Sec. 4-2 Torque and Deflection of The Galvanometer

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CHAPTER 4 Sec.

4-2 Torque and Deflection of the Galvanometer 51


Figure 4-1 Early suspension galvanometer
ELECTROMECHANICAL (courtesy Weston Instruments, Inc.).

INDICATING
INSTRUMENTS
MIRROR

MOVING
COIL

MAGNET SUSPENSI
ON

4-1 SUSPENSION GALVANOMETER

Early measurements of direct current required a suspension galvanometer. This


instrument was the forerunner of the moving-coil instrument, basic to most dc
indicating movements currently used. Figure 4-1 shows the construction of a
suspension galvanometer.
A coil of fine wire is suspended in a magnetic field produced by a permanent
magnet. According to the fundamental law of electromagnetic force, the coil
will rotate in the magnetic field when it carries an electric current. The fine
filament suspension of the coil serves to carry current to and from it, and the
elasticity of the filament sets up a moderate torque in opposition to the rotation of
the coil. The coil will continue to deflect until its electromagnetic torque
balances the mechanical counter torque of the suspension. The coil deflection
therefore is a measure of the magnitude of the current carried by the coil. A
mirror attached to the coil deflects a beam of light, causing a magnified light
spot to move on a scale at some distance from the instrument. The optical effect is
that of a pointer of great length but zero mass.
With modern refinements, the suspension galvanometer is still used in
certain high-sensitivity laboratory measurements when the delicacy of the in-
strument is not objectionable and portability is not required.

4-2 TORQUE AND DEFLECTION OF THE GALVANOMETER


Here again we have a coil, suspended in the magnetic field of a permanent
4-2.1 Steady-state Deflection magnet, this time in the shape of a horseshoe. The coil is suspended so that it
can rotate freely in the magnetic field. When current flows in the coil, the
Although the suspension galvanometer is neither a practical nor portable developed electromagnetic (EM) torque causes the coil to rotate. The EM torque is
instrument, the principles governing its operation apply equally to its more counterbalanced by the mechanical torque of control springs attached to the
modern version, the permanent-magnet moving-coil mechanism (PMMC). Figure 4-2 movable coil. The balance of torques, and therefore the angular position of the
shows the construction of the PMMC mechanism. The different parts of the movable coil, is indicated by a pointer against a fixed reference, called a scale.
instrument are identified alongside the figure.
50
52 Electromechanical Indicating Instruments Chap. 4 Nwc 4-2 Torque and Deflection of the Galvanometer 53
HORSESHOE MAGNET l\ill-sculc deflection of 100 degrees of arc, would have the following character-
ZERO POSITION CONTROL istics:
POINTER
A = 1.75 cm2
CONTROL SPRING x
COUNTER WEIGHT B = 2,000 G (0.2 tesla)
x*"

X3 N = 84 turns
POLE SHOE
T = 2.92 X 10~6 N-m
COIL Coil resistance = 88 ft
Power dissipation = 88 jnW

4-2.2 Dynamic Behavior


Figure 4-2 Construction details of the external magnet PMMC movement (courtesy
Weston Instruments, Inc.). In Sec. 4-2.1 we considered the galvanometer as a simple indicating in-
strument in which the deflection of the pointer is directly proportional to the
magnitude of the current applied to the coil. This is perfectly satisfactory when
The equation for the developed torque, derived from the basic law for we are dealing with a steady-state condition in which we are mainly interested in
electromagnetic torque, is obtaining a reliable reading of a direct current. In some applications, however, I lie
T = B X A X I X N (4-1) dynamic behavior of the galvanometer (such as speed of response, damping,
overshoot) can be important. For example, when an alternating or varying
where T = torque, newton-meter (N-m) current is applied to a recording galvanometer, the written record produced by I
B = flux density in the air gap, webers/square meter (tesla) A = he motion of the moving coil includes the response characteristics of the moving
element itself and it is therefore important to consider its dynamic behavior.
effective coil area, square meters (m2) / = current in the movable The dynamic behavior of the galvanometer can be observed by suddenly
coil, amperes (A) N = turns of wire on the coil interrupting the applied current, so that the coil swings back from its deflected
position toward the zero position. It will be seen that as a result of inertia of 1
Equation (4-1) shows that the developed torque is directly proportional to he moving system the pointer swings past the zero mark in the opposite direction, and
the flux density of the field in which the coil rotates, the current in the coil, and then oscillates back and forth around zero. These oscillations gradually die down
the coil constants (area and turns). Since both flux density and coil area are as a result of the damping of the moving element, and the pointer will finally
fixed parameters for a given instrument, the developed torque is a direct come to rest at zero.
indication of the current in the coil. This torque causes the pointer to deflect to The motion of a moving coil in a magnetic field is characterized by three
a steady-state position where it is balanced by the opposing control-spring quantities:
torque.
Equation (4-1) also shows that the designer may vary only the value of (a) The moment of inertia (/) of the moving coil about its axis of rotation
the control torque and the number of turns on the moving coil to measure a
given full-scale current. The practical coil area generally ranges from approxi- (b) The opposing torque (S) developed by the coil suspension
mately 0.5 to 2.5 cm2. Flux densities for modern instruments usually range from (c) The damping constant (Z>)
1,500 to 5,000 gauss (0.15 to 0.5 tesla). Thus a wide choice of mechanisms is
available to the designer to meet many different measurement applications. The differential equation that relates these three factors yields three possible
A typical panel PMMC instrument, with a 3y-in. case, a 1-mA range, and solutions, each of which describes the dynamic behavior of the coil in terms of
its deflection angle 0. The three types of behavior are shown in the curves of
Fig. 4-3 and are known as overdamped, underdamped, and critically damped.
54 Eloctromochanical Indicating Instruments Chap. 4 ] Hue, 4-3 Permanent-Magnet Moving Coil Mechanism (PMMC) 55
Galvanometer moving coil as it rotates in the magnetic field, provided that the coil forms part of
Deflection ( 9 ) Curve I ™ Overdamping
Curve II - Underdamping Curve a closed electrical circuit.
IH - Critical Damping PMMC instruments are generally constructed to produce as little viscous
(lamping as possible and the required degree of damping is added. One of the
simplest damping mechanisms is provided by an aluminum vane, attached to
t h e shaft of the moving coil. As the coil rotates, the vane moves in an air
rhamber. The amount of clearance between the chamber walls and the air vane
Hlectively controls the degree of damping.
Some instruments use the principle of electromagnetic damping (Lenz's
Time (t)
law), where the movable coil is wound on a light aluminum frame. The rotation of
the coil in the magnetic field sets up circulating currents in the conductive metal
frame, causing a retarding torque that opposes the motion of the coil. Indeed,
the same principle is often used to protect PMMC instruments during shipment
by placing a metal shorting strap across the coil terminals to reduce deflection.
A galvanometer may also be damped by connecting a resistor across the
coil. When the coil rotates in the magnetic field, a voltage is generated in the
Figure 4-3 Dynamic behavior of a galvanometer. coil which circulates a current through the coil and the external resistor. This
produces an opposing, or retarding, torque that damps the motion of the move-
Curve I of Fig. 4-3 shows the overdamped case in which the coil returns slowly to ment. For any galvanometer, a value for the external resistor can be found that
its rest position, without overshoot or oscillations. The pointer seems to produces critical damping. This resistance is called the Critical Damping Re-
approach the steady-state position in a sluggish manner. This case is of minor sistance External (CRDX); it is an important galvanometer constant. The dy-
interest because we prefer to operate under the conditions of curve II or curve III namic damping torque produced by the CDRX depends on the total circuit
for most applications. Curve II of Fig. 4-3 shows the underdamped case in resistance: the smaller the total circuit resistance, the larger the damping torque.
which the motion of the coil is subject to damped sinusoidal oscillations. The One way to determine the CDRX consists of observing the galvanometer
rate at which these oscillations die away is determined by the damping constant swing when a current is applied or removed from the coil. Beginning with the
CD), the moment of inertia (/), and the countertorque (S) produced by the coil oscillating condition, decreasing values of external resistances are tried until a
suspension. Curve III of Fig. 4-3 shows the critically damped case in which the value is found for which the overshoot just disappears. A determination like
pointer returns promptly to its steady-state position, without oscillations. this is not very precise, but it is adequate for most practical purposes. The value of
Ideally, the galvanometer response should be such that the pointer travels to the CDRX may also be computed from known galvanometer constants.
its final position without overshoot; hence, the movement should be critically
damped. In practice, the galvanometer is usually slightly underdamped, causing
the pointer to overshoot a little before coming to rest. This method is perhaps
less direct than critical damping, but it assures the user that the movement has 4-3 PERMANENT-MAGNET MOVING-COIL MECHANISM
not been damaged because of rough handling, and it compensates for any ad- (PMMC)
ditional friction that may develop in time because of dust or wear.
4-3.1 D'Arsonval Movement
4-2.3 Damping Mechanisms
The basic PMMC movement of Fig. 4-2 is often called the d'Arsonval
Galvanometer damping is provided by two mechanisms: mechanical and movement, after its inventor. This design offers the largest magnet in a given
electromagnetic. Mechanical damping is caused mainly by the motion of the space and is used when maximum flux in the air gap is required. It provides an
coil through the air surrounding it; it is independent of any electrical current instrument with very low power consumption and low current required for full-
through the coil. Friction of the movement in its bearings and flexing of the scale deflection (fsd). Figure 4-4 shows a phantom view of the d'Arsonval move-
suspension springs caused by the rotating coil also contribute to the mechanical ment.
damping effects. Electromagnetic damping is caused by induced effects in the
66 Electromechanical Indicating Instruments Chap. 4 lea 4-3 Permanent-Magnet Moving Coil Mechanism (PMMC)
57
Inspection of the photograph of Fig. 4-4 shows a permanent magnet of
horseshoe form, with soft iron pole pieces attached to it. Between the pole pieces is a
cylinder of soft iron, which serves to provide a uniform magnetic field in the air
gap between the pole pieces and the cylinder. The coil is wound on a light metal
frame and is mounted so that it can rotate freely in the air gap. The pointer,
attached to the coil, moves over a graduated scale and indicates the angular
deflection of the coil and therefore the current through the coil.

Figure 4-5 Details of a moving coil for a PMMC movement showing the control
springs and the indicator with its counterbalance weights (courtesy Weston Instru-
ments, Inc.).
are assembled to the coil structure by means of pivot bases, and the entire
movable-coil element is supported by jewel bearings. Different bearing systems
are shown in Fig. 4-6.
-«"-w?s«Hpr
The V-jewel, shown in Fig. 4-6(a), is almost universally used in instrument
Figure 4-4 Phantom photograph of the external moving-coil mechanism shows details of
bearings. The pivot, bearing in the pit in the jewel, may have a radius at its tip
the coil construction, the external horseshoe magnet, and the indicating pointer from 0.01 mm to 0.02 mm, depending on the weight of the mechanism and the
(courtesy Weston Instruments, Inc.). vibration the instrument will encounter. The radius of the pit in the jewel is
slightly larger than the pivot radius, so that the contact area is circular, only a
The Y-shaped member is the zero adjust control and is connected to the few microns across. The V-jewel design of Fig. 4-6(a) has the least friction of
fixed end of the front control spring. An eccentric pin through the instrument any practical type of instrument bearing. Although the moving elements of
cover engages the Y-shaped member so that the zero position of the pointer can be instruments are designed to have the smallest possible weight, the extremely
adjusted from outside the case. Two phosphor-bronze conductive springs, minute area of contact between pivot and jewel results in stresses on the order of
normally equal in strength, provide the calibrated force opposing the moving- 10 kg/mm2. If the weight of the moving element is further increased, the
coil torque. Constancy of spring performance is essential to maintain instrument
contact area does not increase in proportion so that the stress is even greater.
accuracy. The spring thickness is accurately controlled in manufacture to avoid
Stresses set up by relatively moderate accelerations (like jarring or dropping an
permanent set of the springs. Current is conducted to and from the coil by the
control springs. instrument) may consequently cause pivot damage. Specially protected (rug-
gedized) instruments use the spring-back (incabloc) jewel bearing, whose con-
The entire moving system is statically balanced for all deflection positions struction is shown in Fig. 4-6(b). It is located in its normal position by the
by three balance weights, as shown in Fig. 4-5. The pointer, springs, and pivots spring and is free to move axially when the shock to the mechanism becomes
severe.
58 Electromechanical Indicating Instruments Chap. 4 let! 4-3 Permanent-Magnet Moving Coll Mechanism (PMMC)\ -^J.,.,1
Figure 4-6 Details of instrument bearings, (a)
V-jewel bearing, (b) Spring-back jewel
bearing (courtesy Weston Instruments,
Inc.).

Figure 4-7 Construction details of the core-magnet moving-coil mechanism, (a) The
The scale markings of the basic dc PMMC instrument are usually linearly magnet with its poleshoes is surrounded by the yoke, which acts as a magnetic shield, (b)
spaced because the torque (and hence the pointer deflection) is directly pro- The assembled movement, (c) A cutaway view of the yoke, the core, and the
portional to the coil current. [See Eq. (4-1) for the developed torque.] The basic poleshoes (courtesy Weston Instruments, Inc.).
PMMC instrument is therefore a linear-reading dc device. The power require-
ments of the d'Arsonval movement are surprisingly small: typical values range Self-shielding makes the core-magnet mechanism particularly useful in
from 25 jiiW to 200 jLtW. Accuracy of the instrument is generally on the order of aircraft and aerospace applications, where a multiplicity of instruments musfbe
2 to 5 per cent of full-scale reading. mounted in close proximity to each other. An example of this type of mounting
If low-frequency alternating current is applied to the movable coil, the may be found in the cross-pointer indicator, where as many as five mechanisms are
deflection of the pointer would be up-scale for one half-cycle of the input mounted in one case to form a unified display. Obviously, the elimination of
waveform and down-scale (in the opposite direction) for the next half-cycle. At iron cases and the corresponding weight reduction are of great advantage in
powerline frequencies (60 Hz) and above, the pointer could not follow the rapid aircraft and aerospace instruments.
variations in direction and would quiver slightly around the zero mark, seeking
the average value of the alternating current (which equals zero). The PMMC 4-3.3 Taut-band Suspension
instrument is therefore unsuitable for ac measurements, unless the current is
rectified before application to the coil. The suspension-type galvanometer mechanism has been known for many
years. Until recently the device was used only in the laboratory where high
4-3.2 Core-magnet Construction sensitivities were required and the torque was extremely low (because of small
currents). It was desirable in such instruments to eliminate even the low friction of
In recent years, with the development of Alnico and other improved pivots and jewels. The suspension galvanometer (Fig. 4-1) had to be used in (he
magnetic materials, it has become feasible to design a magnetic system in which upright position, because sag in the low-torque ligaments caused the moving system
the magnet itself serves as the core. These magnets have the obvious advantage of to come in contact with stationary members of the mechanism in any other
being relatively unaffected by external magnetic fields, eliminating the magnetic position. This increase in friction caused errors.
shunting effects in steel panel construction, where several meters operating side by The taut-band instrument of Fig. 4-8 has the advantage of eliminating the
side may affect each other's readings. The need for magnetic shielding, in the friction of the jewel-pivot suspension. The movable coil is suspended by means of
form of iron cases, is also eliminated by the core-magnet construction. Details two torsion ribbons. The ribbons are placed under sufficient tension to eliminate any
of the core-magnet self-shielding movement are shown in Fig. 4-7. sag, as was the case in the suspension galvanometer of Fig. 4-1. This tension is
provided by a tension spring, so that the instrument can be used in any

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