Durability of Concrete Structures

A long service life is considered synonymous with durability. Since

durability under one set of conditions does not necessarily mean durability
under another, it is customary to include a general reference to the
environment when defining durability. According to ACI Committee,
durability of Portland cement concrete is defined as its ability to resist
weathering action, chemical attack, abrasion, or any other process of
deterioration; that is, durable concrete will retain its original form, quality,
and serviceability when exposed to its environment. No material is inherently
durable; as a result of environmental interactions the microstructure and,
consequently, the properties of materials change with time. A material is
assumed to reach the end of service life when its properties under given
conditions of use have deteriorated to an extent that the continuing use of the
material is ruled either unsafe or uneconomical.
The durability of a structure is its ability to serve its intended purposes for a
sufficiently long period of time, or at least during its expected service life.
However, although a durable structure is expected to serve without
deterioration to the extent that major repair is required before expiry of its
design life, it must not be presumed that durability is a substitution for good
maintenance. Even for a structure that has been designed and constructed to a
high durability standard, regular inspection androutine maintenance to restore
the fitness for purpose of the structure are needed. Hence, when we come to
the durability design of a structure, we must bear in mind the future need for
maintenance and take into account the cost of maintenance in the life cycle
cost analysis of the structure.
A reinforced concrete structure may deteriorate because of deterioration of
the concrete itself or because of corrosion of the steel reinforcing bars inside
the concrete. Common causes of the deterioration of concrete include alkali-
aggregate reaction, chemical attack, freezing and thawing action, abrasion
and fire. There is often the misunderstanding that carbonation and chloride
attack would cause deterioration of concrete. In actual fact, carbonation and
chloride attack would not cause any harm tothe concrete itself; they mainly
cause de-passivation of the steel in concrete, which then leads to steel
corrosion. Deterioration of concrete is not a common problem. In most cases,
if there is any problem with the durability of a concrete structure, it is the
corrosion of the steel reinforcing bars that is most likely to be the major
cause.

Concrete will remain durable if:

 The cement paste structure is dense and of low permeability

 Under extreme condition, it has entrained air to resist freeze-thaw
cycle.
 It is made with graded aggregate that are strong and inert
 The ingredients in the mix contain minimum impurities such as
alkalis, Chlorides, sulphates and silt.

Factors affecting durability of concrete

Durability of Concrete depends upon the following factors

Cement content

Mix must be designed to ensure cohesion and prevent segregation and

bleeding. If cement is reduced, then at fixed w/c ratio the workability will be
reduced leading to inadequate compaction. However, if water is added to
improve workability, water / cement ratio increases and resulting in highly
permeable material.

Compaction

The concrete as a whole contain voids can be caused by inadequate

compaction. Usually it is being governed by the compaction equipments
used, type of formworks, and density of the steelwork

Curing

It is very important to permit proper strength development aid moisture

retention and to ensure hydration process occur completely

Cover

Thickness of concrete cover must follow the limits set in codes

Permeability

It is considered the most important factor for durability. It can be noticed that
higher permeability is usually caused by higher porosity. Therefore, a proper
curing, sufficient cement, proper compaction and suitable concrete cover
could provide a low permeability concrete

There are many types but the major ones are:

1. Physical durability of concrete

2. Chemical durability of concrete

Physical Durability

Physical durability is against the following actions

1. Freezing and thawing action

2. Percolation / Permeability of water
3. Temperature stresses i.e. high heat of hydration
Chemical Durability

Chemical durability is against the following actions

1. Alkali Aggregate Reaction

2. Sulphate Attack
3. Chloride Ingress
4. Delay Ettringite Formation
5. Corrosion of reinforcement

Permeability
Permeability is the ease with which liquids or gases can travel through
concrete
The coefficient of permeability, K, of concrete (simply called as
“permeability” in concrete technology) for steady-state flow of water through
a sample of concrete is determined from Darcy’s expression:

dq/dt = K (A . ∆h/L), Where

dq/dt = rate of flow of water through the sample

A = cross-sectional area of the sample
∆h = drop in hydraulic head through the sample
L = thickness of the sample
The relation between permeability and water-cement ratio is shown in the
Figure 1.
 Fig. 1 Variation of permeability with water-cement ratio
Chemical Action
When dealing with the durability of concrete, chemical attack which results
in volume change, cracking of concrete and the consequent deterioration of
concrete becomes an important part of discussion.
Sulphate attack, alkali-aggregate reaction, carbonation, deicing effect of salt,
acid attack and effect of sea water comes under chemical attack.

Sulphate Attack
Soils contain sulphate in the form of calcium, sodium, potassium and
magnesium. They occur in soil or ground water. Because solubility of
calcium sulphate is low; ground waters contain more of other sulphates and
less of calcium sulphate. Ammonium sulphate is present in agricultural soil
and water from the use of fertilizers or from sewage and industrial effluents.
Decay of organic matters leads to the formation of H2S, which can be
transformed into sulphuric acid by bacterial action.
Water used in concrete cooling towers can also be a potential source of
sulphate attack on concrete. Therefore sulphate attack is a common
occurrence in natural or industrial situations.
Solid sulphates do not attack the concrete severely but when the chemicals
are in solution, they find entry into porous concrete and react with the
hydrated cement products.
Of all the sulphates, magnesium sulphate causes maximum damage to
concrete. A characteristic whitish appearance is the indication of sulphate
attack. The term sulphate attack denote an increase in the volume of cement
paste in concrete or mortar due to the chemical action between the products
of hydration of cement and solution containing sulphates.

Alkali aggregate reactions (AAR) occur when aggregates in concrete react

with the alkali hydroxides in concrete producing a hygroscopic gel which, in
the presence of moisture, absorbs water and causes expansion and cracking
over a period of many years.
This alkali-aggregate reaction has two forms, namely: Alkali-silica
reaction (ASR) and Alkali-carbonate reaction (ACR).
The former is of higher concern since aggregates containing various forms of
silica materials are very common whereas the latter occurs rarely because of
the unsuitability of carbonates for use in concrete.

Nonetheless, concrete deterioration caused by each type of alkali-aggregate

reaction is similar. It should be known that no structure has ever collapsed
due to alkali-aggregate reactions, but there are cases in which structural
concrete members demolished due to the effect of alkali-aggregate reactions.
Most of the structures severely cracked by AAR are exposed to the weather
or are in contact with damp soil. This is because- for a significant amount of
expansion to occur, sufficient presence of moisture is essential. Apart from
moisture, high content of alkali in the concrete is also essential.

Types of Alkali Aggregate Reaction

Alkali-silica reaction (ASR)

 Random map cracking and closed joints and attendant spalling concrete
are indicators of alkali-silica reactions.
 Petrographic examination can identify alkali-silica reactions.
 It occurs broadly because aggregates containing reactive silica materials
are more common.
 Alkali-silica reaction generates enough expansive pressure to damage
concrete.
 Cracking initiates in areas with a frequent supply of moisture, such as
close to the waterline in piers, near the ground behind retaining walls, or
in piers or columns subject to wicking action.
 It can be controlled using proper portions of supplementary cementitious
materials like silica fume, fly ash, and ground granulated blast-furnace
slag.
 Lithium compounds can be used to decrease alkali-silica reactions.
Alkali-carbonate reaction (ACR)
 It is observed with certain dolomitic rocks.

 It may cause considerable expansion.

 Compare to alkali-silica reactions, ACR is fairly rare because
aggregates susceptible to this phenomenon are less common.
 The use of supplementary cementing materials does not prevent
deleterious expansion due to ACR.
 So, it is recommended that ACR susceptible aggregates not be used in
concrete.

EXTENSIBILITY AND CRACKING

As stated earlier, the primary significance of deformations caused by applied
stress and by thermal and moisture-related effects in concrete is whether or
not their interaction would lead to cracking. Thus the magnitude of the
shrinkage strain is only one of the factors governing the cracking of concrete.
The other factors are:
Modulus of elasticity. The lower the modulus of elasticity, the lower will be
the amount of the induced elastic tensile stress for a given magnitude of
shrinkage.
Creep. The higher the creep, the higher is the amount of stress relaxation and
lower the net tensile stress.
Tensile strength. The higher the tensile strength, the lower is the risk that the
tensile stress will exceed the strength and crack the material.
The combination of factors that are desirable to reduce the advent of cracking
in concrete can be described by a single term called extensibility. Concrete is
said to have a high degree of extensibility when it can be subjected to large
deformations without cracking.
Obviously, for a minimum risk of cracking, the concrete should undergo not
only less shrinkage but also should have a high degree of extensibility (i.e.,
low elastic modulus, high creep, and high tensile strength).
In general, high strength concretes are more prone to cracking because of
greater shrinkage and lower creep; on the other hand, low strength concretes
tend to crack less, probably because of lower shrinkage and higher creep
SORPTIVITY
Sorption occurs when water is drawn through the interior of the concrete
by capillary forces. These arise from the surface tension of the liquid in
contact with the walls of the concrete’s capillary pore network.
Sorptivity is defined as the rate of movement of a wetting front through a
porous material. The water sorptivity test involves the uni-directional
absorption of water into one face of a pre-conditioned concrete disc
sample. At predetermined time intervals, the sample is weighed to
determine the mass of water absorbed, and the sorptivity is determined
from the plot of mass of water absorbed versus square root of time. The
lower the water sorptivity index, the better is the potential durability of
the concrete. Sorptivity values typically vary from approximately 5
mm/√h, for well-cured M30-M50 concretes, to 15 – 20 mm/√h for poorly
cured M20 concrete. A diagram of the test is shown in figure below