NAME : LESTER M.

LAZO
SUBJECT/COURSE : EA 511/TD 512
CASE STUDY NO. 1 : A CASE STUDY ON HOW TO PREVENT CRACKING IN CONCRETE

I. INTRODUCTION
Cracking is usually the first sign of distress in concrete. It is, however, possible for
deteriora�on to exist before cracks appear. Cracking can occur in both hardened and fresh, or
plas�c concrete because of volume changes and repeated loading. The purpose of this study is to
prevent and avoid cracking in concrete.

II. BACKGROUND
Concrete is one of the most used, most durable, and most las�ng products used in
construc�on which we will find around us. It is an ideal material for construc�on, whether you are
building the founda�on of an apartment building or an outdoor pool. One drawback of concrete
is that it tends to crack. Cracking occurs in the concrete when the force exceeds its maximum
tensile strength. It is important to understand the reason why cracking occurs, the type of cracks
formed, cracks affect structural stability to understand how to take an appropriate ac�on for this.

III. EVALUATION OF THE CASE

There are different types of concrete cracks and their possible causes. Crack status is
important, ac�ve cracks may require complex repair procedures that may include elimina�ng the
casual cause of cracking to ensure a successful long-term repair. A crack’s environmental
condi�ons influence the extent to which it affects its structure’s integrity. Greater exposure to
aggressive condi�ons increases the possibility of structural instability.

Summary of different types of concrete cracks and their possible causes:

1. FORMWORK MOVEMENT
Lack of aten�on to the formwork of the ground condi�on when concrete pours into
the ground causes the cracking. It is also the responsibility of the consultant to make sure the
condi�ons of the support are acceptable to proceed with the concrete. Formwork shall be
checked before the concre�ng and during the concre�ng for knowing whether there is a risk
of movement of formworks.

2. SUBGRADE MOVEMENT
Ground condi�ons shall be checked and should be verified with the necessary test to
know it can bear the load of the concrete without movements affec�ng the concrete
hardening. Concrete has a much higher density and therefore, it exerts a very high weight.

3. PLASTIC SHRINKAGE
Plas�c shrinkage cracks form due to rapid early drying and a low rate of bleeding while
the concrete is s�ll plas�c (not set). Plas�c shrinkage occurs mainly in concrete elements with
a high surface to volume rate, such as slabs and pavements. Air and concrete temperature,
wind speed, the warming and drying ac�on and rela�ve humidity all play an important role in
the rate of moisture evapora�on from se�ng concrete. Plas�c shrinkage cracking occurs when
the rate of evapora�on from the surface exceeds the rate at which moisture is being supplied
to it (via bleeding from the concrete).

4. PLASTIC SETTLEMENT
Plas�c setlement cracks form while the concrete is s�ll plas�c, during the ini�al
se�ng of concrete. At this �me, bleed water is s�ll rising, and it covers the surface while the
aggregate and cement setle under the force of gravity. This separa�on forms a weaker layer
of concrete near the surface. These types of cracks occur on the surface before the concrete
has set. Plas�c setlement cracks are typically mirroring the patern of the restraining elements
such as reinforcements. Plas�c setlement cracks are o�en iden�fied in deep sec�on pours,
such as on top of beams and columns. Waffle slabs – where there are changes of depths – are
also prone to plas�c setlement cracks.

5. AUTONOMOUS SHRINKAGE
Autonomous shrinkage is a volume change resul�ng when there is no moisture
transfer to the surrounding environment. It is most prominent in high strength, or high-
performance concrete where the water-to-cement ra�o is under approximately 0.42.

6. PREMATURE FREEZING
Freezing of freshly mixed concrete can be very harmful. It can disrupt the mass and
permanently impair the strength and effec�veness of the air-void system.

7. SCALING, CRAZING
Crazing describes the very fine cracks which appear on the surface of concrete a�er it
has been exposed to the atmosphere for some �me. The cracks are so shallow that they do
not affect the structural integrity of the concrete and in themselves, should not lead to
subsequent deteriora�on of the concrete. It occurs in the floated or trowelled surface layers
of the concrete slabs. It occurs as the concrete surface expands and shrinks during alternate
cycles of we�ng and drying, or as it carbonates and shrinks during long exposure to the air.

8. DRYING SHRINKAGE
The most common loca�ons where long-term drying shrinkages occur are in thin floor
slabs and walls, typically along an ineffec�ve joint. Long-term shrinkage in concrete depends
on number of factors, e.g. Cement and water content, size of aggregates and aggregate-
cement ra�o, spacing of reinforcement steel, excessive fines, use of admixtures, composi�on
of cement, temperature, humidity and inefficient curing. The primary cause of long-term
drying shrinkage is due to inefficient joints.

9. THERMAL CHANGE
The temperature varia�on in concrete results in the differen�al volume change. When
the tensile strain capacity of concrete exceeds due to the differen�al volume change, it will
crack.

10. CREEP
Creep of concrete is a kind of deforma�on which occurs because of sustained loading.
It is important to study the creep because it can have a significant impact on the structural
integrity, durability, and safety structures. The study of creep can help engineers and architects
design, construct and maintain structures that are safe, sustainable, and durable.

11. DESIGN LOAD/OVERLOAD

Construc�on and structural overloads-concretes are subjected to stresses that
overload the structures. If these stresses occur in the concrete’s early stages, they may result
in permanent cracks.

12. DESIGN/SUBGRADE
Errors in design and detailing such as an inadequate amount of reinforcement,
improper design of founda�on, precast members and slabs, improper selec�on of materials,
lack of sufficient contrac�on joints etc. may result in excessive cracking.

13. FATIGUE
Concrete fa�gue refers to the phenomenon of rupture under repeated loadings, each
of which is smaller than a single sta�c load that exceeds the strength of the material. Fa�gue
is exhibited when a material fails under stress applied by direct tension or compression,
torsion, bending, or a combina�on of these ac�ons.
14. AAR/ASR/DEF
Alkali–Aggregate Reac�on refers to a destruc�ve expansion reac�on within the
concrete which occurs over a long period of �me (more than 5 years) in concrete. There are
three condi�ons that all must be present to promote AAR, and those are: Reac�ve silica in the
aggregate, significant alkalinity, and moisture. Alkali-Aggregate Reac�on (AAR) has two forms:
Alkali-Silica Reac�on (ASR) & Alkali-Carbonate Reac�on (ACR). ASR is the most common form
of Alkali-Aggregate Reac�on (AAR) in concrete.

Alkali-Carbonate Reac�on (ACR)

Alkali-Carbonate Reac�on (ACR) is a very rare occurrence in concrete. When Alkali-
Carbonate Reac�on (ACR) does occur in concrete, it is due to the result of recrystalliza�on of
dolomite rock or dolomi�c limestone, which are associated with expansion causing the
concrete to deteriorate. The use of aggregates of certain dolomi�c rocks is normally avoided
due to it being unsuitable as aggregate in concrete for other reasons than alkali-carbonate
reac�on.

Alkali-Silica Reac�on (ASR)

Some aggregates that contain silica in a glassy form (non-crystalline silicon dioxide)
react with the alkali hydroxides present in concrete. When non-crystalline silicon dioxide
(which originate mainly from the Portland Cement) reacts with alkali hydroxide in the concrete
or alkalis present in the environment such as sea spray or groundwater, the reac�on forms an
alkali-silicate gel that swells as it absorbs moisture from the surrounding cement pore solu�on
in the concrete or from the environment. Over �me, the expansion of the gel causes the
concrete to crack. This expansion process may take from 5 – 20 years before cracking
eventually leads to failure of the concrete structure.

15. STEEL CORROSION

Corrosion of steel results in the forma�on of iron oxides and hydroxides, which have
a much larger volume than the original metallic iron. High radial burs�ng stresses around
reinforcing bars result in local radial cracks because of the increase in volume. Spli�ng cracks
can spread along the bar, causing longitudinal cracks or concrete spalling. Delamina�on, a well-
known problem in bridge decks, can also occur when a broad crack forms at a plane of bars
parallel to the concrete surface. Minor spli�ng cracks provide easy access for oxygen,
moisture, and chlorides, accelera�ng corrosion and cracking.

16. FREEZE-THAW CYCLING

The freeze-thaw cycle is a major cause of damage to construc�on materials such as
concrete and brick assemblies. Freeze-thaw damage occurs when water fills the voids of a
rigid, porous material and then freezes and expands. The volume of frozen water is 9% greater
than liquid water, so when water freezes pressure is exerted on the surrounding material, and
when the pressure exceeds the tensile strength of the material, cracks will result. During this
process, the voids are enlarged, enabling the accumula�on of addi�onal water during the next
thaw; this results in addi�onal cracking during the next freeze. Substan�al damage can occur
over subsequent freeze-thaw cycles.
IV. PROPOSE SOLUTION/CHANGES
There are many ways to prevent cracking on concrete, one of the primary solu�ons is the
proper concrete mix design, correct water cement ra�o and the use of quality materials. The
concrete itself must be properly propor�oned, and properly mixed. Hard dense aggregates so will
produce lower shrinkage concrete. Hard dense aggregates, using a large top size aggregates can
reduce the shrinkage of concrete. If aggregates are poor quality, maximizing the size, grada�on,
and content may have litle effect on the concrete shrinkage. A lower water ra�o leads to high
strength in concrete and lesser cracks. Less water content increases the durability of concrete.
Avoid the use of shrinkage promo�ng admixtures (such as accelerators, dirty aggregate which
increases water demand and using a cement with high shrinkage characteris�cs).
Chemical reac�ons of the cement be minimized by avoiding the use of high alkali cements that
could cause expansion of cement due to the alkali-silica reac�on while the corrosion of reinforcing
bars will be prevented/minimized by protec�ng the reinforcing bars from oxides and hydroxide.
In terms of construc�on prac�ces, it is important to ensure the correct design of the concrete
to avoid cracking due to overloads and everyone must aware the limit of loads of the concrete. It
is also important to orient the workers regarding with the correct construc�on procedure.

V. RECOMMENDATION
It is not possible to prevent cracks completely in concrete. However, cracks can be minimized
by adap�ng good concrete prac�ces. Some of guidelines to prevent or minimize cracking are as
follows:
1. FORMWORK MOVEMENT
All formwork for concrete must be built and braced so that it can tolerate the high pressure of
the concrete without movement. Vapor retarders which are used directly under a concrete slab
increase bleeding and significantly increase the cracking poten�al, especially with concrete high
in slump. If a vapor retarder is used, it should be covered with 3 to 4 inches of a compac�ble
granular fill to reduce bleeding of concrete. In cri�cal drying condi�ons, it is good prac�ce to
dampen up the formwork and reinforcement to avoid cracks.
2. SUBGRADE MOVEMENT
A properly compacted subgrade (the ground beneath where the cement is being poured) is
important for preven�ng cracks occurring in concrete. A careful inspec�on of the subgrade, as
well as an evalua�on of the climate in which the cement is being poured, is essen�al in
preven�ng cracks forming.

3. PLASTIC SHRINKAGE
In pre-hardened concrete: While the concrete is s�ll plas�c, the surface can be worked with
surface vibrators to close the cracks whilst ensuring that the concrete re-liquifies so that the
cracks close fully.
In hardened concrete: Where they are of concern for water�ghtness and/or protec�on of
the reinforcement steel, or the cracks are 2 mm or wider, the cracks should be filled with a
suitable proprietary filler. The cracks may be v-cut with a concrete crack chaser and filled with
suitable material.
4. PLASTIC SETTLEMENT
In pre-hardened concrete: Re-vibra�on or mechanical re-trowelling of the surface are the
most effec�ve methods of repair – closing the cracks shortly a�er they have formed.
In hardened concrete: Cracks may be v-cut with a concrete crack chaser and filled with suitable
material. This is the best method to help improve the durability of the surface and prevent a
corrosive environment developing around the reinforcement. Depending on the depth and/or
width of the crack, certain concrete cracks may best be repaired by targeted injec�on of
appropriate material tailored to the individual crack’s diagnosis, followed by a suitable protec�ve
concrete coa�ng.

5. SCALING, CRAZING
A protec�ve coa�ng such as epoxy, dry-look “invisible” penetra�ve water repellent coa�ng or
other types of high-performance re-surfacing products can be applied to rec�fy the appearance
of the concrete surface and help enhance the service life.

6. DRYING SHRINKAGE
Keep the total water content of the concrete mixture as low as prac�cable for the intended
applica�on. This can be achieved by using a high content of hard, rigid aggregates that are free of
clay coa�ng, and by using mid-range or high-range water reducing admixtures.

7. THERMAL CHANGE
Reduce heat of hydra�on by op�mizing the cemen��ous materials using supplementary
cemen��ous materials like fly ash or slag or using Portland cement that generates a lower heat
hydra�on.

8. CREEP
• Do not provide brickwork over a flexural RCC member (beam or slab) before removal of
centering and allow a �me interval of at least 2 weeks between removal of centering and
construc�on of par��on or panel wall over it.
• When brick masonry is to be laid abu�ng an RCC column, defer brickwork as much as
possible.
• When RCC and brickwork occur in combina�on and are to be plastered over, allow
sufficient �me (at least one month) to RCC and brickwork to undergo ini�al shrinkage and
creep before taking up plaster work.
• A panel walls in RCC framed structures: (i) as far as possible, all frameworks should be
completed before taking up masonry work of cladding and par��ons which should be
started from top storey downward. (ii) Provide horizontal movement joint between the
top of brick panel and soffit of beams.
• Par��ons supported on floor slab or beam :( i) Provide upward camber in floor slab/beam
to counteract deflec�on. (ii) Defer construc�on of par��ons and plaster work as much as
possible (iii) Provide horizontal expansion joints between the top of masonry and soffit of
 beam/slab, filling the gaps with some mas�c compound.

9. DESIGN LOAD/OVERLOAD
• Adequate curing of concrete.
• Proper maintenance of concrete, par�cularly in harsh weather.
• Avoid con�nuous overloading of concrete.
10. DESIGN/SUBGRADE
It is important to ensure that the design and detailing are specific to the par�cular structure
and the loads to which it will be exposed.

11. AAR/ASR/DEF
Once AAR has started, it is very difficult to stop whilst moisture is still present. Very few
methods are available to mitigate further damage in concrete structures already affected by
ASR-induced expansion and cracking, but there are some methods that have shown some
success in slowing down the ongoing ASR.

To help prolong the service life of the concrete structure and to slow down the effects of ASR
we recommend the following methods:
• Repair existing cracks to minimize future expansion and avoid ingress of moisture.
• Seal leaks
• Apply appropriate waterproofing sealer or coating to limit water ingress and to help
reduce the internal humidity of the concrete structure and thereby reducing the
expansion of the structure elements.
• Provide effective drainage.
• Repair or replace ASR affected concrete and affected structure where appropriate.
• Application of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) composite has shown some
promising effects on structural strengthening ASR damaged concrete. (Ref. studies
carried out by USQ University of South Queensland)
• Estimate the cost of repair and compare with estimated remaining service life after
repair is recommended.

VI. REFERENCES
a. Online Source
b. Evalua�ng Cracking in Concrete: Procedures – Giatec Scien�fic Inc. (August 17, 2019)
c. The Constructor Building Ideas
d. Waterstop Solu�ons Quality Service, Quality Solu�ons
e. Civil Engineering Portal
f. ACI – American Concrete Ins�tute
g. Eigenplus website
h. Daily Civil website
i. CEM Solu�ons website
j. Interna�onal Journal for Research in Applied Science & Engineering Technology (IJRASET)