20
bamboo (255 m) 35.70
Total Bamboo Trays and Frame 261.50

DATA SOURCE: Rupert Best, Cassava Drying, Cassava Information

Center, Centro Internacional de Agricultura
Tropical, Cali, Colombia, 1977.
NOTES:
1. Data are net of contingencies.
2. Operating costs information is not available.
3. Foreign/local cost breakdown is not available.
I I

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ANNEX II:

CONVERSION TABLES

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 METRIC SYSTEM

Square kilometer sq km or km2 ;

1,000,000 square meters;
0.3861 square mile.
Hectare ha;
10,000 square meters;
2.47 acres.
Hectoliter hl;
100 liters; 3.53 cubic feet; 2.84 bushels;
Liter 1;
1 liter; 61.02 cubic inches; 0.908 quart
(dry); 1.057 quarts (liquid).
Deciliter dl;
0.10 liters; 6.1 cubic inchs; 0.18 pint
(dry); 0.21 pint (liquid).
Centiliter cl;
0.01 liters; 0.6 cubic inch; 0.338
fluidounce.
Metric ton MT or t;
1,000,000 grams; 1.1 US tons.
Quintal q;
100,000 grams; 220.46 US pounds.
Kilogram kg;
1,000 grams; 2.2046 US pounds.
Gram g or gm;
1 gram; 0.035 ounce.

f.

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 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

avoirdupois
Ton: short ton 20 short hundredweight, 2000 pounds;
0.907 metric tons;
long ton 20 long hundredweight, 2240 pounds;
1.016 metric tons.
Hundredweight cwt;
short hundredweight 100 pounds, 0.05 short tons; 45.359
kilograms;
long hundred weight 112 pounds, 0.05 long tons; 50.802
kilograms.
Pound lb or lb av; also *;
16 ounces, 7000 grains; 0.453 kilograms.
Ounce oz or oz av;
16 drams, 437.5 grains; 28.349 grams.
Dram dr or dr av;
27.343 grains, 0.0625 ounces; 1.771 grams.
Grain gr;
0.036 drams, 0.002285 ounces; 0.0648 grams.

Trov
Pound lb t;
12 ounces, 240 pennyweight, 5760 grains; 0.373
kilograms.
Ounce oz t;
20 pennyweight, 480 grains; 31.103 grams.
Pennyweight dwt also pwt;
24 grains, 0.05 ounces; 1.555 grams.
Grain gr;
0.042 pennyweight, 0.002083 ounces; 0.0648 grams.
 g~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

a4

ANNEX III:

TOXIC SUBSTANCES IN CASSAVA AND PROCESSED

CASSAVA PRODUCTS

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 When the cells of cassava roots are ruptured, an enzyme is
released which converts glycocides, which also occur in the
cells, into hydrocyanic acid (also known as prussic acid).
Although this is potentially fatal, raw roots are seldom eaten
due to the bitterness of the hydrocyanic acid and the general
unpalatability of raw cassava. If normal preparation methods
involving high temperatures are used in cooking, the hydrocyanic
acid is driven off leaving the food safe for consumption.
However, in areas where large amounts of cassava are consumed on
a regular basis, small regular intake of hydrocyanic acid can
result in chronic cyanide toxicity.
The problem is accentuated if the diet is deficient in iodine and
protein, especially animal protein, as the body requires both
iodine and sulphur (from sulphur-bearing amino acids) to detoxify
cyanide in the bloodstream. Chronic cyanide toxicity is linked
with goiter in women and neurological disorders in children.
Additional iodine in the diet and a proper balanced diet is
sufficient to overcome the problem in high-risk areas.
Most processed cassava products have been roasted or boiled
adequately. However, some of the meals made from sun-dried
cassava, which has not been soaked, may represent a health
hazard, especially if it is not cooked throoughly before eating.
Sun drying is sufficient to drive off any free hydrocyanic acid
in the chips at the time of drying. It does not denature the
enzymes responsible for the release of the acid, and so the
reaction can continue once the dried -cassava is moistened either
prior to cooking or in the stomach.

4.,

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