Philip Adu, D. Anthony Miles - Dissertation Research Methods - A Step-By-Step Guide To Writing Up Your Research in The Social Sciences (2024, Routledge - Taylor & Francis Group) - Libgen - Li

Dissertation Research Methods
Dissertation Research Methods: A Step-by-Step Guide to Writing Up Your Research in the Social
Sciences focuses specifically on the methodology for planning, writing and submit-
ting your dissertation thesis. Written by two methodology experts in the social
sciences, the book provides a step-by-step guide through each stage of the disser-
tation process.
It covers all aspects of the methodological considerations needed, from choosing
a topic or research question, developing a literature review, identifying research
gaps, accessing potential study participants, utilizing the right sampling strat-
egies, analyzing data and writing up findings. Readers are introduced to the main
research methods normally used in dissertations and their characteristics, and they
are guided to choose an appropriate research method for their study, provide a
substantial description of the selected method and articulate strong arguments in
support of it. The book is filled with templates, exemplars and tools to help students
write about methodology in their thesis and to equip readers to successfully trouble-
shoot any methodology challenges they may face.
This compact book will be of use to all graduate students and their supervisors
in the Social Sciences and Education and Behavioral Sciences who are looking for
a guide to working with robust and defensible methodological principles in their
dissertation research and theses.
Philip Adu is a methodology expert and founder of the Center for Research
Methods Consulting. He has provided research methodology services to clients for
over ten years. He is also a contributing faculty at Walden University. Dr. Adu is the
author of A Step-by-Step Guide to Qualitative Data Coding (2019). He is also a co-author
of The Theoretical Framework in Phenomenological Research (2022).
D. Anthony Miles is CEO and founder of Miles Development Industries

Corporation®, a consulting practice and venture capital acquisition firm. He
also has extensive experience with dissertations and assisting doctoral students.
Dr. Miles has served as a dissertation chair, methodologist and statistician. He has
over ten years’ experience with dissertations and has worked with over 100 doctoral
students. In 2009, he was awarded the USASBE Doctoral Consortium fellowship for his
doctoral research.
Dissertation Research
Methods
A Step-by-Step Guide to Writing Up Your
Research in the Social Sciences
Philip Adu and D. Anthony Miles

Cover image: Getty Images/kevinjeon00
First published 2024
by Routledge
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2024 Philip Adu and D. Anthony Miles
The right of Philip Adu and D. Anthony Miles to be identified as authors of this
work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised
in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or
hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks,
and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Adu, Philip, editor. | Miles, D. Anthony, editor.
Title: Dissertation research methods : a step-by-step guide to writing up
your research in the social sciences / Philip Adu and D. Anthony Miles, [editors].
Description: Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2023. |
Includes bibliographical references and index. |
Identifiers: LCCN 2023014791 (print) | LCCN 2023014792 (ebook) |
ISBN 9781032213859 (paperback) | ISBN 9781032213835 (hardback) |
ISBN 9781003268154 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Social sciences–Research. | Social sciences–Study and teaching. |
Dissertations, Academic.
Classification: LCC H62 .D577 2023 (print) | LCC H62 (ebook) |
DDC 300.72–dc23/eng/20230425
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023014791
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023014792
ISBN: 9781032213835 (hbk)
ISBN: 9781032213859 (pbk)
ISBN: 9781003268154 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003268154
Typeset in Baskerville
by Newgen Publishing UK
I (Philip Adu) dedicate this book to my lovely and sup-
portive wife, Monique, and my wonderful children,
Miriam, Olivia and Evan.
I (D. Anthony Miles) want to dedicate this book to many

people. There are so many people I want to thank for the
publication of this book. First, I want to dedicate this
book to my family for supporting me in writing it. Second,
I want to dedicate this book to all the doctoral students
I have taught and worked with. I want to thank you for
not only inspiring us to write this book but also inspiring
us to be better scholars of our prospective fields of study.
Lastly, I want to dedicate this book to all my colleagues at
the universities where I have worked and to the colleagues
I have worked with on research I have presented at various
conferences around the country. This book was a true
labor of love.
Contents
List of Figures xiii

List of Tables xv
Acknowledgments xvii
1 Planning Your Dissertation 1

Objectives 1
Dissertation Process 1
Engaging in Writing 5
Choosing a Topic 6
Summary 8
2 Conducting a Literature Review and Developing a

Theoretical/Conceptual Framework 9
Objectives 9
Conducting a Literature Review 9
Perfecting Your Research Skills 11
Building Your Knowledge 15
Building Arguments 16
Contributing to Knowledge 16
Searching for Relevant Literature 18
Writing About Your Selected Literature 24
Understanding the Conceptual/T heoretical Framework 24
Summary 30
3 Understanding the Types of Dissertation Research 33

Objectives 33
About Dissertation Research 33
Types of Dissertation Research 33
Summary 45
viii Contents
4 Choosing an Appropriate Research Methodology 47

Objectives 47
About Research Methodology 47
Exploring Quantitative Research Methods 47
Types of Quantitative Methods 49
Exploring Qualitative Research Methods 62
Exploring Mixed Methods Designs 65
Determining the Right Research Method 69
Writing About Your Selected Research Method 71
Summary 71
5 Understanding the Seven Types of Research Gaps 74

Objectives 74
Introduction 74
Theoretical Foundation and Development 74
The Seven Research Gaps from Most Common to Least Common 75
Writing Up the Research Gaps in a Research Proposal 79
Summary 80
6 Developing the Research Problem 85

Objective 85
Introduction 85
Problem Statement: Definition and Meaning 85
Trouble with the Problem Statement: Ask Two Questions 86
Writing Up the Problem Statement 87
Summary 93
7 Developing the Purpose Statement 95

Objective 95
Introduction 95
Purpose Statement: Definition and Meaning 95
Purpose Statements Based on the Research Methodology 96
The Most Powerful Purpose Statement Verbs 98
Writing Up the Purpose Statement 98
Summary 103
8 Developing the Research Statement and Research

Questions 105
Objective 105
Introduction 105
Research Questions: Definition and Meaning 105
Developing Research Questions for a Quantitative Study 106
Using the Theoretical Constructs in the Instrument as a Basis for Developing
Quantitative Research Questions 106
Contents ix
Writing Up the Research Statement and Research Questions 108

Developing Research Questions for a Qualitative Study 114
Summary 119
9 Research Alignment: Achieving Research Alignment

in the Study 121
Objective 121
Introduction 121
Research Alignment: Definition and Meaning 121
The Importance of Alignment 122
The Rules of Alignment in a Study 123
Developing Alignment in a Research Study 124
Introducing the Alignment Matrix: Achieving Alignment in the Dissertation 127
Summary 134
10 Understanding Limitations and Delimitations 136

Objective 136
Introduction 136
Definition of Limitations 136
Definition of Delimitations 140
Summary 145
11 Understanding Assumptions and How to Write

Them in a Study 147
Objective 147
Introduction 147
Definition of Assumptions 148
Making Assumptions in the Study 148
Summary 156
12 Understanding the Differences Between

Contributions and the Significance of a Study 159
Objective 159
Introduction 159
Contributions: What Are They and Why Are They Important? 159
Significance: What Is It and Why Is It Important? 163
Summary 171
13 Deciding on the Source of Data 174

Objectives 174
About Data 174
Data Sources 175
Determining an Appropriate Data and Its Source 176
x Contents
Determining Your Sample Size 178

Ethical Issues 183
Summary 185
14 Understanding the Different Kinds of Data

Collection Strategies 187
Objectives 187
Introduction 187
Testing Method 187
Methods of Data Collection 188
How to Choose an Appropriate Data Collection Strategy 198
Summary 200
15 Planning and Implementing the Data Collection

Process 202
Objectives 202
Introduction 202
Developing the Plan for Research 203
Data Collection Preparation 228
Preparing the Consent Form 229
Ethical Issues Related to Data Collection 230
Implementing Data Collection 231
Writing about the Data Collection Process 234
Summary 235
16 Understanding Populations and Sampling 238

Objectives 238
Introduction 238
Population, Sampling and Definitions 239
Quantitative Sampling Methodology 246
Determining Sampling Size in Non-probability Research 260
Summary 260
17 Planning and Implementing the Data Analysis

Process 265
Objectives 265
Introduction 265
Quantitative Data Analysis 266
Qualitative Data Analysis 287
How to Determine the Right Type of Qualitative Analysis 292
Ensuring the Credibility of Your Qualitative Findings 292
Summary 293
Contents xi
18 Ensuring Quality in the Study 297

Objectives 297
Introduction 297
Reliability and Validity in a Quantitative Study 297
Ensuring Trustworthiness in a Qualitative Study 314
Ensuring Quality in a Mixed Methods Study 316
Summary 317
19 Writing Your Dissertation: The Standard Format –

Chapter 1 (Introduction) 322
Objective 322
Introduction and Background of the Problem 322
Overview of Chapter 324
The Research Problem and the Problem Statement 324
The Purpose Statement 326
Research Statement and Research Questions 328
Theoretical/Conceptual Framework 331
Assumptions, Limitations and Delimitations 333
Delimitations/Scope of the Study 335
Assumptions 336
Significance of the Study 337
Summary 340

Chapter 2 (Literature Review) 342
Objectivity 342
Introduction and Overview 342
Notes about ChatGPT 343
Literature Search and Selection 343
Conceptual/T heoretical Framework 344
Review of the Literature 347
Summary 349

Chapter 3 (Research Methodology) 352
Objective 352
Problem Statement 353
Purpose Statement 354
Research Statement and Research Questions 354
Research Alignment: Definition and Meaning 355
Research Methodology 358
Research Design 359
Population, Sample and Sampling Technique 360
xii Contents
Instrumentation 363
Data Collection (Procedure) 367
Data Analysis (Quantitative) 372
Data Analysis (Qualitative) 376
Reliability 379
Validity 383
Ethical Issues and Research Process 387
Assumptions, Limitations and Delimitations 389
Summary 391

Chapter 4 (Data Analysis and Findings) 393
Objectives 393
Presenting Results in Quantitative Research 393
Bivariate Statistical Techniques 399
Inferential Statistics: Multivariate Statistics 404
Multivariate Statistical Techniques 405
Presenting Results in Qualitative Research 411
Overview 411
Research Setting 413
Participants’ Demographics 413
Data Analysis Process 415
Presentation of the Findings 416
“Summary” Section 418
Summary 419

Chapter 5 (Discussion and Conclusions) 422
Objective 422
Summary of Findings and Conclusions 424
Interpretation of the Findings 428
Implications and Applications of the Findings 433
Limitations 436
Recommendations for Future Research 438
Summary 440
Index 442
Figures
2.1 The essence of engaging in a review of literature 10

2.2 Literature review process 15
2.3 How a body of knowledge and professional best practices are built 25
5.1 The seven types of research gap, from the most common to the
least common 76
5.2 Example 1 of how to write up a research gap (general) 80
5.3 Examples 2 and 3 of how to write up a research gap (general) 80
5.4 Examples 4 and 5 of how to write up a research gap (general) 81
7.1 The quantitative purpose statement components 97
7.2 The qualitative purpose statement components 97
10.1 Formula for limitations 138
10.2 Delimitations categories in a study 142
10.3 Delimitations categories in a study within an organization 143
10.4 Formula for delimitations 144
12.1 The three types of research contribution 160
12.2 The three types of study significance 164
13.1 Data source categorization chart for a qualitative study 177
13.2 Data source categorization chart for a quantitative study 178
13.3 About quantitative data collection and statistics 180
13.4 Steps on using G*Power 183
13.5 Display of the sample size after using G*Power 184
15.1 Developing the plan for research 205
15.2 Quantitative research model 208
15.3 Qualitative research model 209
15.4 Qualitative research designs 213
15.5 Quantitative research designs 217
15.6 Probability sampling approaches 226
15.7 Non-probability sampling approaches 227
16.1 The sampling process 244
16.2 Types of sampling techniques 245
17.1 Determining the appropriate data analysis process 266
17.2 Flow diagram of the data preparation process 267
xiv List of Figures
17.3 SPSS variable view of the data file 270

17.4 Selecting the statistical data analysis strategy process 271
17.5 The statistical analysis design plan 273
17.6 The statistical analysis design model 275
17.7 Normal, skewness and kurtosis distributions 277
17.8 Univariate statistical techniques model 279
17.9 Bivariate statistical techniques model 281
17.10 Multivariate statistical techniques model 283
17.11 The statistical analysis design model 285
18.1 Testing goodness of measures: Forms of reliability model 299
18.2 Descriptive statistics techniques model 306
18.3 Scales of measurement model 306
18.4 Testing goodness of measures: Forms of validity model 311
19.1 Job stress-demographic model 333
22.1 Flow diagram of the results presentation process 394
22.2 Descriptive statistics techniques model 395
22.3 Descriptive results of age in the data 396
22.4 Descriptive results of ethnicity in the data 397
22.5 Crosstab results of age and online retail purchases in the data 397
22.6 Histogram results of gender, age and online retail purchases in
the data 398
22.7 Histogram results (two charts) of gender, age and online retail
purchases in the data 399
22.8 Results of gender mean and standard deviation of consumer
behavior purchases online and offline in the data 400
22.9 Bivariate statistical techniques model 401
22.10 Pearson correlation 402
22.11 Simple linear regression example 1 403
22.12 Simple linear regression example 2 403
22.13 Scatterplot example 404
22.14 Confirmatory factor analysis 408
22.15 Path analysis 409
22.16 Advanced path analysis 412
22.17 Thematic analysis process 415
22.18 Content analysis process 416
22.19 Grounded theory (constant comparative) process 416
23.1 The interpretation of the findings process 430
Tables
1.1 Criteria for deciding on an appropriate topic 7

2.1 Kinds of academic articles and their respective features and examples 13
2.2 Literature review presentation format and examples 17
2.3 Search command symbols, their meaning and examples 19
2.4 Strategies for searching for literature after an unsuccessful initial search 21
2.5 Research-related terms, their meanings and examples 26
2.6 Questions to ask to select the right model or theory 27
2.7 The use of concepts, models and theories and their goals 28
3.1 Evaluation purposes and their corresponding evaluation types 40
4.1 Quantitative research designs and their respective purposes and
statistical analyses 53
4.2 Mixed methods designs and their characteristics as suggested by
Creswell et al. (2003) 70
5.1 The seven research gaps from most common to least common 79
5.2 Performing a gap audit: The research gap audit tool 82
6.1 Introducing the Statement Grid for problem statement development 87
6.2 Example: The Statement Grid for problem statement development 88
7.1 A list of the 40 most powerful purpose statement verbs 98
7.2 The Statement Grid for purpose statement development 99
7.3 Example: The Statement Grid for purpose statement development 99
8.1 Example of common research questions for a quantitative study 107
8.2 Example of aligning quantitative research questions with
instrument/scale constructs for a dissertation study 108
8.3 The Statement Grid for research statement development 109
8.4 Example: The Statement Grid for research statement development 109
8.7 Types of research questions and their characteristics 115
8.8 Example of research questions for a qualitative study 116
xvi List of Tables
9.1 The research alignment model 124

9.6 The Alignment Matrix for research alignment 128
9.7 Example: The Alignment Matrix 128
10.1 Examples of limitations 138
10.2 The Statement Grid for limitations 138
10.3 The Statement Grid for delimitations 144
11.1 Examples of assumptions 152
11.2 Introducing the Statement Grid for assumptions 154
12.1 Introducing the Statement Grid for the contributions of a study 161
12.2 The Statement Grid –Contributions of a study 162
12.3 The Statement Grid –Contributions of a study 162
12.4 The Statement Grid –Significance of a study 165
13.1 Kinds of data and their respective examples and sources 175
13.2 Data sources, their respective examples and sources 175
14.1 Quantitative data collection methods 190
14.2 Research questions, their respective topics and potential interview
questions 194
14.3 Qualitative data collection methods 199
16.1 Probability sampling research designs 251
16.2 Non-probability sampling research designs 259
18.1 List of mixed methods research-related resources 317
19.4 Examples of limitations 335
19.5 The Statement Grid for delimitations 336
20.1 Adopter groups and their distribution under Rogers’ (2003) and
Çakıroğlu et al.’s (2022) study 346
21.1 Example: The research alignment model 355
21.2 Field Worker Job Stress Instrument and subscales 364
21.3 Demographic variables 365
21.4 Demographic profile of participant survey questions 367
22.1 Exploratory factory analysis 406
22.2 Participants’ demographics 414
22.3 Excerpts from the description of the themes and their respective
features 418
newgenprepdf
Acknowledgments
I (Philip Adu) want to acknowledge all my colleagues at Walden University,

especially Drs. Belinda McFeeters and Jamie Patterson. I really appreciate your
incredible support. Thank you to my LinkedIn, Facebook, Twitter and YouTube
family, followers and subscribers for being so supportive of my content. And to
my wife, thank you for your unwavering support throughout the manuscript-
writing process.
I (D. Anthony Miles) wish to acknowledge several great individuals and organizations
that have supported me in this endeavor. First, very special thanks to members of
the Miles family and other extended family members for their undying support, love
and faith. Next, I want to acknowledge and thank all my friends, colleagues and
co-researchers for their support. I want to acknowledge and thank all my doctoral
students. I want to acknowledge and thank all my clients for their relentless support
and encouragement. I want to acknowledge and thank all the universities that have
taken part in my development as a scholar: the University of the Incarnate Word;
Our Lady of the Lake University; and the University of Texas at San Antonio.
1 Planning Your Dissertation
Objectives
• Readers will be able to:
1. Describe the dissertation process
2. Recognize the stage they are at in the dissertation journey
3. Choose an appropriate dissertation topic
Dissertation Process
Conducting a dissertation is part of doctoral students’ research task, which they
need to complete before being conferred a doctorate degree. It is part of the induc-
tion process –preparing you to join the community of researchers or practitioner-
researchers who have expertise in a specific area in your field (Adu, 2011; Petersen,
2007). Completing a dissertation gives you the unique skills of navigating the role
of an independent researcher while working within research guidelines and bound-
aries. The role of your dissertation supervisor (advisor) is to make sure your research
actions and decisions are in line with the set guidelines and boundaries. The hope
is that, at the end of the induction process, you would be skilled in critically con-
suming and independently conducting research, with the goal of contributing to
the field and/or addressing practical problems (Useem, 1997).
The dissertation process varies depending on the country you are studying in, your
field of study and the program or department you are in. However, the following
dissertation stages reflect most of the doctoral programs, irrespective of the country
and field. The stages include preparing, planning, performing and presenting.
Preparing
Preparation for the dissertation project starts at the moment one begins their doc-
toral education. However, for some institutions or doctoral programs, it starts at
the time prospective students are asked to share their research interest as a part
of their application requirements. The first action you need to take (especially
after you have been accepted to a doctoral program) is to learn more about the
program/department in terms of the kind of courses you will be taking and the
DOI: 10.4324/9781003268154-1
experience and research interest of the main faculty members. It would be great if
you could learn as much as you can about the organizational culture and structure
of the program, trying to address the following questions: Who is the head of the
department? What are their roles and responsibilities? How do faculty members
relate to students? What kind of support do students receive when working on
their dissertations? What kinds of topics have students researched when working on
their dissertations? What specific research methods courses should students take as
part of the dissertation preparation? What kinds of research areas are the faculty
members working on? Is there potential funding for dissertation work? Who should
you contact if you have issues with choosing a research topic and methodology
(Useem, 1997)?
Addressing some of the above questions will help you to understand what is
expected of you by the faculty members and the department/ program as a
whole. This is also a good time to strategize ways of successfully completing your
dissertation.
The coursework taken before the start of the dissertation is very crucial in pre-
paring you for the project. It is very important to take the research methods courses
seriously, focusing on not only getting good grades in the research method classes
but also ensuring that you are gaining skills in consuming research reports and
doing research (Useem, 1997). At this point, take the opportunity to learn different
research methods, including their strengths and weaknesses and how they are used
in studies. It is just like filling your toolbox with good and efficient tools so that when
the right time comes, you can select the right tool for your study. Avoiding famil-
iarizing yourself with different kinds of research methods limits what you plan to
research and how you want to do it.
Another issue you should pay attention to is the assignments and projects done
in the classes you take. This is a great opportunity to explore the topics of interest so
that, by the time coursework is completed, you already know the topic you want to
explore for your dissertation. However, if by the end of the coursework you haven’t
chosen a topic, it is not too late. At the early stage of the dissertation process, you
may still have the chance to change the topic as you review literature and/or have
conversations with your dissertation supervisor.
Having conservation with your fellow dissertation students about their experi-
ence, challenges and strategies for conducting their studies can also help you to be
better prepared for this journey. It is important to get an idea about how a disser-
tation defense is organized (in terms of the structure and duration), including the
expectations of the dissertation students and the kinds of questions dissertation
committee members ask. Lastly, attending such sessions can be a source of inspir-
ation –knowing that a dissertation project can be successfully done and defended.
Planning
Some institutions or doctoral programs allow their students to choose their

supervisors and even determine who they want to be a part of their dissertation
committee. However, other programs assign supervisors to students. Irrespective
Planning Your Dissertation 3
of what dissertation supervisory structure your program has put in place, you are
more likely to successfully complete your dissertation if the roles, responsibilities
and expectations of you and your supervisor are clearly laid out and followed.
Therefore, there is a need to discuss your role and your supervisor’s role, responsi-
bilities and expectations –making sure everyone is on the same page.
The supervisors’ main role is to guide and support students as they embark on
their independent research journey. However, the kind of guidance and level of
support differ from one supervisor to another. How can you know the way your
supervisor guides and supports students working on their dissertation? You could
address this question by engaging in informal inquiry –having a discussion with
them and talking to current and previous advisees. Gathering this rich information
to help address the above questions would assist in strategizing ways to leverage
the expected guidance and support you will receive in accomplishing your disser-
tation goals.
However, not all supervisors will give you the guidance and support you need.
After figuring out what your advisor will provide, you need to reflect on what your
needs are and how you plan to meet them, considering the kind of support and
guidance you will be receiving. Be flexible, in the sense that, in the course of your
journey, there may be times where you feel supported by your supervisor, and at
other times you may feel like you are alone in the journey. Learning to figure things
out on your own is an effective strategy. For instance, if you are not familiar with a
specific research approach you plan to use, and your supervisor is also not totally
familiar with it, spend time and learn more about it, and if you are not clear about
what is expected in each chapter of the dissertation, review other dissertation docu-
ment examples. All these experiences improve your problem-solving and research
skills and equip you to be an independent researcher.
One of the main strategies you could use to complete your dissertation journey
is to act and think like an independent researcher –seeing your supervisor as a
coach, but not a co-researcher. Having this mindset will help you to make informed
decisions, and take actions with strong reasons behind them, while preparing you
to defend those actions. Whenever you fail to convincingly defend your actions
and decisions, you open doors of suggestion for potentially unfavorable changes of
your topic, purpose and/or methodology. For instance, let’s assume that you want
to conduct a qualitative study using a phenomenological approach and you don’t
have good justification for using this approach. Someone may suggest a different
approach for you which may not be the best. This doesn’t mean that you shouldn’t
accept suggestions. However, having a reasonable defense behind your decision
will help invite valuable suggestions, with good reasons for incorporating those
suggestions.
Planning also involves deciding on your topic, determining the specific problem
you want to address in the study, constructing the purpose of the study, deciding
the right research method and data collection strategy and selecting an appropriate
data analysis strategy. We’ll discuss each of these areas later in this book. However,
at this point, the take-home message is that, when planning, you should consider
the norms and expectations in the program. You need to make sure your actions
and decisions are not only in line with how research should be done but also con-
sistent with your research goals (Emelin et al., 2021). Also, thinking about the con-
sequence of your proposed actions, and devising ways of defending them, is one of
the keys to successful dissertation completion.
Performing
At this stage, it is expected that structures have been put in place and the needed
resources have been made available to conduct the study. After Institutional Review
Board (IRB) approval, you use the specified and approved sampling strategy and
recruitment channel to access potential participants. Interested participants should
then complete a screening questionnaire, which contains questions that help the
researcher to determine whether one qualifies to be a part of the study or not.
Upon meeting the research recruitment requirements, they are ushered into the
research participation phase. But before initiating their participation, participants
are presented with a consent form educating them about the purpose of the study,
their rights and responsibilities and any potential risks involved.
After agreeing to participate, they provide responses to questions/statements,
generating the data needed to address the research questions/ hypotheses.
Alternatively, or additionally, existing data or documents may be gathered to help
address research questions. After data collection, the next step is to analyze the
data. It starts with conducting data cleaning –removing any identifiable informa-
tion and making it ready for statistical analysis, qualitative analysis or both. All the
analyses are mainly driven by the research questions or hypotheses.
Presenting
The presentation stage is not only about communicating your findings but also
presenting your entire study. Thinking about who will be reading your dissertation
document helps in effectively communicating your study. It starts with presenting
the background and general information about the topic –preparing a way to
make known the research problem of the study. Traditionally, research problems
are informed by a gap you have identified in existing literature. Alternatively, the
research problem can be informed by the problem generated as a result of a critical
review and synthesis of literature. It is important to note that, when conducting
action research, you could even just present a practical problem that is related to an
issue within your profession or currently happening.
After presenting the problem statement, you state the purpose of the study and
research questions/hypotheses. You then write about your theoretical or concep-
tual framework, which consists of the specific theories or concepts that inform what
you are studying. It is important to provide a strong argument in support of your
study, reasoning why it is important to conduct your study.
All the components described above are a part of the introduction of your study.
Besides the introduction, you are to share the literature you have reviewed and
the research methodology, as well as describe and display your results, discussion
and conclusion. We will be discussing these components further in other chapters/

sections of this book.
Engaging in Writing
One component of the dissertation process that you will be doing often is writing.
Writing is the art of putting your observations, ideas and/or thoughts on paper or
electronically, using any writing or typing device. We see the mind as a sophisticated
natural machine capable of creating new ideas. The main obstacle preventing us
from fully utilizing it to accomplish our writing goal is fear. When the mind is pre-
occupied with negative thoughts, it leaves few cognitive resources available for
creative activity, including writing (O’Connor, 2017). Some of our thoughts may
include: “I don’t know how to perfectly write,” “I don’t know what to write,” and “I
won’t be able to finish writing my dissertation.” Having negative thoughts impedes
our flow of ideas and inhibits creative writing. As Chintamani (2014) indicates,
anticipation of failure dissipates creativity: “[Reluctance to write] … is most often
initiated by conflicted feelings and an attempt to have a perfect draft (perfect draft
syndrome) at the very outset” (Chintamani, 2014, p. 3).
During the initial writing process, it helps to focus less on writing perfect ideas
and more on documenting your seemingly imperfect ideas. After putting your ini-
tial ideas on paper, you can go back to perfect the draft. Finding a quiet place to
write, with or without playing calming music, mentally creates a conducive envir-
onment that could switch on your creative writing mood.
Using First Person
Writing in the first-person point of view (i.e., I, we, us and our) has been an accept-
able way of engaging in academic writing (APA, 2019). However, to engage in schol-
arly writing, one of the writing practices you should rarely use is the first person
when you are describing your thoughts, feelings and personal views (OASIS: Writing
Center, 2023). Ideally, the first-person point of view is appropriate when describing
your research actions and decisions (OASIS: Writing Center, 2023; Purdue Online
Writing Lab, 2023). Also, a consistently active voice is more appropriate to help
in knowing the subject who is performing the action (Purdue Online Writing Lab,
2023). Here are examples of sentences with both active voice and first-person point
of view:
• I developed the survey questionnaire.

• We interviewed each participant in the morning.
• We conducted an independent t test to determine whether there is a statistically
significant difference in job satisfaction between full-time and part-time employees.
However, your institution, department, field or supervisor may require that you
write in the third person. So, we advise that you check with your supervisor about an
acceptable writing style before you start working on your dissertation. Alternatively,
you could review completed dissertations from your department or program to see
how they were written. Lastly, if you have a writing center in your institution, you
could contact the center for clarification about the required writing style.
Please note that we have intentionally written some of the example dissertation
chapters in the third person for you to see how they are written in case you are
required to use this type of writing style (see Chapters 19–23).
Choosing a Topic
The word “interest” comes in mind when thinking about a topic you may want
to do a study on. This word sometimes makes its presence known when having
a conversation with colleagues and faculty members about what you plan to do
in your dissertation. Therefore, one’s level of interest in a topic could be the
main determinant for the focus of a dissertation project. However, there are other
factors that should be considered when deciding on a topic. But before we come
to what these contributing factors are, let’s address the question: What is a topic?
A topic is a core idea that has the potentiality to be studied. In other words, it is
the main issue that a researcher wants to research. Topics differ based on the level
of abstraction, connection to practical issues and relatedness to a research area
within your field.
A topic with a high level of abstraction (with no connection to practical issues
and no relation to the area of research in your field) becomes challenging to explore.
Let’s say you want to study “artificial intelligence capabilities” in the field of educa-
tion. This topic could be seen as too high in the level of abstraction, since it doesn’t
represent a specific issue in education. With this topic, your supervisor may say that
it is too broad and ask you about how it is connected to issues in education or edu-
cational practices. Thinking about what area, situation and/or event this proposed
topic is related to would help in reducing the level of abstraction. For instance, you
could revise it to “the role of machine learning on students’ learning.” As you can
see, the “artificial intelligence” has been replaced by its sub-area, which is “machine
learning,” and “role” has been further added to reduce the abstraction level. In
addition, including the phrase “students’ learning” helped to relate the topic to an
area in the education field.
We want to emphasize that coming up with a topic is not always linear as
discussed above. It may emerge when taking a course, talking to someone,
reading an article, doing a course assignment or reflecting on a problem you have
encountered. The most important thing is to make sure it meets the criteria of
a good topic, which are as follows: It should be less abstract in nature; it should
have a connection with practical issues in a field; and it should be related to the
research within a field (see Table 1.1). In addition, you may address the following
questions: How important is the topic to you? How important is the topic to your
field of study? How important is the topic to your future endeavors? Responding
to these questions will help you to make informed decisions about what to focus
on (Useem, 1997).
Table 1.1 Criteria for deciding on an appropriate topic
Criteria Meaning Rating
Level of How distant a topic is The level of abstraction of my topic is:

abstraction from an actual and • Very high
specific happening, • High
situation, behavior, etc. • Moderate
• Low
• Very low
Connection to How close the topic is to How connected is the topic to practical
practical what is happening in issues?
issues our day-to-day lives. • Very highly
• Highly
• Moderately
• Loosely
• Very loosely
Relatedness to How much connection How related is your topic to a research area
research area the topic shares with within your field?
within your a research area in the • Very highly
field field of your study. • Highly
• Moderately
• Loosely
• Very loosely
Degree of How much delight and How interested would you be in the topic?
interest in the curiosity you have • Very
topic towards the topic. • Somewhat
• Unsure
• Not very
• Not at all
Degree of How important the topic How relevant is the topic to you,
relevance is to you, considering considering what you have experienced?
to your what you have • Very relevant
experience experienced. • Relevant
• Unsure
• Irrelevant
• Very irrelevant
Degree of How important the topic How relevant is the topic to your field
relevance to is to your field of study. of study?
your field of • Very relevant
study • Relevant
• Unsure
• Irrelevant
• Very irrelevant
Degree of How important the How relevant is the topic to your future
relevance to topic is to your career endeavors?
your future ambitions and future • Very relevant
endeavors research focus. • Relevant
• Unsure
• Irrelevant
• Very irrelevant
Summary
The dissertation process can be grouped under four stages: preparing for your
research journey, planning to carry out your research, performing by implementing
the study, and presenting by writing and showing that you conducted your study
and what you found, including demonstrating their relevance, interpretation,
applications and implications. Throughout the dissertation process, you engage
in academic writing. Writing your dissertation is a challenging endeavor, but with
adequate support from your institution and dissertation committee it can be done.
Besides, with an unwavering determination to complete your research journey, you
are more likely to reach your dissertation destination. We encourage you to start
thinking about potential topics you could choose from to begin your journey. We
did it, and we know you can do it too.
References
Adu, P. K. (2011). Conceptualizing doctoral advising from professors’ and doctoral students’ perspectives
using concept mapping (Order No. 3531922) [Doctoral dissertation, West Virginia University].
ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, 210. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/
docview/1221263677?accountid=34120 (1221263677).
APA. (2019). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). American
Psychological Association.
Chintamani. (2014). “Challenges in writing” –The writer's block?. The Indian Journal of
Surgery, 76(1), 3–4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12262-014-1058-x
Emelin, D., Le Bras, R., Hwang, J. D., Forbes, M., & Choi, Y. (2021). Moral stories: Situated
reasoning about norms, intents, actions, and their consequences. In Proceedings of the 2021
Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (pp. 698–718). Association for
Computational Linguistics.
OASIS: Writing Center. (2023, February 6). Scholarly voice: First-person point of view. Walden
University: Writing Center. Retrieved February 6, 2023, from https://academicguides.
waldenu.edu/writingcenter/scholarlyvoice/first
O’Connor, J. (2017). Inhibition in the dissertation writing process: Barrier, block, and impasse.
Psychoanalytic Psychology, 34(4), 516–523. https://doi.org/10.1037/pap0000132
Petersen, E. B. (2007). Negotiating academicity: Postgraduate research supervision as cat-
egory boundary work. Studies in Higher Education, 32(4), 475–487.
Purdue Online Writing Lab. (2023, February 16). APA stylistics: Basics. Pursue
University: Purdue Online Writing Lab. Retrieved February 16, 2023, from https://owl.
purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa6_style/apa_for matting_and_style_guide/
apa_stylistics_basics.html
Useem, B. (1997). Choosing a dissertation topic. PS: Political Science & Politics, 30(2), 213–216.
https://doi.org/10.2307/420498
2 Conducting a Literature Review
and Developing a Theoretical/
Conceptual Framework
Objectives
1. Conduct a literature search
2. Choose relevant literature
3. Write about their selected literature
4. Select appropriate theories or concepts
5. Develop a theoretical/conceptual framework
Conducting a Literature Review

Conducting a literature review is not an easy endeavor. It can be time consuming
and labor intensive. However, a literature review is worth the investment, due to
the huge benefits it accrues when done right. Before we move further to outline
the rationale, process and importance of conducting a review of existing literature,
let’s first define the literature review. A literature review is a process of searching for
and selecting relevant literature, with the purpose of critically analyzing them and
presenting the outcome.
Conducting a literature review is a great opportunity to solidify what you want to
study. Exploring empirical research articles, conceptual/theoretical papers, books,
position papers, government agency reports, evaluation reports and the like helps
you to better understand your topic or the problem of interest.
One may ask, “Why should I review literature? I have already identified a topic
I’m passionate about, and I think this is unique and I believe no one has done it
before. I’ll be the first person to explore this idea. I’ll one day be an expert in this
emerging area.”
One of the core features of conducting research is to contribute to the existing
body of knowledge. The question is how can one best contribute without knowing
how, where and when to contribute, and even why there may be a need to add to
what is existing? The advancement of scientific knowledge always depends on the
research community’s dedication to familiarizing themselves with existing know-
ledge and engaging in inquiry to build on it. Similarly, knowing what has been done
DOI: 10.4324/9781003268154-2
10 Literature Review and Theoretical/Conceptual Framework
Figure 2.1 T he essence of engaging in a review of literature.
helps in discovering gaps in the literature and determining which one you would
want to fill.
Even if you are conducting an action research study in which your main intent is
not to contribute to the body of knowledge but to address the problem of practice,
a literature review is still relevant. You could learn about existing concepts, theories
and best practices, and it could inform your action research.
Have you thought about what you are doing a literature review for, regarding
your dissertation project? You may give a general, well-known reason such as
knowing what has been done, identifying a gap and demonstrating that you have
well researched the topic (Callahan, 2014). Thinking deeply about why you are
doing a literature review as a part of your dissertation, you may notice that there
are four main goals you are expected to achieve (see Figure 2.1). The essence of you
engaging in this learning experience of conducting a literature review is to:
• Perfect your skills in consuming, critiquing and communicating academic

research, concepts and theories
• Build your knowledge about the topic through exploring research trends and
comparing research discoveries
• Generate an argument(s) in support of your study
Literature Review and Theoretical/Conceptual Framework 11
• Contribute to existing knowledge through structuring the review based on a

sequence of ideas, sub-topics, methods and/or population
Perfecting Your Research Skills

It is important to note that, separate from general information in books and art-
icles about why we conduct a literature review, there are other relevant reasons
why students doing their dissertation should review literature. One reason is that
doing a literature review helps students to perfect their skills in consuming, cri-
tiquing and communicating research projects. After the end of their literature
review experience, they should be able to recognize differences among empirical
research articles, positional papers, conceptual/theoretical articles, editorial pieces,
evaluation reports or government white papers. Being able to differentiate between
these documents is the gateway to selecting the right literature for your review. After
reading and gaining an understanding of the literature, you can then critically
examine the literature –exploring the quality of all the components of the litera-
ture. Successfully examining the literature should lead to the following questions:
• What kind of literature should I consume?

• How should I consume them?
• What is the purpose of reviewing the literature?
• What is the consistency among the components of the literature?
• What claims does it make?
• How does the evidence support the claims?
• What is the purpose-driven outcomes of the literature review?
• Who are the literature review outcomes communicated to?
• How should the literature review be presented?
Being an Active Research Consumer
As a doctoral student working on your dissertation project, one of the rationales

for conducting a literature review is to equip you to become an active research con-
sumer. As you are thinking and searching for the right kinds of literature related
to your topic, you are being exposed to a variety of articles, papers, reports and
editorial pieces. This experience helps you to recognize and distinguish among lit-
erature and facilitates the selection of the right literature for review.
There are two main types of literature: black and white literature and grey
literature. Any literature published by a commercial publishing company (or an
organization whose main mission is to publish literature) is considered black and
white literature (Western University, 2012). Some of the publishing companies
that publish academic literature are Routledge, SAGE, Springer, Elsevier, Oxford
University Press, Harvard University Press and University of Chicago Press, just to
mention a few. Peer-reviewed articles, including empirical, conceptual, theoretical
and the like, are some of the literature published by these companies besides pro-
ducing academic books.
Since you are doing research on a chosen topic, the first set of literature you
should look for to review is peer-reviewed articles that are authors’ reports of the
study they did. You could also look into conceptual and theoretical articles, including
positional papers relevant to your topic. In addition, grey literature would be a
great source of information, especially when there is limited black and white litera-
ture. So, what is grey literature? It is literature published by organizations or entities
that do not engage in publishing as their sole focus (Western University, 2012).
Examples of grey literature are reports from government agencies, corporations
and non-publishing businesses, dissertations, white papers, blog posts and the like
(McKenzie, 2022).
Besides being able to determine different kinds of literature, as an active research
consumer you are able to select the literature not only relevant to your topic but
also acceptable as appropriate literature for review. The first-tier literature (such as
empirical research articles) you need to access for review is peer-reviewed literature.
This is because this kind of literature has been vetted by the author’s peers in the
research community, making sure the articles are of good quality and meet the
research standards and publication criteria ascribed in the publication guidelines
of the publishing journals.
You could supplement selected empirical research articles with positional, con-
ceptual and theoretical papers, including grey literature, especially when conducting
a literature review and having limited research articles. In a nutshell, doing a litera-
ture review helps in gaining skills to become an active consumer of research. As an
active consumer of research, you should be able to distinguish between the litera-
ture types and select the ones that are relevant and related to your topic.
Being a Good Critic of Research
Conducting a literature review at the dissertation stage helps you to be a good critic
of literature. As a critic of research literature, you have to know what is required in
each component of the articles you are reviewing. The review starts with having a
general sense of the literature in terms of who the authors are, what the document
is about and what they hope to achieve in writing the article. Having a general sense
starts with reading the document to understand what they want to communicate to
the audience (i.e., research/academic community). At this point, you could docu-
ment the main points/ideas in the literature, such as:
• The problem the author(s) wanted to address or the main issue that warranted
engaging in that inquiry
• The purpose of the empirical study or non-empirical inquiry
• The research questions or issues that needed to be addressed
• The research methods or strategy used to address the issues
• The data collection procedure
• The data analysis process
• The findings
• The interpretation of the findings
This will aid in conducting a critical examination of the literature. As you

are extracting ideas from the literature, you could also document what you see.
Keeping notes of your thoughts can be called memoing. Some of the questions
that could facilitate your reflection practice are as follows: What do I think about
what the author is presenting/saying? How are the main areas/ideas identified
in the literature related to my topic? What is interesting about the literature? Is
there any surprising information I want to take note of ? How consistent are the
components of the literature? Answers to these questions will be helpful when you
start your critical evaluation of the literature. Your goal here is to assess the litera-
ture and compare its components to a set standard in terms of research quality,
transparency and consistency. This implies that you need to know what good lit-
erature looks like before you can adequately and critically evaluate articles, reports
and research documents.
Let’s limit our discussion to empirical and conceptual research articles (see
Table 2.1). What conditions should a research or conceptual article meet to deter-
mine it is a good one? As researchers reviewing a peer-reviewed article, should we
focus on assessing its quality or do we not have to, since we could assume that the
article has passed through a rigorous review process before its publication? Even if
it is so, we think it is still beneficial to review for quality. In acting as a second eye
to the reviewer –curiously looking for best practices and potential flaws –you are
familiarizing yourself with what the characteristics of good research looks like and
gaining skills in extensively evaluating research articles.
Conceptual Article: Component
The articles should clearly state the phenomenon the authors want to explain, the
problem they plan to address, concepts, models and/or theory selection procedures
and their roles (Jaakkola, 2020). The authors explain each model or theory, describing
what they represent and what their properties are, including associated assumptions.
Besides this, conceptual articles highlight and/or establish relationships among the
concepts, providing evidence in support of the relationships. According to Jaakkola
(2020), there are three elements a conceptual paper should have: claim, grounds
and warrant. A claim could be an assertion, conclusion or inference one makes.
Table 2.1 Kinds of academic articles and their respective features and examples
Literature Feature Example
Empirical research article A report of a primary study that Burkard et al. (2014)
involves data collection and analysis
(Jaakkola, 2020)
Conceptual paper An article that contains a summary, MacInnis & de Mello
review, synthesis and/or discussion (2005)
of concepts, models and/or theories
(Jaakkola, 2020).
Grounds are evidence that support the claim. The conditions that need to exist for
the claim and grounds to be valid is warrant (or assumption) (Jaakkola, 2020).
Empirical Research Article: Components
The article should have a problem that has been addressed in the study, a review
of the literature, purpose of the study, research method, procedure, data analysis,
results and discussion. The article should narrate the issue that necessitated the need
to conduct the study, using the literature to layout where the study was in relation
to research done about the topic and what contribution the study has made. There
should be a statement of what the research hoped to achieve and questions the
researcher(s) addressed in the study. It should have information about the research
method used and related data collection and analysis procedures. The outcome
addressing the research question(s) should be provided, including the interpretation
and implications of the findings. In conclusion, here are the five issues you should
be looking for when reviewing an empirical research article:
1. Focus of the study

2. Goal of the study
3. How data was accessed and assessed
4. Findings of the study
5. Conclusions made based on the findings
Being a Communicator of Research
Conducting a literature review improves your skills in communicating research

studies in a way that is meaningful and meets the needs of the audience. See
yourself as a commentator or analyst of a specific game (let’s use soccer as an
example). Before the match, the commentator/analyst provides a preview of the
performance-related history of the two teams, helping the audience to put the
soccer match into proper perspective, exciting the crowd about what they should
expect and helping them to properly connect what may happen during the match
to the previous happenings. In addition, the pre-match commentary/analysis helps
the spectators to make sense of the outcome of the match. Similarly, your role at
the literature review stage is to provide a preview of what has been done. The pre-
view should be intentional and well thought through –knowing what is expected
of you and the needs of your audience. When writing about the literature you have
reviewed, you need to be transparent, sharing how relevant literature was accessed
and sampled for the review. This will contribute to making your literature review
process repeatable and the outcome of the review credible. You also need to craft
the review in such a way that it meets the goal of the review. You need to make sure
readers can easily follow your flow of thoughts and you are presenting a narration
of the literature about your topic in a historical or topical manner. As a communi-
cator of research, your role is to extensively digest relevant literature and present
the literature review outcome in such a way that readers understand what you are
Figure 2.2 Literature review process.
presenting and can make sense of where you are in relation to studies done and
where you are going, connecting it to what you want to do (see Figure 2.2).
Building Your Knowledge

Before doing research, you need to be knowledgeable in the area you are researching.
One of the main ways is by familiarizing yourself with the research done or issues
scholarly discussed about your topic. Reviewing literature is the beginning of your
journey to becoming an expert in the area you are studying. You gain skills in
exploring trends and comparing discoveries.
Exploring Trends in the Literature
As you keenly review the elements of literature, especially empirical or conceptual

research articles, you may notice patterns that need further exploration. For empir-
ical studies, you are interested in examining the focus of the study, the method used,
results after the data analysis and the conclusions made based on the findings. For
conceptual papers, you are looking into the phenomenon being examined, claims
made, evidence provided and assumptions presented (Jaakkola, 2020). Exploring
patterns in the literature helps in determining where to appropriately situate

your study.
Comparing Discoveries in the Literature
As you keenly go through the literature, you may see interesting information that
needs further examination. You could do a cross-section analysis, which involves
comparing and contrasting ideas and elements identified in the literature (for
example, a research article). For instance, checking consistency across purpose,
research questions and findings is considered one of the cross-section analysis
tecniques. We also have cross-case analysis, where you compare and contrast ideas
and elements across literature. Before comparing literature, you need to establish
the basis of the comparison. The question is, what brings together the literature you
are comparing? Is it the topic, method used, population, procedure or findings (just
to mention a few)? After establishing the basic commonalities among the literature,
you then explore the similarities and differences among them with respect to a spe-
cific issue, such as the demographics of participants. You can consider exploring
studies with the same topic and methodology but different results or conceptual
literature with the same focus but a different theoretical perspective.
Building Arguments
Engaging in a literature review assists in gaining the skill to make strong augments
in support of your study. One of the purposes of conducting a literature review
is to help provide a rationale for your study. The questions that readers of
your research documents want you to address are how relevant is your study,
considering what has been done, and why is your study important, considering
previous studies done? This is where you provide strong arguments justifying
the need to conduct your study and properly situating your study among studies
related to your topic.
An argument should have four main elements, namely, claim, evidence,
assumptions (which could be implicit or explicit) and conclusion (Jaakkola,
2020). When writing a review of the literature, you are expected to present your
observations or conclusions drawn from an extensive examination of studies done
and information written in relation to your topic. For example, you may observe
that there are limited studies done on a topic using qualitative approaches. What
evidence do you have to support this claim? Can we assume that you have exten-
sively searched enough studies done on your topic before making this claim?
Contributing to Knowledge
Conducting a literature review helps in gaining the skills to contribute to the existing
knowledge of a field. By conducting a review, you are helping readers to be abreast
with the trend and with discoveries in the field in relation to the topic of interest. As
you gather and synthesize relevant literature and others also do similar reviews, the
Table 2.2 Literature review presentation format and examples
Literature review presentation Example
Article title Authors
Chronological presentation of a “The History and Future of Genetically Glass-O’Shea

literature review Modified Crops: Frankenfoods, (2021)
Superweeds, and the Developing
World.”
Thematic presentation of a “An Organizational Intervention to Gregory et al.
literature review Reduce Physician Burnout.” (2018)
Conceptual presentation of a “Burnout in Nursing: A Theoretical Dall’Ora et al.
literature review Review.” (2020)
Methodological presentation of a “Mixed Methods Research Designs in Hanson et al.
literature review Counseling Psychology.” (2005)
body of knowledge in the field of study continues to increase. You are also setting
the stage for current and future researchers to build on what you have created. The
outcome of the review (i.e., knowledge) could be presented chronologically, themat-
ically, conceptually and/or methodologically (see Table 2.2).
Chronological Presentation of a Literature Review
If your goal of reviewing literature is to show the studies done and their related
purpose, method, findings and conclusions across time, presenting the review in a
chronological manner would be great. If as part of the literature review you plan
to explore how a theory, model or phenomenon has been studied over a period
of time, then you could do a chronological presentation of the literature. In other
words, when writing a review chronologically, you are presenting a synthesis of lit-
erature about a topic spread out across a set period of time.
Thematic Presentation of a Literature Review
This is quite similar to presenting qualitative findings, where themes with

supporting evidence are generally presented. With this approach, you first deter-
mine the themes/concepts you want to explore and write a review on. You then
organize components of the literature under their respective themes before
presenting a synthesized review under their respective themes related to the topic
of interest.
Conceptual Presentation of a Literature Review
This is about presenting a synthesis of the literature based on a theory and/or

model selected for the study. With this kind of presentation, you discuss the lit-
erature in terms of researchers’ development, confirmation, refinement and
explanatory characteristics of theories and/or models. One strategy of writing a

literature review in a conceptually structured way is to present each relevant theory
or model and discuss studies done or papers written about it, exploring its capacity
to explain the phenomenon of study.
Methodological Presentation of a Literature Review

This is where you present a review based on the research methods used. This type
of presentation is more appropriate when you want to justify why you have selected
a particular research method. It is also a way of comparing research findings and
conclusions across qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods studies. It can also
be used to show whether studies with diverse methods arrived at similar findings
and/or conclusions.
Searching for Relevant Literature

Searching for relevant literature starts with addressing the following questions: What
kinds of literature are you looking for? Where are the potential sources of literature
relevant to your topic? How do you search for the literature? To put it differently,
when conducting a literature review, you need to know the kinds of literature you
are looking for, potential sources of the literature and the search strategies you plan
to use. The literature search process should be thoughtful, thorough, systematic,
transparent and documented. When writing about the outcome of the literature
you reviewed, you need to demonstrate that you have done a comprehensive search
of the literature related to your topic. This could contribute to the credibility of
your literature review outcome.
Deciding on the Kinds of Literature to Review
Deciding comes after familiarizing yourself with the features of objects or phe-
nomena you are deciding on. In this case, it is important to be knowledgeable
about the kinds of literature that researchers in your field normally use to conduct
their review. As mentioned above, generally we have two kinds of literature: black
and white literature and grey literature. As already suggested, focusing more on
peer-reviewed articles would be great. However, if there are limited peer-reviewed
articles related to your topic, we suggest you consider looking into other articles,
including relevant grey literature.
Deciding on Where to Find Relevant Literature
There are a lot of databases you can choose from. You could start with the ones
that are related to your discipline. Some of the more popular databases include
ECOhost, MEDLine and the like. Other publishers such as Routledge, SAGE
and the like have databases of articles and books that can be explored. There
are also open-source databases such as the Directory of Open Access Journals,
ScienceOpen and OpenDOAR that may have literature relevant to your topic. The
Google Scholar search engine can easily display potential academic literature and
where you can access them if they are not readily available. Lastly, ResearchGate,
which is a site where researchers share mainly research articles and ideas, could be
another source of getting access to relevant literature.
Determining Literature Search Strategies

Similar to Google Search, when searching for literature related to your topic,
you are retrieving literature that has a specific word or group of words and/or a
word or group of words related to a specific word or phrase. Before you deter-
mine appropriate literature search techniques to use, you need to familiarize
yourself with the signs used for searching: AND, OR, ( ), “ ” (CityU, 2022). It
is important to note that search strategies my differ depending on the kind of
database you are using. However, Table 2.3 has the ones most commonly used.
Also, these search command symbols do not apply to non-traditional academic
databases and other academic social media platforms such as Google Scholar
and ResearchGate.
Apart from searching electronic databases (as described above), there are two
other strategies you could use to search for relevant literature: backward searching
and forward searching (Xiao & Watson, 2019). Backward searching involves
looking at the reference list of a relevant literature to see whether there is potential
literature of interest. However, with forward searching, you look for literature
that has cited a relevant literature. Google Scholar is a useful tool for the forward
searching strategy (Xiao & Watson, 2019). When you use Google Scholar to search
for a particular article or book, it will show a list of literature that has cited that
literature.
Table 2.3 Search command symbols, their meaning and examples
Search command symbol Meaning Example
OR Searching for literature that contains Burnout OR Fatigue

Concept A or Concept B
AND Searching for literature that has both Burnout AND Fatigue
Concept A and Concept B
NOT Searching for literature that does not Burnout NOT Fatigue
have Concept A
* Searching for words that have the same Prevent*
stem word
() Grouping search commands (Burnout NOT Fatigue)
OR (exhaustion)
? Searching for literature with a word Organi?ation
and its variations based on changes
in a character or group of characters
in that word
Determining Literature Extraction Criteria
The next action you need to take is to determine the parameters of your search
in terms of year of publication, the discipline within which the literature was
published, the kind of literature and other related extraction criteria (Adu, 2021).
At this stage, you have to be flexible. Your initial extraction criteria may not yield the
desired response. You should be ready to adjust them and explore other databases
until you arrive at the desired outcome. You should be ready to either narrow or
broaden the search. Here are some of the questions you could think about if your
initial search did not yield a satisfactory outcome:
• Should I adjust the search terms?

• Should I use another database?
• Should I change the publication date range?
• Should I include other kinds of literature, including grey literature?
• Should I explore Google Scholar?
Searching for Relevant Literature
By now, you know the search strategies and extraction criteria you should use. The
next step is to do the actual searching. At this point, you need to be flexible because
your initial search may not yield the desired outcome. You could have a lot of lit-
erature, resulting in the need to adjust the filtering options. Conversely, your search
may produce very little literature. You could address this by making adjustments to
your search strategies and extraction criteria, exploring another database and/or
using the forward or backward search strategy.
One may say, “I can’t find literature related to my topic.” If there is limited
research done about your topic in your field or discipline, you can explore other
fields to see whether similar topics have been treated (see Table 2.4). If there is
limited research done related to the kind of population or research location you
want to study, explore studies done about your topic with similar participants/
population or research location. For instance, if there are limited studies done
about the people of Ghana, you could look into studies done on any of the African
counties that are related to your topic. If there are limited studies done about the
concept you are studying, you can look at studies done on other related concepts.
For example, if you are doing research on burnout, you could also explore studies
on physical and mental exhaustion.
Managing your Search Outcomes
Managing your search outcomes is simply retrieving relevant literature you have
searched for and finding a place to store it for easy access and review. Traditionally,
this is done by downloading (if they are in an electronic format) and storing them
on your computer or printing them to have hard copies. Alternatively, you could
use a literature management application to easily store the literature, including
Table 2.4 Strategies for searching for literature after an unsuccessful initial search
Area Similar Narrow Broad
Theory Exploring studies Searching for studies Searching for studies

done on similar done on a narrower done on a broader
theories theory theory
Concept/phenomenon Exploring studies Looking into studies Searching for
of study done on similar done on concepts/ studies done
concepts/ phenomena on concepts/
phenomena narrower than your phenomena
initial focus broader than your
initial focus
Population of focus Searching for Exploring studies on Exploring studies on
studies on a topic of interest a topic of interest
a topic of done with a smaller done with a larger
interest done population population
with a similar
population
Discipline Searching for Exploring studies on Exploring studies on
studies on a a topic of interest a topic of interest
topic of interest done with a done with a larger
done with a sub-discipline discipline
similar field
reviewing and making notes. Some of the more popular ones are RefWorks,
Mendeley, Zotero and Endnote. Due to continuous technological advancement,
there may be new and improved literature management software with high func-
tionality and user-friendliness. Therefore, before you select a literature manage-
ment application, list a specific task you want it to be used for and review existing
software to see which one can help you meet your literature review goals. You could
also check with the librarian in your institution to see whether the institution has a
particular application available to students.
Selecting Relevant Literature
Let’s use fishing as an analogy. Now that you have finished fishing, it is time to
review what you have in your net. Sometimes, not everything you caught in the net
is what you wanted. You may need to review what you have and dispose of what
you didn’t like or expect. Similarly, after extracting literature, you need to do a
quick review to determine which literature is truly relevant and eliminate literature
that is irrelevant to your topic. It is always a good strategy to have a specific cri-
terion for selecting the right literature for review. It makes the selection of articles
for review more systematic and transparent and less biased in terms of choosing
what you like for the review (Machi & McEvoy, 2012).
So, the question is, “What conditions should literature meet for it to be part of
the literature you plan to review?” It would be great if you listed specific criteria the
literature should meet. You could use the following questions to help you generate
literature selection criteria:
• What information do you want to see in the title, abstract, introduction or body
of the literature for the literature to be selected?
• What type of literature will you select for the review?
• If the literature is about research, what kind of research are you looking for?
• Are you looking for:
• Traditional research, action research and/or program evaluation studies?
• Qualitative, quantitative and/or mixed methods studies?
• Will scoping review and/or systematic review studies be part of the selected lit-
erature for review?
• Should the qualifying literature be from a specific country?
• What research location and/or population should the research literature focus
on for it to be selected?
Selecting relevant literature and reviewing it can be done sequentially or con-

currently. With the sequential strategy, you start with skimming through literature
to determine whether it meets the set criteria. After skimming all the available
literature, you review the selected literature. With the concurrent approach, when
you skim literature and it meets the criteria, you review it before moving on to skim
other literature.
When selecting literature, with the criteria in mind, you could first look at the
title, abstract, summary and/or conclusion to help you decide which is appropriate
(Subramanyam, 2013). Sometimes, you can determine the right literature by just
looking at the titles. If you are not sure about selecting literature by reviewing the
title, you could look at the abstract, summary or conclusion (Subramanyam, 2013).
Extracting Relevant Information
Now that you have selected the literature to review, the next step is to extract infor-
mation that will be helpful for you to write the review. You may ask, “How can
I determine which information is relevant for my review?” Firstly, the information
should have some connection to your topic. Secondly, it should help you meet the
purpose of the review. Lastly, it could be used to support the claims you will make
when writing the review. You could use one of the three main strategies to extract
relevant information from the selected literature. These are developing:
1. An annotated bibliography
2. A literature characteristics matrix
3. A literature matrix based on themes
Developing an Annotated Bibliography
This involves reviewing literature, generating pertinent pieces of information

and writing a summary that reflects the ideas gathered and connects to the topic
of interest. Besides having a summary, an annotated bibliography should have a

responding reference. To put it differently, an annotated bibliography contains
references and their respective summaries. For empirical literature, the summary
could be based on the problem of the study, research purpose, research question,
participants, data collection and analysis, findings and their interpretation and
conclusions. For non-empirical literature, you could investigate the claims and their
associated assumptions, evidence in support of the claim and concluding statements
to help you generate summaries (Jaakkola, 2020).
Creating a Literature Characteristics Matrix
This strategy involves creating a matrix with all the literature selected and their
features, including a summary of their main components. The characteristics
may include author(s), year of publication, title and type of article/literature.
Also, the matrix could include the problem of the study or the problem the article
has addressed, the purpose of the study or the non-empirical literature, research
questions, method used, participants’ characteristics, data collection and analysis
strategies, findings and their interpretation and conclusions. When completing the
matrix, we recommend you provide (in your own words) brief information about
each component under each piece of literature. It is important to note that creating
the matrix is not the end of the literature review but a means to writing a strong,
insightful and comprehensive synthesis of the literature.
Creating a Literature Matrix Based on Themes
This strategy involves creating a matrix or table that shows information extracted
from the literature and their corresponding themes and literature. One of the strat-
egies for developing themes is description-focused coding (Adu, 2019). With this
coding strategy, you go through each piece of literature, extract information that is
relevant and generate a phrase (i.e., a theme) that best describes the excerpt. The
theme will then be connected to subsequent excerpts selected from the literature.
When extracting and organizing information from the literature, you could
use existing themes (i.e., the content analysis technique) or generate them as you
go through the literature (i.e., the thematic analysis technique). With the content
analysis technique, you could develop themes based on the conceptual/theoretical
framework, a theory or a group of theories that informs your study or sub-topics
associated with the focus of your study.
Other Innovative Strategies
When it comes to reviewing literature and extracting what you need to help you
write about what has been done and talked about with respect to your topic, there
are many innovative ways of going about it. Some just take notes, writing about
what they have observed in the literature, then examine the notes to highlight
patterns discovered and write about those discoveries. Other researchers document
what they see in the literature alongside their thoughts, leading to the presentation
of an analytical synthesis of what they have learned. We suggest that you review
best practices of conducting a literature review and select strategies that you can
efficiently and effectively use to provide a well-written and informative review.
Writing About Your Selected Literature

You start the writing process by describing how you searched for and selected your
literature. This also involves showing the sources of the selected literature and the
selection criteria you used. All this information contributes to promoting transpar-
ency in the literature search and extraction process. It also helps in highlighting the
best practices and educating researchers in effective ways of conducting a literature
review. Lastly, providing your literature review process promotes credibility of your
outcome of the review.
You then need to decide whether you want to present the review “chronologically,
thematically, conceptually, methodologically or a combination” (Frederiksen & Phelps,
2018, p. 93). These types of review have been discussed earlier, but irrespective of the
type you plan to use, you need to synthesize what you found in a meaningful way.
A synthesized review portrays a well-constructed combination of ideas, concepts
and assertions from the literature that are seamlessly presented in a logical manner.
To simplify, each of the main paragraphs should have a claim (which could also
be called a topic sentence), definition or explanation of the claim, supporting
statements or evidence and a concluding statement. Alternatively, you could cre-
atively present these elements in a variety of sequences, but the most important
thing is that the paragraph contains the components listed above.
Understanding the Conceptual/Theoretical Framework

A conceptual/theoretical framework is a group of statements that discusses the-
ories and/or concepts related to your focus of study (Adu, 2020). Visual represen-
tation could be used to reflect selected theories and/or concepts and connections
between them. You may ask, “Why should I have a conceptual or theoretical frame-
work when conducting research?” In order to effectively contribute to the field or
to best practices in your profession, you need to identify and use already-developed
theories and/or concepts related to what you are studying.
Exploring the Goal of Conducting Research

Looking at the three main types of research, the main goal of conducting trad-
itional research, action research and program evaluation is to fill a research gap,
address a practical problem and access a program to develop, discontinue or
improve, respectively. To understand how you can effectively meet the goal of a
study, you need to first make sense of how researchers and research practitioners
build knowledge and improve research best practices.
We do research to study behaviors, situations, phenomena and/or events. When
conducting a qualitative study, we end up generating concepts and ideas. Based
Figure 2.3 How a body of knowledge and professional best practices are built.
Source: Adapted from Adu (2020).
on the aim of the study and the research questions and research method used,
we could further explore relationships among the concepts and ideas to generate
constructs, models and/or theories.
With these constructs, models and/or theories, we could conduct quantitative
research, generating hypotheses and testing them. As we continue to do quantita-
tive, qualitative and mixed methods research, ideas, concepts, constructs, theories
and laws are built, confirmed, refined and/or rejected. As we do research, we con-
tinue to contribute to the development of the body of knowledge and best practices
in the field we are affiliated with (see Figure 2.3).
When conducting research, you could select concepts, constructs, models and/
or theories, creating a framework to help inform your study (see Table 2.5). So, a
conceptual/theoretical framework is like a bridge connecting your study to existing
models, theories and the like. In other words, creating such a framework helps in
connecting the concrete focus of the study to an abstract body of knowledge or
general best practices (see Figure 2.3).
Developing and Writing a Conceptual/Theoretical Framework
Developing and writing your conceptual/theoretical framework can be a challen-

ging task. You are expected to look for the right model or theory that best relates to
Table 2.5 Research-related terms, their meanings and examples
Term Meaning Example Reference
Concept A term “representing a • Blended learning Adu (2019);

particular behavior, • Flipped classroom Green (2014)
situation or idea” (Adu, • Gamification
2020, slide 7) • Instructional
effectiveness
• Learning outcome
Construct “Comprises of concepts and • Classroom management Jabareen (2009)
the connections among • Cultural intelligence
them” (Adu, 2020, slide • Emotional intelligence
8) • Personality trait
• Quality of life
Theory • “Contains concepts/ • Behaviorism Abend (2008);
construct, [and] • Cognitivism Wallis and
relationships Wright (2020)
among them”
• “Explains and/or
predicts [a]‌situation,
phenomenon [or]
behavior”
• Can be “refuted,
confirmed, [or] adjusted”
(Adu, 2020, slide 9)
what you are studying, which can sometimes make you feel as if you are looking for
a needle in a haystack. After selecting the right model or theory, you are expected
to explore what it stands for and the assumptions associated with it. You then dem-
onstrate how it is related to your study and describe the role it will play in the study.
The final step is to write about your framework and develop an illustration (if pos-
sible) to represent it. A book by Larsen and Adu (2021), The Theoretical Framework in
Phenomenological Research: Development and Application, details the conceptual/theoret-
ical framework development and writing process.
Identify Theories or Models Related to Your Topic
During this stage, you look at literature to locate specific models and/or theories
that are related to what you plan to study. For example, if your study is about how
burnout is experienced, you could identify theories or models that explain burnout,
such as equity theory, Maslach theory and job demands-resources theory (Larsen
& Adu, 2021). In terms of a specific strategy to access potential models and/or
theories, you could use a scoping review. Scoping reviews are a type of literature
review that focuses on “searching for information about a phenomenon of interest,
organizing and analyzing what the researcher found, and providing a summary of
the outcome of the review” (Larsen & Adu, 2021, p. 145).
Table 2.6 Questions to ask to select the right model or theory
Question to ask Yes No
Is the model or theory Then move on to assess Then review other models or
identified related to the how much the model/ theories to see whether they
focus of your study? theory covers, explains or have any connection with
addresses what you are what you are studying
studying
Does the model or theory Then use it to build your Then explore other models
have the potential to fully conceptual/theoretical or theories that can better
explain the phenomenon framework explain or complement the
of study? initial model or theories in
explaining the phenomenon
of study
Alternatively, another strategy you could use is to take note of models and the-
ories when reviewing literature. This will save you a lot of time, since you are sim-
ultaneously working on reviewing literature and keeping your eyes on potential
models and theories for the development of a conceptual/theoretical framework.
You may ask, “How do researchers determine the best model or theory for
the development of their framework?” According to Dix (2008), there are two
things you should take into consideration when selecting a model or theory for
your study: the degree of relatedness and the degree of completeness (Dix, 2008).
Assessing whether the potential model or theory relate to what is being studied and
how much it covers or explains the focus of the study will help you to determine
the right model or theory for your study (Dix, 2008; Larsen & Adu, 2021) (see
Table 2.6).
Also, you may ask, “What if I did not get the right model or theory?” We suggest
you explore whether more than one model or theory could help explain the phe-
nomenon of study. You could also consider incorporating concepts into the building
of your framework.
Examine the Characteristics of the Selected Model or Theory
This is the stage where you learn a lot about the selected model, theory or concepts
by addressing the following questions:
• What is the description of the model or theory?

• What is the model or theory explaining?
• How was it created?
• What are the assumptions, limitations and delimitations associated with the
model or theory?
• What are the components or concepts associated with the model or theory?
• How is the model or theory related to what you plan to study?
• How much does it explain the phenomenon of study?
Asking yourself these questions will help you to better understand how the
selected concepts, model or theory relate or explain the focus of your study. In
terms of examining the assumptions related to the selected model or theory, your
goal is to find out what needs to exist or be true in order for the model or theory to
be valid (Adu, 2023; Epstein, 1984). Concerning the limitations, you need to look
for what the model or theory fails to explain or cover because of covering a spe-
cific aspect of a phenomenon. Lastly, the deliminations of the model or theory are
about what the limits or boundaries of the model or theory are in terms of what
kinds of concepts are involved and aspects of the phenomenon of study that can
be explained (Adu, 2023).
Determine the Use of the Selected Model or Theory
After selecting the right model or theory, the next step is to determine how you plan
to use it in the study. It could be used to explain, represent, justify, inform or view
the study (see Table 2.7) (Larsen & Adu, 2021).
• Using the model or theory as an explanatory tool: You may have iden-
tified a problem you plan to study but have limited understanding of areas such
as the emergence, frequency, causes and emergence of the problem. A model or
theory could be used to help provide a potential explanation of the problem and
get a better understanding before the implementation of the study (Larsen &
Adu, 2021). It can also be used to explain a topic, facilitating the determination
of the focus of the study. In addition, by using it as an explanatory tool, you also
assess the model’s or theory’s strengths and weaknesses in terms of explaining
the phenomenon or problem of study.
• Using the model or theory as a labeling tool: The selected model or
theory could be used to help transform practical or lay terms into concepts
used within a particular field of study or professional practice (Larsen & Adu,
2021). For instance, concepts associated with a particular model or theory can
Table 2.7 T he use of concepts, models and theories and their goals
Use Goal
Explaining the study To make meaning of the topic or problem of study

Representing the study To label relevant ideas in the study
Justifying the study To establish the reason why it is important to conduct the study
Informing the study To guide the conceptualization of the problem of study, the
development of the research purpose and questions, the
determination of a research approach, data collection
techniques and data analysis strategies and/or the interpretation
of findings
Viewing the study To carry out a research inquiry from a particular perspective
Source: Adopted from Larsen and Adu (2021, p. 135).

be used to inform the variables you want to measure when conducting a quanti-
tative study. They could also help with the operationalization of the concepts
of interest and choosing the right instrument to measure them. In a qualitative
study, when conducting content analysis, themes and codes could be generated
from the selected model or themes. You can then use these themes and codes
(i.e., code frame) to connect to relevant information extracted from the data
(Larsen & Adu, 2021).
• Using the model or theory as a justification tool: The selected model
or theory could be used to justify the decisions and actions taken in your study
(Larsen & Adu, 2021). You could use it to support why:
• It is important to focus on a specific phenomenon and/or address a problem
• You are focusing on specific concepts or variables
• You are using a qualitative, quantitative or mixed methods design
• You are choosing a specific data collection and/or analysis strategy
• Using the model or theory to inform the study: The model or theory
can be used as a guide, informing how you conceptualize the problem of
study, determine and present the focus of the study, construct the research
questions, state your hypothesis, determine the research method for the study,
collect and analyze the data and present and interpret the findings (Larsen &
Adu, 2021).
• Using the model or theory as a lens: As a researcher, you could take a
certain perspective with the help of the selected model or theory and use the
standpoint to conduct the study (Larsen & Adu, 2021).
Writing About the Conceptual/Theoretical Framework
After selecting the right model or theory, learning more about it and determining
the role it will play in the study, the next step is to write about your framework.
Your goal is to inform your readers about the model or theory, including its
characteristics, associated assumptions and components or concepts. In addition,
you are also expected to write about how the framework will be used in the study.
In case you only have concepts for the development of your conceptual/theoretical
framework, you could discuss them and their relationships and how they are going
to be utilized in the study.
According to Adu (2020), there are five elements that a good conceptual/theor-
etical framework should have:
1. The meaning of the concept, model or theory being used to form the framework
2. The kind of phenomenon it represents, including its assumptions, strengths,
limitations and delimitations (if any)
3. The connection between the concept, model or theory and what you are
studying
4. Utilization of the framework
5. How the concept, model or theory will be used to help implement the framework
There are many ways of writing a conceptual/theoretical framework. The most

important thing is to make sure you include all the elements as you creatively write
about your framework. Also, at the initial stage of your study, see your conceptual/
theoretical framework as a work in progress, continuously perfecting it as the need
arises.
Develop an Illustration
Creating a visual representation of your conceptual/ theoretical framework is
not required but recommended. Design an illustration of your framework, trans-
lating the written information about your conceptual/theoretical framework into
a visual representation. Having an illustration will help your readers to get a better
understanding of the components (concepts) within the framework and the rela-
tionship between them. It will also help your readers to make a quick review of the
structure of the framework.
There are a lot of concept or mind map tools/software available to create
an illustration of your framework. You could even use the SmartArt function in
Microsoft Word to create an illustration. Alternatively, you could use Cmap soft-
ware to create your conceptual/theoretical framework illustration (see: https://
cmap.ihmc.us/).
So, what should an illustration of a conceptual/theoretical framework look
like? It should reflect what you have written about your framework. We see
an illustration as a creative but simplified form of the text description of your
framework.
Summary
One of the main ultimate goals of conducting research is to contribute to the body
of knowledge in your field. However, you cannot adequately contribute if you are
not aware of what has been related to your topic. The best way of having an
in-depth knowledge of the current research, discoveries and conversations about
your phenomenon of study is to conduct a literature review. The literature review
process should be systematic, searching and selecting relevant literature, making
meaning of them and writing a synthesis of what you found. Besides conducting
a literature review, you are expected to create and/or write about your concep-
tual/theoretical framework. A framework can be seen as a bridge that connects
your study to the existing body of knowledge (Larsen & Adu, 2021). It can also be
seen as the foundation on which your study is built (Adu, 2020). As you work on
your research proposal, it is important to search for potential theories, models and
concepts that are related to your topic and determine the right one to help build
your framework. Following the suggestions and strategies discussed above will help
you to do an extensive literature review and create a relevant conceptual/theoret-
ical framework.
References
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0739456X17723971

3 Understanding the Types
of Dissertation Research
Objectives
1. Differentiate between traditional research, action research, and program
evaluation
2. Select the type of research they plan to do
3. Describe the characteristics of each of the types of research
About Dissertation Research

Dissertation research is like any other research. The only difference is that it
involves mainly engaging in independent research lead by you but supervised and
evaluated by your dissertation committee in fulfillment of your doctoral degree
requirements. Research inquiry includes deciding on what kind and scope of
problem you plan to study, determining the purpose of the study and the questions
that need to be addressed, deciding on an appropriate research method, thinking
about and choosing the right data collection and analysis strategies and deciding
how the findings should be presented to show how they are addressing the research
questions and, in the end, solving the problem identified. Irrespective of the type of
research you want to conduct, it should have the above elements.
Types of Dissertation Research

There are three main types of dissertation research: traditional research, action
research and program evaluation.
Traditional Research
The main goal of conducting traditional research is to contribute to the body of

knowledge in a field. This type of research involves going through the literature,
reviewing what has been done and determining what is lacking, which is nor-
mally called a research gap. Alternatively, you could critically examine a model,
theory, treatment or procedure, identifying a flaw through the process called
DOI: 10.4324/9781003268154-3
34 Understanding the Types of Dissertation Research
problematization. Based on the gap identified, you conduct research to fill it or to

contribute to the body of knowledge in your field. What would the five chapters
under traditional research look like?
Chapter One
You start chapter one by providing background information on the topic of interest.
The “background of the study” section in this chapter focuses on introducing your
topic by starting with general information that will draw your readers’ attention
and prepare the way so that your topic will be well introduced to your readers. You
can also describe your research problem, which is the limitation or gap you have
identified in the literature. In this section, you tell your readers about what is lacking
in the literature that you plan to address. You present to them the purpose of the
study, stating what you plan to do in the study. We suggest you make sure there is a
consistency between what you plan to do and the problem you want to solve.
After describing the purpose of the study, you present the questions you plan to
address. If you plan to conduct a qualitative study, your research question should
be open-ended in nature, starting with words such as what, how and why. However,
your research questions should be closed-ended in nature if you plan to conduct
a quantitative study. For example, “Is there a relationship between job satisfaction
and productivity?” If you are not conducting a descriptive quantitative study, you
may need to state your hypotheses. For instance, the alternative hypothesis for the
above research question would be: “ H a : There is a statistically significant relation-
ship between job satisfaction and productivity.”
Next, you present the conceptual or theoretical framework, describing the
features of the concepts, model or theory related to the focus of your study,
including the role they will play in your study. You could complete the presentation
of the framework with a visual representation. You then end the chapter with the
“significance of the study” section. This is where you explain why your study is
important and what contributions it will make.
Chapter Two
This is the literature review chapter. It contains a description of studies done,

including the assertations and conclusions researchers have made in relation
to your topic. This kind of content is presented in a synthesized format, with
the goal of educating readers about what has been done and discussed in rela-
tion to the topic of interest, situating your study amid the body of knowledge in
your field and making a case in support of conducting your study. You start this
chapter with an overview describing what the chapter is about and what readers
should expect.
Next, you describe in detail the process, strategies and outcome of searching for
and selecting literature. Describing how you searched for and found the literature
helps to improve the credibility of your review and assists future researchers to
learn from your literature review procedure. It should include which databases you
Understanding the Types of Dissertation Research 35
used, examples of the key words used to extract literature, the criteria you used to
select relevant materials and how much literature you selected for the review.
You then move to the main body of the chapter, which contains a commentary
about what you found, structured under topics and sub-topics and/or presented
in a chronological format. You end this chapter by writing a concluding statement
summarizing what has been presented in the chapter.
Chapter Three
This chapter mainly consists of a description of your research methodology for

how you plan to carry out your study (if you are writing a proposal) or how you
conducted the research (if you are writing a report after completing the study).
Assuming you are writing the methodology portion of your proposal, you start this
chapter with an overview. This section contains brief information on the problem
you plan to address and the purpose of the study, reminding readers about what the
research gap is and what you want to find out in the study. In addition, you could
state your research questions and/or hypotheses and provide reasons why there is
a need to address them. You end the overview section with a description of what
readers should expect in the chapter.
The next section would be your research design. In this section, you are expected
to state the specific research method you plan to use and describe what it entails.
In order words, this section is about explaining what your research approach is,
what it is used for and why it is the best approach. In this chapter, there is also a
section called “Population and Sample,” which houses the description of your data
source and what population they will be drawn from. It also contains the selection
criteria, sampling technique and number of units/participants for your proposed
study. Lastly, you can describe how you plan to recruit participants and where you
plan to recruit them from.
In the “Procedure” section, you provide detailed information on how you plan to
collect data from participants, including describing the data collection strategy and
how it will be used to access and gather information for the data source(s). You then
move on to describe the instruments (such as questionnaire, interview questions and
observation protocol) you plan to use to collect data under the “Instrumentation”
section. You end this chapter with the following sections: validity and reliability,
data analysis, limitations, ethical issues and conclusion. Note that the final disserta-
tion should be written in the past tense.
Chapter Four
This chapter mainly focuses on describing how you analyzed your data and presenting
the results. It starts with an “Overview” section, which provides a brief description
of the problem and the purpose of the study and states what readers should expect
in this chapter. This is followed by an optional section called “Research Setting.”
This will be a good section in which to write about your experience of collecting
data, especially the unexpected challenges you faced and how you addressed them.
This section is not a repetition of the “Procedure” section in chapter three but
an additional data collection-related experience at the research location (whether
physical or virtual). This information could help future researchers to learn from
your experience and put your findings in the right perspective, especially if you did
a qualitative study.
The next section in chapter four is “Participants’ Demographics’.” Here is
where you describe the number of participants you collected data from and those
whose data was included in the main data analysis that led to the generation of
results to address your research questions or test your hypotheses. When reporting
the demographics of a quantitative study, you are expected to present them in a
collective manner, showing mean and standard deviation values for the continuous
variables (such as age and work experience) and counts and percentages for cat-
egorical data (such as gender and ethnicity). You could provide a collective descrip-
tion of participants’ demographics for a qualitative study, but in addition you could
consider describing them in an individual format (see Adu, 2016).
“Data Analysis Strategy and Process” is the next section in chapter four. In this
section, you provide a detailed description of the data analysis strategies used and
how the data was analyzed. This section is followed by the “Results” section. For a
quantitative study with hypotheses to test, you could present the findings based on the
hypotheses you are testing and state whether they are supported or rejected based on
what you have found. For a qualitative study, you normally present the themes based
on the research questions you are addressing (Adu, 2016). You end this chapter with a
summary touching on the main issues you have described in the chapter.
Five
This chapter contains a chapter overview and a presentation of the main results,
an interpretation of the findings and how they relate to the existing study or lit-
erature, application and implication of the findings, weaknesses of the study and
recommendations for not only future researchers but also practitioners, policy
makers and stakeholders (if applicable).
Action Research
Action research involves conducting research about a practical problem with

the goal of using the findings to develop an action plan to help address the
problem. This type of research is normally conducted by practitioners who plan
to conduct research to address an issue they have identified or encountered.
Sometimes, researchers with a transformative philosophical paradigm tend to
do research with elements of action research, focusing on involving participants
in identifying or understanding their problem or developing solutions to address
the problem.
You could conduct action research if your goal is to do a study to solve an issue
that is happening or has happened such as the impact of COVID-19 on people’s
livelihood, the increase in petroleum prices and its impact on family living expenses,
and the user experience of Web3. Based on Adu’s (2017) presentation action
research, here are how the chapters will look.
Chapter One
This chapter starts with a background of the problem you plan to address. The
goal of this background section is to provide a depiction of what the problem
is, how it happened, what the causes and consequences of the problem are, the
people who are affected by the problem, what is being done to address it and how
stakeholders view the problem. At this point you may not get relevant informa-
tion to address these areas, but your aim is to present what is known about the
problem. Next, you state the problem you want to focus on in the study. We call it
a “practical research problem.” In this section, you could focus on at least one of
the following areas:
• Limited knowledge or understanding of the problem

• Unexplored potential solutions
• Lack of assessment of the current solution
• Lack of an effective solution
You then state what you want to do in the study in the “Purpose of the Study”
section. You could use words such as describe, determine, demonstrate, examine,
explore, understand, explain, compare and conceptualize to portray what you
intend to do in the study. Someone may ask, “What is the ‘thing’ that you plan to do
or conduct?” This is where you state the phenomenon, issue, concepts or variables
you plan to study. Also, if you have information about the research location and
population (or data sources), you can add this to the purpose statement. Here are
examples of a purpose statement:
The purpose of this phenomenological study is to understand the college graduates’ experience
of waiting for a job offer in a Fortune 500 tech company.
The purpose of this quasi-experimental study is to determine the effect of personalized
learning on students’ performance in their statistics course.
Like traditional research, you write the following sections in addition to the ones
described above (see Adu, 2017, slide 7):
• Research Questions: Stating the questions you want to address in

your study
• Definition of Key Words: Stating what the key terms you plan to use in your
study mean and represent
• Conceptual/Theoretical Framework: Describing, explaining and cri-
tiquing the theory, model or concepts you plan to use to inform your study
• Significance of the Study: Describing the benefits and contributions your
study will make
• Delimitations: Describing what your study will and will not cover in terms
of the focus of the problem and study, the research location, the population/
participants, the number of participants and/or the solution to the problem
• Limitations: Describing the shortcomings as a result of the choices made,
research tools and strategies you plan to use and actions you plan to take
Chapter Two
This chapter is about reviewing literature to help inform your action research study.
By reviewing literature, you can learn more about the problem, best practices related
to addressing the problem and theories and models that inform the understanding
of the problem and development of a solution. Similar to the literature review
chapter for traditional research, you provide an “Overview” section that briefly
describes the problem and purpose of the study and what readers should expect in
this chapter. You can have a “Literature Search” section, where you describe how
you searched for and selected relevant literature and where you accessed it. You
then present the review based on the topics and/or a specified sequence, synthe-
sizing what you found.
Chapter Three
The content of the methodology chapter of an action research study is the same
as that of a traditional research study. You will have an overview of the chapter,
research questions and their justification, research design, population and sample,
data collection process, instrumentation, quality assurance (i.e., validity and reli-
ability of the study), data analysis process and ethical issues.
Because of the closeness of the connection between you and what you are
studying, it is important to discuss your background, experience, expectations, biases
and beliefs with respect to the topic and how you plan to manage these influences.
This issue should especially be addressed when using a qualitative approach (Adu,
2017). Therefore, having a section such as “Researcher’s Beliefs, Background and
Biases” would be great.
Chapter Four
This chapter is mainly about describing how you analyzed your data and presenting
the results. It has five main sections: overview, participants’ demographics, data
analysis process, findings and summary.
Chapter Five
This chapter focuses on discussing the findings, making sense of the results and
exploring their practical implication and application. Besides this, you can include
research limitations and recommendations for future research practitioners and
stakeholders. One distinct feature of this chapter is the action plan. An action
plan denotes the road map for how the findings will be used to help address the
problem.
Program Evaluation
Program evaluation is the process of assessing the need for a yet-to-be-developed

intervention, examining whether there are enough appropriate resources for the
implementation of a program, exploring how activities in the program are meeting
the expected targets and/or finding out the impact of the program. The outcome
of the program assessment can help with the stakeholders’ decision to develop,
improve or discontinue a program. Program evaluation can be grouped into six
types: developmental, formative, implementation, economic, summative and attri-
bution (impact) evaluation.
Let’s briefly go through them to help you better understand the main features of
each type of evaluation (see Table 3.1).
• Developmental Evaluation: This type of evaluation is done before the

implementation of the evaluation and focuses on assessing the needs of the
potential beneficiaries of the problem, the expectations, roles and views of
the stakeholders and the program resources, activities and expected outcomes
(Patton, 2012). The results of the developmental evaluation are used to help
create a program.
• Formative Evaluation: This type of evaluation can also be called a pro-
cess evaluation. It involves assessing the program resources and activities to see
whether they meet the desired expectations (Alkin & Vo, 2018; Patton, 2012).
With a formative evaluation, you address questions such as are the program
resources enough to carry out the program activities and are the program activ-
ities going on as expected? It is conducted during the implementation of the
program and the results help to improve the program resources and activities.
• Implementation Evaluation: This type of evaluation can also be labeled
as an investigative, demonstrative or explanatory evaluation. An implementa-
tion evaluation is normally done at the end of the program to examine what
happened in the program and to explain what lead to the success or failure of
a program or how the program resources and activities led to set goals (Patton,
2012). It is normally used to make a decision on continuing with the program,
creating a new program or expanding the intervention (Adu, 2020).
• Economic Evaluation: An economic evaluation revolves around cost
assessment. The focus is to find out whether a program is worth the financial
cost (Office of the Associate Director for Policy and Strategy, 2021). There are
three main types of analysis in an economic evaluation:
• Program cost analysis: This is used to determine how much a program
will cost (Adu, 2020).
• Cost-effectiveness analysis: This type of analysis is appropriate if you
plan to compare the cost of program resources and activities with that of its
outcome (Adu, 2020).
newgenrtpdf
Table 3.1 Evaluation purposes and their corresponding evaluation types
40
Evaluation Purpose Evaluation Type
Understanding the Types of Dissertation Research

Developmental Formative Implementation Summative Attribution (Impact) Economic
Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation
• Explore the conditions that led to the development of a program Yes
• Examine a problem of practice that is yet to be addressed Yes
• Review changes in the program’s input, activity, output and/or Yes

outcome
• Examine ongoing program implementation Yes
• Address concerns about whether the program’s inputs, activities Yes

and/or outputs are meeting expectations
• Create awareness (among program staff or policy implementers) Yes
about the state of the inputs, activities and/or outputs
• Examine how a program occurred or a policy was executed Yes
• Deconstruct the pathway to realizing a program’s success or Yes
failure
• Explain the factors that contributed to a program’s success or Yes
failure
• Examine the outcomes of a program Yes
• Assess the benefits of a program for its beneficiaries Yes
• Explore the unintended consequences of a program Yes
• Determine the causal connection between the program’s Yes
implementation and outcome(s)
• Establish if changes in the program participants’ behavior, Yes
attitudes and/or emotions can be attributed to the program’s
activities
• Rule out explanations for the attainment of the program’s Yes
outcomes other than its activities
• Determine the cost of the program’s/policy’s implementation Yes
• Compare the cost of the program’s inputs and outcomes Yes
• Compare the program’s cost and the benefits (in monetary Yes
terms) of the program
Source: Adopted from Adu (2020, slides 11–12).

• Cost-benefit analysis: This involves comparing how much the program

cost with the financial benefit of the program (Adu, 2020).
An economic evaluation can be conducted at any stage of the program, whether
it is the pre-implementation, implementation or post-implementation stage (Office
of the Associate Director for Policy and Strategy, 2021).
• Summative evaluation: A summative evaluation is conducted at the end of

the program, with the goal of assessing its outcomes (Bamberger et al., 2012). If
you plan to find out whether a program met a specified target and benefited its
participants or to examine the implications of the program, then a summative
evaluation will be appropriate.
• Attribution (impact) evaluation: This type of evaluation focuses on deter-
mining the effect of a program (Alkin & Vo, 2018; Patton, 2012). Similar to
conducting an experimental or quasi-experimental study, the goal of an impact
evaluation is to find out the causal relationship between the program and the
observed outcome. An impact evaluation is done at the end of the program,
with the aim of utilizing the results to assess whether the program effect was
worth the resources invested and activities organized (Adu, 2020).
So, what kind of information is needed in each of the five chapters of a program
evaluation dissertation?
Chapter One
In this introductory chapter, you are to provide information about the program, the
problem it addresses and its background. You can also describe the stakeholders of
the program, including the beneficiaries. In addition, you could present the current
state of the program, describing whether it is in its development, implementation or
completion stage. Next, you address the following question: What specific problem
do you want to solve by conducting an evaluation? This is asking about your evalu-
ation problem. An evaluation problem could be limited information about the needs
of the beneficiaries of the program, limited information about resources needed to
implement the program, not knowing whether the program is going according to
plan and/or a lack of informal assessment of the outcome of the program.
Based on the evaluation problem, you then develop the purpose of the evalu-
ation. Before stating your evaluation purpose, you need to know the type of evalu-
ation you are conducting. For instance, if you plan to conduct a developmental
evaluation, you could state the purpose as follows: “The purpose of this developmental
evaluation is to examine the needs of potential beneficiaries of the program and the resources
needed to implement the stress reduction program. The findings will be used to design the yet-to-
be-developed program.” Table 3.1 can help you to determine and state the purpose of
the study.
After describing the purpose of the evaluation, you then think about specific
questions you want to address. Make sure the purpose statement informs the
evaluation questions, maintaining consistency between them. There are three main
types of evaluation questions: qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods (Adu,
2020). Qualitative evaluation questions are mainly exploratory and open-ended
in nature and usually start with what, how or why (Larsen & Adu, 2021). However,
quantitative evaluation questions are normally confirmatory and closed-ended in
nature (Adu, 2020). For example, “Is there a relationship between happiness and job satis-
faction?” Sometimes, you can have a quantitative open-ended question, especially
when conducting a descriptive quantitative evaluation study with the purpose of
measuring and describing variables using numbers. For example, “What is the level of
job satisfaction among health care workers?” Lastly, mixed methods evaluation questions
are made up of both qualitative and quantitative questions in an evaluation study.
The rest of the sections in chapter one of a program evaluation dissertation are
the same as with traditional research and action research. However, the section
that is uniquely different is “Conceptual/Theoretical Framework.” In this section,
you could discuss a theory or group of theories that inform the program and its
components, an aspect of the program, the problem being addressed and/or the
strategy or perspective you plan to use to conduct the evaluation. The common
approach to developing a framework is to use a theory or model to help understand
the program and the relationship between them.
A logic model is one of the program models used to help understand the
program and its component (Alkin & Vo, 2018; Kettner et al., 2017; Patton, 2012).
Under this model, the program can be categorized into five components: inputs,
activities, outputs, outcomes and impact.
• Inputs are the resources (including personnel) needed to implement the program
(Kettner et al., 2017).
• Activities involve utilizing the program resources to help accomplish the set
goals (Kettner et al., 2017).
• Outputs are immediate effects as the results of the program activities carried out
• Outcomes are the benefits of the program on the conditions of the program’s
beneficiaries (Kettner et al., 2017).
• Impact is about the effect as the results of the implementation of the program
A logic model can be used to build your conceptual/theoretical framework

by reviewing the program and categorizing its features into the five components,
helping both you (the evaluator) and the stakeholders know what the resources
are as well as the specific program activities and their outputs, the results of the
program and the impact. Also, it helps you to easily determine which aspect of the
program needs to be evaluated.
Chapter Two
There is some flexibility in terms of what you want to present in chapter two, which
is the literature review chapter. The most important thing is to have a specific goal
in mind in terms of what you plan to achieve by writing a literature review for a
program evaluation dissertation. Do you want to educate your readers about the
problem being addressed by the program? Do you want to share research done or
literature written about the program? Do you want to present theories and models
in support of the implementation of the program? Do you want to reach best
practices in relation to evaluating a program? Do you want to review literature to
justify the selected type of evaluation and/or strategies you plan to use to conduct
the evaluation? Do you want to use literature to support the focus of your evalu-
ation and/or the role you plan to play? Having a goal enables you to present a well-
structured review of the literature and aids readers in easily following the assertions
you made based on what you found in the literature.
Chapter Three
Like the methodology chapter for traditional research, you are expected to pro-
vide the following sections: chapter overview, research questions and their justi-
fication, research design, population and sample, procedure, instrumentation,
research validity and reliability (i.e., quality assurance), data processing, limitations,
assumptions, ethical assurance and chapter summary (Adu, 2023). An additional
section you could include would be about your roles, background and biases. In
this section, you could describe your roles in this evaluation research. Do you see
yourself as an internal or external evaluator? What are your responsibilities as an
internal or external evaluator? What do you want to share to help your readers
know who will be conducting the evaluation? What biases do you have and how
do you plan to address them? You could write this section after the research design
section.
Chapter Four
This chapter is all about describing how you analyzed your evaluation data and
presenting what you found. You start the chapter with the “Chapter Overview”
section, where you state the purpose of the evaluation and what readers should
expect. You could also have an “Evaluation Setting,” which explains what when
on during the data collection phase. This helps readers to get a sense of what
happened (in terms of the data collection experience, challenges and lesson
learned), the context of which data was collected and best practices. The next
section is “Participants’ Demographics,” which focuses on presenting the
characteristics of the participants. This section could also be called “Data Source
Characteristics,” especially when the data includes documents, artifacts and the
like. As with traditional research, you then present the following sections: data
analysis process, results and summary.
Chapter Five
This discussion chapter contains a summary of the findings, their interpretation

and their connection to the literature reviewed. It also has a translation of what was
found into practical application, making it easy for readers to determine how the
results could be utilized. Here are the sections in chapter five:
• Overview: This section provides what readers should expect in chapter five.
However, it starts by reminding readers about the problem and purpose of
the study.
• Results Summary: In this section, you are to provide the main aspects of the
findings, especially the areas where your interpretation is based.
• Results Interpretation: This section includes providing your understanding
of the findings, presenting your views, patterns seen, projections, assertions and/
or evaluations (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2008). Who will be reading this report or
document should always be kept in mind when communicating the meanings
being derived. You could also connect to the best practices or literature you
reviewed in chapter two.
• Results Utilization: Here is where you describe how the results will be used
and who should use them.
• Limitations of the Study: In this section, you write about any shortcomings
as the result of the decision and action you took in the evaluation study.
• Recommendations: In this section, you share your suggestions, looking at the
entire evaluation process and outcomes. What should be done to the program?
What should future evaluators do? What should stakeholders learn from the
evaluation? These are some of the questions you could address in this section.
• Conclusion: You then provide a concluding statement summarizing and
briefly synthesizing what you have written in the sections above. One strategy is
to write a sentence or two to represent each of the above sections.
Summary
Not all dissertations are the same in terms of how the chapters and their sections
should be structured. Knowing what type of dissertation you are doing will help
you to properly structure your study to reflect the characteristics of the selected
type of research. In this chapter, we discussed the three types of research, namely,
traditional research, action research and program evaluation. To recap, if you plan
to address a practical problem by doing a study to understand the problem and gen-
eral solutions and/or implement a solution to see its impact, then action research
will be best. However, if your focus is on doing research to address a gap identified
in the literature or a problem generated from a theory or model, then traditional
research will be appropriate. The final type of research is program evaluation, which
involves doing research to help develop a program, assess on ongoing program or
review the outcome or impact of a completed program. Knowing your dissertation
type will influence the way you conduct and write about the study.
References
Adu, P. (2016, August 25). Conducting qualitative analysis using NVivo 11 (Part3) by Philip Adu,
Ph.D. [Video]. YouTube. www.youtube.com/watch?v=xEyGGFtVQFw
Adu, P. (2017, September 6). Action research dissertation: What to think about (Philip Adu, PhD)
[Video]. YouTube. www.youtube.com/watch?v=S4sWHYMG5cQ
Adu, P. (2020, April 21). Program evaluation questions with Philip Adu [Video]. YouTube. www.
youtube.com/watch?v=YJA--ZfGE7s
Adu, P. (2023, April 26). Writing the methodology chapter of your dissertation [Video]. YouTube.
https://youtu.be/NFLzd267UOg
Alkin, M. C., & Vo, A. T. (2018). Evaluation essentials from A to Z. Guilford Press.
Bamberger, M., Rugh, J., & Mabry, L. (2012). RealWorld evaluation: Working under budget, time,
data, and political constraints. SAGE.
Bloomberg, L. D., & Volpe, M. (2008). Completing your qualitative dissertation: A roadmap from
beginning to end. SAGE Publications, Inc. https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781452226613
Kettner, P. M., Moroney, R. M., & Martin, L. L. (2017). Designing and managing programs: An
effectiveness-based approach. SAGE.
Office of the Associate Director for Policy and Strategy. (2021, March 3). Economic evalu-
ation overview. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. www.cdc.gov/policy/polaris/
economics/index.html
Patton, M. Q. (2012). Essentials of utilization-focused evaluation. SAGE.
4 Choosing an Appropriate
Research Methodology
Objectives
1. Distinguish between the three main research approaches
2. Decide on an appropriate research method
3. Write about the selected research method
About Research Methodology

The research method can be regarded as the research inquiry tool used to com-
plete the research task stated in the purpose statement and framed in the research
question(s) or hypotheses. This implies that, typically, you must know what you
want to find out in the study, including the questions you want to address or
hypotheses you want to test, before thinking about the appropriate method for your
study. However, besides this linear strategy of coming up with the best research
approach, there is a possibility that a researcher could first consider the research
tool they are familiar with and structure the purpose and questions to align with
the chosen method. Whether you want to take the linear or non-linear route, the
most important thing is to ensure that there is consistency between the purpose of
the study, the research questions or hypotheses and the selected research method.
There are three main types of research methods: quantitative, qualitative and
mixed methods (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
Exploring Quantitative Research Methods

What comes to mind when we hear of a quantitative method is a research tool used to
help measure variables or quantify observations. It also assists in collecting and analyzing
data in numerical form, aiding in addressing research questions or testing hypotheses.
Examples of studies that warrant the use of a quantitative approach include:
• Determining the quality of life among a group of people

• Examining the relationship between job satisfaction and work performance
• Finding the impact of substance abuse on quality of life
DOI: 10.4324/9781003268154-4
48 Choosing an Appropriate Research Methodology
Aliaga and Gunderson (2002) define quantitative research methods as explaining

phenomena by collecting numerical data that are analyzed using mathematically
based methods (in particular statistics). Muijs (2004) defines quantitative research
as collecting numerical data. This is closely connected to the final part of the def-
inition: analysis using mathematically based methods. He also states that, in order
to be able to use mathematically based methods, our data have to be in numerical
form. He also refers to the use of mathematically based methods, in particular
statistics, to analyze the data.
Creswell (2003) asserts that quantitative research originated in the physical
sciences, particularly in chemistry and physics. The researcher uses mathematical
models as the methodology of data analysis. Three historical trends pertaining to
quantitative research include research design, test and measurement procedures
and statistical analysis. Quantitative research also involves data collection that is
typically numeric, and the researcher tends to use mathematical models as the
methodology of data analysis. Additionally, the researcher uses inquiry methods to
ensure alignment with the statistical data collection methodology.
In addition, according to Cohen and Manion (1980), quantitative research is
defined as social research that employs empirical methods and empirical statements.
He further states that an empirical statement is defined as a descriptive statement
about what “is” the case in the “real world” rather than what “ought” to be the
case. Typically, empirical statements are expressed in numerical terms. Another
factor in quantitative research is that empirical evaluations are applied. Empirical
evaluations are defined as a form that seeks to determine the degree to which a spe-
cific program or policy empirically fulfills or does not fulfill a particular standard
or norm (Sukamolson, 2007). Furthermore, a quantitative research method deals
with quantifying and analyzing variables in order to get results. It involves the
utilization and analysis of numerical data using specific statistical techniques to
answer questions such as who, how much, what, where, when, how many and how (Leedy
& Ormrod, 2010).
When Do We Use Quantitative Methods?
Muijs (2004) defines five main advantages of quantitative research:
1. “Quantitative research is good at providing information in breadth from a large

number of units, but when we want to explore a problem or concept in depth
quantitative methods are too shallow. To really get under the skin of a phenom-
enon, we will need to go for ethnographic methods, interviews, in-depth case
studies and other qualitative techniques” (p. 7).
2. “Quantitative research is well suited for the testing of theories and hypotheses.
What quantitative methods cannot do very well is develop hypotheses and the-
ories. The hypotheses to be tested may come from a review of the literature or
theory, but can also be developed using exploratory qualitative research” (p. 8).
3. Quantitative research is well suited for when we often want to explain phe-
nomena. What factors predict the recruitment of mathematics teachers? What
Choosing an Appropriate Research Methodology 49
factors are related to changes in student achievement over time? As we will see
later in this book, these kinds of questions can also be studied successfully using
quantitative methods, and many statistical techniques have been developed that
allow us to predict scores on one factor or variable (e.g., teacher recruitment)
from scores on one or more other factors or variables (e.g., unemployment rates,
pay, conditions).
4. Quantitative research is well suited for testing hypotheses. We might want to
explain something, for example whether there is a relationship between a pupil’s
achievement and their self-esteem and social background. We could look at the
theory and come up with the hypothesis that a lower social class background
leads to low self-esteem, which would in turn be related to low achievement.
Using quantitative research, we can try and test this kind of model.
5. Quantitative research is well suited “for looking at cause and effect (causality, as
it is known), qualitative methods are more suited to looking at the meaning of
particular events or circumstances” (p. 8).
Many students look at quantitative research as an avenue for conducting statis-

tical based research. As we have shown, quantitative research has advantages over
qualitative research methods. Muijs (2004) argues that quantitative research is often
placed in opposition to qualitative research. This belief is often turned into a “para-
digm war,” which is seen to result from the apparently incompatible worldviews
underlying the methods. However, when looking at researchers’ actual beliefs, it
appears that the so-called subjectivist (qualitative) versus realist (quantitative) divide
is not that clear-cut.
Types of Quantitative Methods

There are different types and varieties of quantitative methods. In this book, we
focus on the most commonly used quantitative methods. There are five core quan-
titative research designs that are commonly used with dissertation studies:
• Descriptive method
• Correlational method
• Causal-comparative method
• Experimental method
• Quasi-experimental method
Leedy and Ormrod (2010) assert that there are three broad classifications
of quantitative research: descriptive, experimental and causal- comparative.
The descriptive research approach is a basic research method that examines
the situation as it exists in its current state. There are three types of exploratory
approaches: pre-experimental, true-experimental and quasi-experimental (Leedy
and Ormrod, 2010). The pre-experimental design involves an independent vari-
able that does not vary or a control group that is not randomly selected. The true
experimental design results in a systemic approach to quantitative data collection
involving mathematical models in the analyses. However, the quasi-experimental

design involves a nonrandom selection of study participants. Therefore, control is
limited and true experimentation is not possible. Since the variable cannot be con-
trolled, validity may be sacrificed.
Descriptive research involves the identification of attributes of a particular
phenomenon based on an observational basis, or the exploration of a correl-
ation between two or more phenomena (Williams, 2007). In causal-comparative
research, the researcher examines how the independent variables are affected by
the dependent variables and looks at the cause-and-effect relationships between the
variables. The factorial design focuses on two or more categories with independent
variables as compared to dependent variables (Vogt, 1999). The causal-comparative
research design provides the researcher with the opportunity to examine the inter-
action between independent variables and their influence on dependent variables
(Vogt, 1999).
Descriptive Method
This quantitative method is used when you plan to measure a variable or a group of
variables and conduct descriptive statistics to help address your research question.
For example, let’s say you plan to explore parents’ perceptions about homeschooling
and your research question is, “What are the perceptions of parents about homeschooling?”
The appropriate qualitative research approach is the descriptive method, since you
plan to use an instrument to measure the parents’ perceptions and report what you
have found. You could report the mean score with the standard deviation of their
perception.
In many cases, descriptive study designs are useful for simply describing the
desired characteristics of the sample that is being studied, e.g., an abnormal pres-
entation of a disease in a case report or a case series that includes a collection
of cases with the same disease/condition. A descriptive study may also try to
generalize the findings from a representative sample to a larger target population
as in a cross-sectional survey. The common aspect between the descriptive study
designs is that there is only one single sample without any comparison group
(Omair, 2015).
Furthermore, descriptive research involves collecting data in order to answer
questions or test hypotheses concerning the current status of the situation under
study (Long et al., 1985). In the behavioral sciences, descriptive research can
be classified as survey research or observational research (Long et al., 1985).
For example, survey research typically employs questionnaires or in some cases
interviews to determine people’s opinions, attitudes and perceptions about a situ-
ation being studied. Typically, survey research ordinarily uses quantitative methods
(Long et al., 1985).
With the descriptions approach, your focus is on measuring something about
your participants in order to learn about them. The descriptive approach does not
allow for determining relationships between variables. However, your goal is to use
numbers to describe the variable of interest.
Alternatively, you could see the descriptive research method as a quantitative

research tool used to learn about the sample you have drawn from a population.
It can also be viewed as a tool used to learn about an instrument in terms of its
validity and reliability. For instance, you could conduct a descriptive quantitative
study with the purpose of validating an instrument, determining whether it is meas-
uring what is supposed to measure (e.g., validity) and if it is providing a consistent
measure (e.g., reliability) (see Williams et al., 2010).
Common Statistical Tests used with Descriptive Research Designs
The common statistical tests for a descriptive research design are used for focusing
on minimal inferential analyses. Again, descriptive research provides an account
of the characteristics of individuals, groups or situations. The objective in using
descriptive research designs is that, by using descriptive statistics, the researcher
reports on the frequency and percentages of the data sample.
When conducting statistical tests for a descriptive research design, there are
three commonly used tests: (a) descriptive statistics; (b) frequency distribution; and
(c) crosstab analysis. Descriptive statistics is used to describe the characteristics in
the data such as the range, which is the mean, mode and median. Next, the fre-
quency distribution is used to describe the frequency and percentages of the data’s
variables (e.g., the distribution of students in college is by year, listing the number
or percentage of students at each of the four years).
Lastly, crosstab analysis is used to quantitatively analyze the relationship between
multiple variables. Cross tabulations are also commonly referred to as contingency
tables. Crosstab analysis groups variables together and enables researchers to under-
stand the correlation between the different variables.
These are the best approaches for using statistical tests with descriptive statistics
designs.
Correlational Method
This method is used if you plan to determine the relationship between variables. For
instance, you could use the correlational method for a study that focuses on deter-
mining whether there is a relationship between exercise and quality of life. In this
case, you would identify your population, recruit the right number of participants
and ask them to complete a survey measuring the frequency of exercise and degree
of their quality of life. You then run a correlation analysis to find out whether the
relationship between the two variables is statistically significant. If there is a cor-
relation between them, you could also review the direction (i.e., there is a positive
or negative relationship) and the strength (i.e., there is a small, medium or strong
relationship).
Correlational research involves collecting data to determine the existence of
a relationship between two or more variables and to estimate the relationship’s
magnitude. This relationship is usually described by a statistic called the
Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient, Pearson’s r or the correlation
coefficient. This number, which is between −1.00 and 1.00, describes the extent
of a linear relationship between two variables; that is, how closely the points
represented by ordered pairs of individuals’ scores on each variable approxi-
mate a straight line when graphed in a coordinate system. The values of −1.00
and 1.00 indicate a perfect linear relationship (inverse and direct respectively),
while a value of .00 indicates no linear relationship. Values approaching +1.00
indicate a strong positive correlation, values nearing −1.00 mean that a strong
negative correlation exists, and values closer to zero indicate a weak or lack of
correlation. In this case, the r value is −.975, meaning that a strong negative cor-
relation does exist, just as we expected. Generally, the strength of the linear rela-
tionship is measured by squaring the correlation coefficient (Long et al., 1985;
Terrell, 2017).
Furthermore, correlational research studies are usually classified as relationship
studies. Relationship studies examine the association between measures of different
variables obtained at approximately the same time. In addition to investigating
relationships between variables of interest, these studies often try to obtain a better
understanding of factors that make up a complex construct such as intelligence,
self-concept or school ability. Relationship studies are also often done as a prelim-
inary to causal-comparative and experimental studies in order to identify important
variables that the researcher may want to include in the design of later studies.
In addition, correlational research studies normally employ quantitative methods,
so a dissertation involving correlational research would use the aforementioned
format (Terrell, 2017). In correlational research, the investigator deliberately seeks
to examine links (or relationships) between variables without introducing an inter-
vention (Williams, 2007).
Rule #1: Correlation is Not Prediction; Prediction is Not Correlation.

When you are conducting correlation research (or relationship research), you
must understand that measuring a relationship between two variables (usually two
dependent variables) is not prediction or measuring a causal relationship. A consid-
erable number of doctoral students get this wrong. They fail to understand the rela-
tionship differences between the dependent variables and independent variables
and the independent variables and dependent variables. That is the key difference.
Again, correlational research studies are usually classified as relationship studies.
The point is that relationship studies examine the association between measures of
different variables obtained at approximately the same time. In addition to investi-
gating relationships between variables of interest, these studies often try to obtain
a better understanding of factors that make up a complex construct (Williams,
2007). Correlation is not the same as prediction. Furthermore, prediction is not
correlation.
Rule #2: You Cannot Correlate Independent Variables with Dependent

Variables. When you are conducting prediction research (or causal research), you
must understand that measuring a causal relationship between two variables or
predictions is measuring a causal relationship. You are measuring the relationship
between the independent variables and the dependent variables. Again, a consider-
able number of doctoral students get this wrong.
Again, the casual relationship measurement between the independent variable
and the dependent variable is not a correlational relationship. You cannot measure
and correlate independent variables with dependent variables. That is a statistical
no-no. Most likely you will not find a correlative relationship between the inde-
pendent variables and dependent variables for two key reasons: (1) because of issues
with unidimentionality between the independent variables and dependent variables;
each of the scales between the independent variables and dependent variables are
different in scale variables content and do not align; and (2) because you cannot
correlate independent variables with dependent variables. It will create a false posi-
tive or false negative correlation coefficient and cannot be relied on for the results.
That is wrong (Miles, 2021).
Common Statistical Tests Used with Correlation Research Designs
The common statistical tests used for correlation research designs are used for
measuring relationships. Again, correlational research attempts to determine the
extent of a relationship between two or more variables using statistical data. The
objective in using correlational research is for the researcher to examine links (or
relationships) between variables without introducing an intervention.
When conducting statistical tests for a correlational research design, there are
two commonly used tests: Pearson’s r and Spearman’s r (see Table 4.1). Pearson’s r is
Table 4.1 Quantitative research designs and their respective purposes and statistical analyses
Quantitative Purpose Statistical Test Used

Research Design for Analysis
Descriptive method The purpose of the descriptive • Descriptive statistics

research methodology is to • Frequency distribution
provide an account of the • Crosstab analysis
characteristics of individuals,
groups or situations. The aim
of the descriptive method is
to “discover new meaning,”
describe what exists, determine
the frequency with which
something occurs and categorize
information.
Correlational method The purpose of the correlational • Pearson’s r
methodology is to determine • Spearman’s r*
the extent of a relationship • Chi square test of
between two or more variables. independence*
Variables are not manipulated;
they are only identified and are
studied as they occur in a natural
setting.
(Continued)
Table 4.1 (Continued)
Quantitative Purpose Statistical Test Used

Research Design for Analysis
Causal-comparative The purpose of the causal- • Paired sample t-test

method comparative methodology • Independent t-test
is to examine cause-and- • Simple linear regression
effect relationships between • Multiple linear regression
nonrandom variables. Subjects • Logistic regression
are not randomly assigned groups • Wilcoxon Rank-Sum test*
and must use ones that are • Wilcoxon Signed-rank test*
naturally formed or pre-existing
groups.
Experimental method The purpose of the experimental • Paired sample t-test
methodology is to investigate • Independent t-test
cause-and-effect relationships • Simple linear regression
between the random • Multiple linear regression
independent variable and • Logistic regression
dependent variable in • Time series analysis
an experiment. Subjects • Wilcoxon rank-sum test*
are randomly assigned to • Wilcoxon signed-rank test*
experimental treatments rather
than identified in naturally
occurring groups. Also pre-test
and post-test designs are used
to investigate the effect of a
treatment in an experiment.
Quasi-experimental The purpose of the quasi- • Paired sample t-test
method experimental methodology is to • Independent t-test
compare and contrast groups. • ANOVA
The researcher examines groups. • MANOVA
The non-equivalent groups approach • ANCOVA
is commonly used for this • MANCOVA
methodology. This methodology • Discriminant analysis
examines the post facto effects of • Time series analysis
an intervention on groups and • Kruskal–Wallis H*
examines the group differences. • ANOSIM*
At the heart of experimental • Wilcoxon rank-sum test*
research is the ability to randomly • Wilcoxon signed-rank test*
assign membership to a group,
as well as treatment to a specific
group.
Note: *Asterisk denotes non-parametric statistical test.
used to describe the Pearson’s correlation coefficient, which is the test statistics that
measures the statistical relationship, or association, between two variables. It is the
best method for calculating the number between −1.00 and 1.00 that measures the
strength and direction of the relationship between two variables.
Lastly, Spearman’s r is the nonparametric counterpart to Pearson’s r that measures

rank correlation (statistical dependence between the rankings of two variables). It
is used to assess how well you have two ranked variables and when you want to see
whether the two variables covary. Again, Spearman’s r is a nonparametric correl-
ation analysis. It is best used and is more appropriate for measurements taken from
ordinal scales. Spearman’s rank correlation measures the strength and direction of
association between two ranked variables.
Causal-Comparative Method
The causal-comparative method of research design was formerly another name for
the quasi-experimental research design. This type of method is used if you plan to
determine a causal relationship between variables. A causal-comparative method of
research attempts to measure cause-and-effect relationships between two variables.
Most often, a researcher seeks to provide evidence for cause-and-effect relationships
by examining the effect of one or more variables (independent) on another vari-
able (dependent), without being able to manipulate any of the variables. Thus, this
type of research is called causal-comparative. Causal-comparative research occurs
frequently in the behavioral sciences because the manipulation of many variables,
such as personality traits, race, handicaps, ability, smoking, diseases and home
experiences, is impossible, impractical or unethical (Long et al., 1985).
Casual-comparative studies are also called prediction studies. Prediction studies
involve the establishment of an equation that is used to predict future performance
on some variable, called the dependent variable or criterion, using information
obtained from other variables, called the independent variables or predictors. In
addition to predicting performance on criterion, researchers often seek to iden-
tify which predictors are most important in explaining changes in the criterion.
Prediction studies are used to aid in the selection or placement of individuals, to
identify individuals to perform certain tasks or receive special services, to deter-
mine the criterion-related or predictive validity of measuring instruments and to
test hypotheses concerning variables believed to be predictors of a given criterion
In causal-comparative research, the researcher examines how the independent
variables are affected by the dependent variables and looks at cause-and-effect
relationships between the variables. The factorial design focuses on two or more
categories with the independent variables as compared to the dependent variables
(Vogt, 1999). The causal-comparative research design provides the researcher with
the opportunity to examine the interaction between independent variables and
their influence on dependent variables (Williams, 2007).
Rule #3: Independent Variable =“Cause” and Dependent Variable =

“Effect.” Two rules that doctoral students should remember regarding the dis-
tinction between the two variables: (1) independent variables equal “cause”; and
(2) dependent variables equal “effect.” These two rules are what drives the causal-
comparative or predictive research. If the novice researcher can remember these
two rules, it will save them a lot of confusion and misunderstanding concerning the
role of the variables in their study.
The following example is typical of causal-comparative research. In attempting
to explain differences in the reading performance of first graders, a researcher might
hypothesize that parents reading to the child at home for 30 minutes or more each
day is the major contributing factor. To test this hypothesis, the researcher could
select a group of first graders whose parents read to them every day for 30 minutes
or more and a group whose parents don’t do this. If the group whose parents do
read to them every day for at least 30 minutes has a higher reading performance,
then the researcher’s hypothesis would apparently be supported. Alternatively, the
researcher could select a group of better readers and a group of poorer readers and
determine the number of children in each group whose parents read to them for
at least 30 minutes each day. If this number is higher in the better readers’ group,
then once again the researcher’s hypothesis would apparently be supported (Long
et al., 1985).
An association between variables is not sufficient evidence of causality.
Furthermore, a researcher cannot determine simply by examining the association
between two variables (Long et al., 1985).
Ordinarily, the methods used to analyze data from a causal-comparative study
are the same as those used to analyze data from an experimental research study.
Some additional examples of causal-comparative studies are an investigation into
whether smoking is a factor in the development of lung cancer, an examination
of factors contributing to different dropout rates among black and white urban
secondary school students, and a comparison of the language development of
hearing-impaired students with hearing parents and hearing-impaired students
with hearing-impaired parents (Long et al., 1985).
Common Statistical Tests Used with Causal-Comparative Research Designs
The common statistical tests for a causal-comparative research design are used
for focusing on minimal inferential analyses. Again, the objective of the causal-
comparative research design is to examine cause-and-effect relationships between
nonrandom variables. Subjects are not randomly assigned groups and must use
ones that are naturally formed or pre-existing groups in the data.
When conducting statistical tests for a descriptive research design, there are
five commonly used tests: (a) paired sample t-test; (b) independent t-test; (c) simple
linear regression; (d) multiple linear regression; and (e) logistic regression.
First is the paired sample t-test, which is used to determine whether the mean diffe-
rence between two sets of observations is zero. In a paired sample t-test, each sub-
ject or entity is measured twice, resulting in pairs of observations.
Second is the independent t-test, which is used to assesses whether the means of two
groups, or conditions, are statistically different from one other. They are reasonably
powerful tests used on data that is parametric and normally distributed.
Third is the simple linear regression, which is used to estimate the relationship
between one independent variable and one dependent variable using a straight
line. In addition, the simple linear regression is a statistical method that allows
the researcher to summarize and study relationships between two continuous
variables.
Fourth is the multiple linear regression, which uses several explanatory variables to
predict the outcome of a response variable. The key objective of multiple linear
regression analysis is to use the independent variables whose values are known to
predict the value of the single dependent value. The multiple linear regression is
an extension of the simple linear regression that uses just one explanatory variable.
Furthermore, as a predictive analytic, the multiple linear regression is also used to
explain the relationship between one continuous dependent variable and two or
more independent variables.
Lastly, the logistic regression is used when the dependent variable is dichotomous
(binary). Like the other types of regression analyses, the logistic regression is a pre-
dictive analytic. Researchers use a logistic regression to predict a dependent data
variable by analyzing the relationship between one or more existing independent
variables.
The logistic regression estimates the probability of an event occurring, such as
if a voter voted or didn’t vote, based on a given dataset of independent variables.
These five statistical tests are the best approaches for using statistical tests with a
causal-comparative research design.
Experimental Method
Experimental research is regarded by many as the optimum quantitative method-

ology for obtaining reliable information about the treatment or intervention effect
(Walker, 2005). The basis of the experimental method is the experiment, which
can be defined as a test under controlled conditions that is made to demonstrate a
known truth or examine the validity of a hypothesis (Muijs, 2004). A key element of
experimental research is control, and this is where it differs from non-experimental
quantitative research. The issue is that, when doing an experiment, the researcher
wants to control the environment as much as possible and only concentrate on
those variables that they want to study. Therefore, this is why most experiments
traditionally take place in such places as laboratories, environments where all extra-
neous influences can be controlled. Furthermore, in non-experimental research,
the researcher will not be able to control out extraneous influences (Muijs, 2004).
The purpose of an experiment is to determine the degree to which outcomes
of interest are caused by the treatment (intervention) as opposed to extraneous
factors. The true or randomized experiment is generally considered best equipped
to provide such evidence due to its control over possible sampling bias (Spector
et al., 2008). The basis of experimental research involves an examination of the
effects of at least one independent variable on one or more dependent variables
while the other relevant variables are controlled. Direct manipulation of at least
one independent variable is the main characteristic that differentiates experimental
research from other methods. Experimental studies provide the strongest evidence
for cause-and-effect relationships (Long et al., 1985). Kerlinger (1986) asserts that
experimental research fulfills the ideal of science by addressing research questions

less ambiguously than other methods of research. Random sampling, manipulation
and control are the characteristics of “true” experimental research.
A good research design maximizes both the internal and external validity of an
experiment. Internal validity is the extent to which changes in the dependent vari-
able can be attributed to changes in an independent variable. However, external
validity refers to the generalizability or representativeness of the findings (Long
et al., 1985). Campbell et al. (1966) provide an extensive treatment of threats to the
internal and external validity of experiments and suggest designs that control for
these threats.
One common way to control for extraneous variables is through randomiza-
tion. Randomization primarily refers to the random assignment of individuals to
experimental conditions. Ideally, random assignment should follow the random
selection of the sample from the population. Random assignment is the primary
way of reducing the initial differences between groups. Experimental designs in
which random assignment to groups is not possible are called quasi-experimental
Extraneous variables can also be controlled for by introducing them directly
into the design and including them as sources of variation in the statistical model
used to analyze the data. For example, the use of blocking variables in the ana-
lysis of variance, covariates in the analysis of covariance and predictors entered
prior to other independent variables in regression provides statistical control for the
variables involved. Experimental research studies are normally considered to be
quantitative because of the frequent use of descriptive and inferential statistics in
the analysis of data from studies (Long et al., 1985).
Pre-Experimental Designs
Typically, when a researcher is conducting a pre-experimental study, it means

that the researcher is conducting a study with only one group. Unlike in a quasi-
experimental study, the researcher does manipulate any variables and is able to ran-
domly assign subjects to groups formed by combinations of these variables (Long
et al., 1985).
Pre-test/Post-test Experimental Designs
The traditional experimental design is also known as the pre-test/post-test control

group design. It works as follows: participants (often known as “subjects” in experi-
mental research) are placed into two groups, the experimental group and the con-
trol group. The experimental group will receive the “treatment” (e.g., watching a
violent music video). However, the control group will not. Both groups will receive
a pre-test on whatever instrument is used to assess the effect of the experiment (e.g.,
a test) before the treatment is given and a post-test, usually on the same instrument,
after the treatment has been given (Muijs, 2004; Terrell, 2017).
The Static Group Comparison Design
The last of the pre-experimental designs, the static group comparison is very similar
to the one-shot case study, which is when you are comparing the post-test perform-
ance of two groups, with no pre-test information available (Long et al., 1985).
Common Statistical Tests Used with Experimental Research Designs
The common statistical tests for an experimental research design are used for
focusing on minimal inferential analyses. Again, the objective of the experimental
research design is to examine cause-and-effect relationships between nonrandom
variables. Subjects are not randomly assigned groups and must use ones that are
naturally formed or pre-existing groups in the data. When conducting statistical
tests for a descriptive research design, there are six commonly used tests: (a) paired
sample t-test; (b) independent t-test; (c) simple linear regression; (d) multiple linear
regression; (e) logistic regression; and (f) time series analysis.
First, again, when doing a statistical test using the paired sample t-test, it is
primarily used to determine whether the mean difference between two sets of
observations is zero. Furthermore, with the paired sample t-test, each subject or
entity is measured twice, resulting in pairs of observations.
Second, the independent t-test is used to assesses whether the means of two
groups, or conditions, are statistically different from one other. In addition, they are
reasonably powerful tests used on data that is parametric and normally distributed.
Third, the simple linear regression is used to estimate the relationship between
one independent variable and one dependent variable using a straight line. It is a
statistical method that allows the researcher to summarize and study relationships
between two continuous variables.
Fourth, the multiple linear regression is used for several explanatory variables to
predict the outcome of a response variable. One key objective of using the multiple
linear regression analysis is to use the independent variables’ values that are known
to predict the value of the single dependent value. The multiple linear regression
is also used to explain the relationship between one continuous dependent variable
and two or more independent variables. That is what makes it a powerful tool in
experimental research designs.
Fifth is the logistic regression, which is used when the dependent variable is
dichotomous (binary). Again, the logistic regression is a predictive analytic. The
researcher uses a logistic regression to predict a dependent data variable by ana-
lyzing the relationship between one or more existing independent variables. That is
what makes it another powerful tool in experimental research designs.
Lastly, the time series analysis is used to analyze a sequence of data points
collected over an interval of time. The objective of using a time series analysis is
to record data points at consistent intervals over a set period of time rather than
just recording data points intermittently or randomly. What makes the time series
analysis a powerful tool in experimental designs is that the analysis can show how
variables change over time. Time series analysis has the advantage of showing
how the data adjusts over the course of the data points as well as the final results.
Its other advantage is that it provides an additional source of information and a
set order of dependencies between the data. These six statistical tests are the best
approaches to use in experimental research designs.
Quasi-Experimental Method
Quasi-experimental research is also referred to as ex post facto research, since both
the effect and the alleged cause have already occurred and are studied by the
researcher “after the fact.” Typically, a researcher observes groups that differ in
some variable (the alleged effect) and attempts to identify factors that have led
to this difference. Unlike the experimental researcher, the quasi-experimental
researcher does not manipulate any variables and is not able to randomly assign
subjects to groups formed by combinations of these variables (Long et al., 1985;
Pedhazur, 1982).
A quasi-experimental design differs from an experimental design, in that, in the
former, the treatment is consciously manipulated by the researcher, but the units are
not randomly assigned to treatment and control groups. Thus, this design offers less
of a basis for assuming the initial equivalence of treatment and control groups and
requires researchers to consider how third, extraneous variables might confound
efforts at ascertaining causal effects and to be explicit about alternative hypoth-
eses (Munck & Verkuilen, 2005). Lastly, an important component of the quasi-
experimental study is the use of the pre-testing or analysis of prior achievement to
establish group equivalence (Spector et al., 2008).
At the heart of experimental research is the ability to randomly assign member-
ship to a group, as well as treatment to a specific group. Unfortunately, sometimes
this is not possible. For example, if the researcher is interested in comparison and
cannot assign membership to a city, a class or an organization, the researcher has to
work with the groups they have. With that in mind, the researcher has to control for
threats to validity rising from these types of studies. Furthermore, the researcher,
for reasons beyond his control, is using pre-existing groups with a treatment ran-
domly assigned to one of the groups (Terrell, 2017).
Researchers need to recognize two important limitations of quasi-experimental
research that may make the interpretation of such studies very difficult. First, since
the independent variables cannot be manipulated, the researcher must be content
with analyzing the differences between variable groups (Long et al., 1985). Second,
since subjects cannot be randomly assigned to groups, control over other relevant
variables is seriously restricted. Groups that have already been established may
differ on other important variables that contribute to differences in the variables
of interest. The issue here, basically, is proper model specification. In our example,
only differences in parent practices were considered as contributing to differences
in reading achievement (Long et al., 1985).
Common Quasi-Experimental Method: Non-Equivalent Control Group Design.
The most common type of quasi-experimental research is the non-equivalent con-

trol group design. It is primarily used for measuring differences between groups in
the study. A non-equivalent control group design is a quasi-experimental design in
which the responses of a treatment group and a control group are compared on
measures collected at the beginning and end of the research (Cook & Campbell,
1979; Shadish et al., 2001; Reichardt, 2019).
The most commonly used quasi-experimental designs are nonequivalent group
pre-test/
post-test group design, control- group interrupted time series design,
single group interrupted time-series design and counterbalanced design (Sousa
et al., 2007).
The non-equivalent pre-test/post-test control group design is identical in many
ways to the pre-test/post-test control group design, except that subjects are not
randomly (NR) assigned to groups. Both groups are pre-tested (O) and post-tested
(O). However, only the experimental group is exposed to a treatment (X) (Sousa
et al., 2007).
In psychology and other social sciences, these designs often involve self-selection,
in which the members of the treatment group are those who volunteer or other-
wise seek the treatment, whereas the comparison group members do not. Since
participants are not assigned to conditions at random, the two groups are likely
to exhibit pre-existing differences on both measured and unmeasured factors that
must be taken into account during statistical analyses (VandenBos, 2015).
Common Statistical Tests Used with Quasi-Experimental Research Designs
When using a quasi-experimental research design, in contrast to an experimental

design, the participants are not randomly assigned to treatments. Furthermore,
with the quasi-experimental design the participants are not randomly assigned to
any controlled treatments or environments. Considering that quasi-experiments
use pre-existing groups or convenience samples that are not randomly composed,
this makes the research more attainable in terms of achieving results (Spector
et al., 2008).
There is an important component to the quasi-experimental research design.
Quasi- experimental study is the use of the pre- testing or analysis of prior
achievement to establish group equivalence. In the true experiment, randomiza-
tion makes it improbable that one group will be significantly superior in ability to
another, but systematic bias can easily be introduced in the quasi-experiment; for
example, although the first-and third-period algebra classes may have the same
teacher and identical lessons, it may be the case that honors English is offered in
the third period only, thus restricting those honors students to taking first-period
algebra (Spector et al., 2008).
When conducting statistical tests under a quasi-experimental research design,
there are three commonly used tests: (a) t-Test; (b) Analysis of Variance (ANOVA);
and (c) Multiple Analysis of Variance (MANOVA). t-Tests are used to compare
two groups (e.g., males and females, pre-test and post-test). ANOVA is used to
compare more than two groups (e.g., age groups or categorical groups). Lastly, a
MANOVA is also used to compare more than two groups (e.g., many categorical
groups).
In many cases with quasi-experimental research, an ANOVA was used to com-
pare the post-test scores of the two groups, and a MANOVA was used to analyze
group differences between social and cognitive interaction behaviors (Spector et al.,
2008). If your instrument has constructs or categories, in many cases you will use a
factorial approach. This means you will conduct your statistical tests in categories
based on the constructs in the instrument. This is the best approach for organizing
your analyses. Assessments include a post-test, attitude survey and group inter-
action behaviors.
Exploring Qualitative Research Methods

Qualitative methods are used when you plan to study a phenomenon of interest,
collecting and analyzing non-numeric data to help address mainly exploratory
research questions. Qualitative data could be in the form of words, visuals including
illustrations, photos and videos, artifacts and audios. There are five main qualita-
tive methods, which we will call traditional qualitative methods (Creswell, 2013).
They are:
• Case study approach

• Ethnographic approach
• Grounded theory approach
• Narrative approach
• Phenomenological approach
Case Study Approach
The case study approach is used to describe or learn about a case with the goal of
highlighting, understanding or explaining a case (Baxter & Jack, 2008). So then,
what is a case? A case is anything that has distinctive characteristics that separate it
from other units, entities, phenomena, events or situations. A case could be a group
of people, organizations, places or issues. The most important thing is that they are
well-defined, with well-drawn boundaries based on specified characteristics such as
time, location and the like. Here are examples of a case:
• Financial organizations located in New York City with not less than 40 employees
that have laid off 30% of their staff over the last three years
• African American women working in the healthcare industry for at least two
years who have experienced micro-aggression in the workplace
• People suffering from long-term symptoms of COVID-19 after contracting it
The purpose of utilizing the case study approach is to highlight the

characteristics of the case, help people to understand the case, compare and con-
trast cases or explain the unique features of a case. Users of a case study approach
tend to collect data from multiple sources such as interviews, focus groups, docu-
ment collection and observation. The essence of this best practice is to make sure
a rich variety of information is collected about the case to ensure that the research
question is adequately addressed, thus improving the credibility of the study. We
want to note that there are various types of case study approaches to choose from
if you want to be more specific about the case study approach you plan to use,
including single, multiple, collective, intrinsic, exploratory and explanatory (see
Baxter & Jack, 2008).
Ethnographic Approach
An ethnographic approach is used when you plan to engage with a person or group
of people in their natural setting, collecting rich data to help meet the purpose of
the study. Engagement with participants could include conducting observations,
participating in what they do, collecting artifacts, interviewing them and conducting
focus groups. The unique aspect of an ethnographic approach is the need to spend
considerable time with the source(s) data and the taking of field notes to help gen-
erate relevant data for the study (Adu, 2019).
Grounded Theory Approach
A grounded theory approach is used when you plan to use collected data to develop
a theory that explains a process, an event, a phenomenon, a behavior or a situation
(Adu, 2019). Here are some unique features of this approach:
• Collecting data from a larger number of participants compared to a phenom-

enological and narrative approach
• Simultaneously collecting and analyzing data
• Conducting follow-up interviews based on an initial analysis of the data
• Comparing an initially developed theory to a new set of data
• Refining or confirming an initial theory based on the new data
Narrative Approach
A narrative approach is used when you collect, analyze and report participants’
stories (Bell, 2003). For instance, based on the purpose of your study, participants
can share stories about working from home, taking paternity leave, dealing with
depression, the experience of going to college and the like. As a qualitative
researcher utilizing this approach, your role is to create a conducive environment
for participants to share their stories. You then retell their stories after systematically
reviewing them, extracting relevant components to help present a narrative that
best represents what they have shared.
Phenomenological Approach
A phenomenological approach is used to describe, explore, understand or examine

the experience of participants. There are two main types of phenomenological
approach: transcendental (i.e. a phenomenological approach informed by tran-
scendental phenomenology) and interpretative (i.e., a phenomenological approach
informed by interpretative phenomenology) (Larsen & Adu, 2021).
Transcendental Phenomenological Approach
Edmund Husserl (1859–1938), who was a proponent of transcendental phenom-

enology, believed that you experience a phenomenon when you become conscious
of it. In other words, an experience occurs when one becomes conscious of the
object (phenomenon) of experience. For example, if you take a look at a house
and you become aware of what you are viewing, then an experience has occurred.
The transcendental phenomenological approach focuses on giving participants the
chance to describe what they have become conscious of. After collecting the data,
you extract features of each participant’s experience and gather all the common
features, thus generating the essence of their experience.
Interpretative Phenomenological Approach
Martin Heidegger (1889–1976), who was a proponent of interpretative phenomen-

ology, asserted that an experience occurs when a subject interacts with the things of
the world. As a researcher, your role is to help participants to narrate their experi-
ence, which includes how they make sense of it. You then make meaning of it and
use the outcome to address your research question. In the end, your goal is to inter-
pret participants’ expressions, views and narratives of their experience.
Innovative Qualitative Approaches
Besides the common qualitative approach we have described above, there are other
innovative methods you could use to effectively conduct your qualitative research.
One of the ways of coming up with a qualitative methodology is to combine two
approaches, such as combining a phenomenological approach with a narrative
approach (see Larsen & Adu, 2021) or linking a case study to a grounded theory (see
Alzaanin, 2020). As indicated, it is possible to effectively combine and utilize two
qualitative approaches in a study. The most important thing is to make sure their
roles in the study are well-defined by addressing the following questions: “What roles
are the methods going to play in the study?”; and “At what stage in the study are the methods going
to be utilized?”
Other innovative qualitative methods you could explore are the arts-based
research method (see van der Vaart et al., 2018), autoethnography (see Ellis et al.,
2010), the content analysis method (see Bengtsson, 2016), netnography (see Costello
et al., 2017) and the photovoice method (see Nykiforuk at al., 2011).
Exploring Mixed Methods Designs

A mixed methods design is a type of research method that has quantitative and
qualitative components, and both methods are utilized in a signal study. It is simply
collecting and analyzing quantitative and qualitative data in a study to help address
the purpose of the study (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). There are two main types of
mixed methods design: sequential and concurrent (Hanson et al., 2005).
Sequential Mixed Methods Design
This type of design involves implanting one approach and completing data
collection and analysis before carrying out the second approach. For instance, you
could start with a qualitative approach and implement a quantitative approach
based on the findings of the initial approach. There are three main kinds of sequen-
tial mixed methods design.
Sequential Exploratory Mixed Methods Design
With this approach, you start with a qualitative phase and use the findings to
inform a quantitative phase. Since it starts with a qualitative phase, the qualitative
approach plays a dominate role in the study. In addition, because more priority is
given to qualitative data, the researcher’s philosophical paradigm should be openly
described and made known to your audience (Hanson et al., 2005). The mixing of
the two methodologies can take place in the data analysis and findings interpret-
ation stage. There are situations that warrant the need to use sequential exploratory
mixed methods design.
• Developing an instrument: If you plan to develop an instrument based

on the concepts (i.e., themes) generated from the qualitative phase of
the study
• Expanding findings to the larger sample size: If you want to see how the
qualitative findings apply to the larger sample
• Confirming qualitative findings: If you want to determine whether the
quantitative findings correspond with the qualitative results
Sequential Explanatory Mixed Methods Design

This kind of sequential mixed methods design entails starting with a quantita-
tive phase and using its findings to inform the qualitative phase (Creswell & Plano
Clark, 2018; Hanson et al., 2005). With this design, the quantitative method plays a
dominant role, and the researcher doesn’t have to openly describe their philosoph-
ical paradigm (Creswell et al., 2003). The integration can happen at both the data
analysis stage and the findings interpretation stage. So, in what situation is sequen-
tial explanatory mixed methods design recommended?
• Seeking a deeper understanding of the quantitative findings: The

quantitative phase helps us to measure variables and determine whether
relationships between variables exist. What it is less able to do is to assist us in
finding out the reasons behind the quantitative outcomes. This is where the
qualitative phase comes in, which is used to address some of the questions that
may arise based on the quantitative findings.
• Determining the areas of focus for the qualitative phase of the study:
It is sometimes difficult for researchers to determine which aspects of the phe-
nomenon of study they should explore. So, quantitative findings can help them
to determine the direction of the qualitative phase. In some cases, researchers
can use the results of the quantitative phase to recruit participants for the quali-
tative phase.
Sequential Transformative Mixed Methods Design
This kind of mixed methods design has features of both the sequential explora-
tory and explanatory design. The only difference is that the sequential transforma-
tive mixed methods design has an advocacy role feature. This means that the
researcher’s main goal of conducting a mixed methods study is to use the findings
to improve the lives of participants.
Concurrent Mixed Methods Design
With this type of mixed methods design, the quantitative and qualitative phases
are carried out simultaneously (Creswell et al, 2003; Hanson et al., 2005). This
means that you collect and analyze both quantitative and qualitative data at
the same time. In other words, you don’t collect one type of data and analyze
it before collecting another type of data. There are three kinds of concurrent
mixed methods design: concurrent triangulation, concurrent nested and concur-
rent transformative.
• Concurrent triangulation mixed methods design: This design comprises

of collecting and analyzing both quantitative and qualitative data at the same
time. Also, both have equal priority, meaning they play an equal role in studying
the same phenomenon. It is about studying an issue from two different method-
ology perspectives and seeing whether they arrive at similar findings.
• Concurrent nested mixed methods design: With this design, one of the
methods (either quantitative or qualitative) plays a less dominant role in the
study by focusing on relatively small aspect(s) of the phenomenon of study. For
example, let’s assume that you plan to explore factors that contribute to burnout,
and you plan to use a concurrent nested mixed methods design. The qualitative
approach could play a major role, since you plan to look at all potential con-
tributing factors to burnout. However, the quantitative approach will play a less
dominant role if you plan to determine whether job dissatisfaction is a signifi-
cant predictor of burnout. As you can see in this case, the quantitative approach
is not considered to be playing the dominant role because it is only used to

address an aspect of the phenomenon.
• Concurrent transformative mixed methods design: This approach has
features related to a concurrent triangulation or nested mixed methods design.
However, a unique feature of the concurrent transformative mixed methods
design is the advocacy component, thus making it possible to use the research to
improve the lives of people who have been marginalized.
Mixed Methods Design Characteristics
Most of the mixed methods designs have characteristics that are related to the
following five areas: timing, theoretical lens, integration, priority and purpose. You
could use the acronym TTIPP to represent the areas related to the mixed methods
features (see Adu, 2015).
Timing
The timing feature refers to the sequence in which the quantitative and qualitative
phases will be conducted (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018; Hanson et al., 2005). If
your mixed methods design has a sequential feature, it means you start with one meth-
odology phase and analyze data before continuing the study with the second meth-
odology phase. It is important to note that your mixed methods design is considered
sequential if and only if the findings of the first phase inform aspects of the imple-
mentation of the second phase. For example, if your quantitative findings help to
determine who you should recruit to participate in the qualitative phase of the
study, it is considered a sequential mixed methods design.
However, a mixed methods design with a concurrent feature focuses on implementing
both the quantitative and qualitative phases simultaneously. In other words, at the
data collection stage you collect the quantitative and qualitative data at the same
time. Similarly, at the data analysis stage you analyze both data at the same time.
Theoretical Lens
Your theoretical lens is the philosophical paradigm that informs the research pro-
cess. Some of the theoretical lenses are positivism, post-positivism, constructivism,
social-
constructivism, pragmatism and transformative perspective (Creswell &
Plano Clark, 2018; Hanson et al., 2005). If a qualitative approach plays a dom-
inant role in your study or collecting qualitative data is your top priority, then you
need to communicate your theoretical lens when writing about your research meth-
odology. This helps readers to know your perspective and to better understand
how you conducted your study, what you found and how you interpreted these
findings. However, if a quantitative approach plays a dominant role, you do not
have to make known your theoretical lens. This is because, when using a quantita-
tive approach, it is assumed to attain objectivity, as the researchers tend to distance
themselves from what they are studying. As a result, they do not have to share their
philosophical paradigm, since it may have no influence on the data being collected
and analyzed. Lastly, if the quantitative and qualitative methods play an equal role
in your study, you do not need to share your theoretical lens.
Integration
Integration refers to where the mixing takes place and how it is done. It can happen
at the data analysis stage or the interpretation of findings stage (Hanson et al., 2005).
In terms of how the mixing is done, the quantitative and qualitative phase could be
connected, especially when using any of the sequential mixed methods designs. With
these kinds of mixed methods designs, the findings of one methodological phase is
connected to the implementation of the other methodological phase. Another way
of mixing is merging. This could involve transforming, qualifying quantitative data or
quantifying qualitative data to be consistent in their features with the other data set
(i.e., qualitative or quantitative data) and mixing them. It could also involve mixing
without transforming one of the types of data or findings.
Purpose
One of the questions you may be asked if you want to conduct a mixed methods
study is “Why are you combining two different methodologies in your study?”
Providing a justification for utilizing your mixed methods design is needed when
writing about the research design for your study. This kind of justification is referred
to as the purpose of your mixed methods design. There are five main purposes you
could choose from to support why you are combining quantitative and qualitative
methods: complementarity, development, expansion, triangulation and initiation
(see Hanson et al., 2005).
• Complementarity: This rationale is used when you want to argue that the
weakness of one approach is offset by the strength of another approach. It is also
used to defend a mixed methods design where each of the methods address parts
of the phenomenon of study.
• Development: This rationale is used when you want to argue that one method
informs the implementation of another method.
• Expansion: This rational focuses on arguing that one of the methods is
expanding the inquiry to a large sample (i.e., emphasizing the breadth) or
exploring to get a deep description, understanding or explanation of the phe-
nomenon of study (i.e., emphasizing the depth).
• Triangulation: This rationale involves arguing that you are using two methods
to study the same phenomenon with the goal of determining whether both
methods arrive at similar findings.
• Initiation: If you plan to conduct a mixed methods study with the goal of
exploring uniqueness and contradictions between the findings of the two
methods, you could use the initiation rationale.
Priority
The priority feature refers to the role that each of the methods play in the study.
A method can be used to play one of the following roles: dominant, minor or equal
(Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018; Hanson et al., 2005). If a method is used to help
explore, examine or inquire a large portion of the phenomenon of study, then it is
considered to be playing a dominant role. However, if it is used to address a com-
paratively small aspect of the phenomenon of study, then the method is playing a
less dominant role. Also, the quantitative and qualitative method can play an equal
role in a study, especially when using a concurrent triangulation mixed methods
design (see Table 4.2).
Determining the Right Research Method

There are many ways of determining the right research method for your study. The
common strategy is arriving at an appropriate method in a linear manner, with
more emphasis on achieving consistence across the purpose of the study, research
question(s) and research method. This process starts by examining the kind of
terms you used to describe what you want to do in the study and the phenomenon
you want to study. For instance, if the purpose statement has words such as explore,
examine, narrate or describe, then you are more likely to conduct a qualitative
study. However, if it has words such as determine, find out or report, then you are
more likely to conduct a quantitative study.
The next step is to look at potential methods for your study and their functions
in terms of what they are used for. Compare the functions of the method to the
purpose of the study and choose the one that will help you to conduct the study.
For example, if the purpose of your study is to examine participants’ experience of
near-death events, you could use a phenomenological (specifically, an interpretative
phenomenological) approach. This is because the phenomenological approach is
used to describe participants’ experience or examine their understanding of what
they have experienced (Larsen & Adu, 2021).
If you are still not sure about the right research approach for your study, you
could further examine your research questions. Ask yourself: “What research tool
will help me to address this question?”; “What kind of information will I arrive
at if I use this tool?”; and “Will the information have the potential to address
the research question(s) I have?” Once you have identified the best approach for
your study, the next step is to learn more about when, how and where it is used,
including its strengths and limitations. You can review textbooks to gain more infor-
mation about your selected approach. Research articles can also be rich sources
for learning about how the approach is used in studies. Familiarizing yourself with
your approach will help you to better describe, utilize and defend it.
newgenrtpdf
Table 4.2 Mixed methods designs and their characteristics as suggested by Creswell et al. (2003)
70
Mixed Methods Theoretical Lens Timing Integration Methodological Rationale Priority
Choosing an Appropriate Research Methodology

Design (Philosophical
Paradigm)
Sequential Implicit (post- Sequential, beginning Data Analysis stage Complementarity Quantitative
explanatory positivist lens) with quantitative (connected) and data/method
design phase interpretation stage
(merged)
Sequential Explicit Sequential, beginning Data Analysis stage Development, Qualitative data/
exploratory (constructivist with qualitative (connected) and complementarity and/ method
design lens) phase interpretation stage or expansion
(merged)
Sequential Explicit Sequential, beginning Data Analysis stage (connected) Complementarity, Equal or unequal
transformative (advocacy lens) with either and interpretation stage development and/or weight
design quantitative or (merged) expansion
qualitative phase
Concurrent Implicit Concurrent Data analysis stage (separated) Triangulation Equal weight
triangulation and interpretation stage
design (merged)
Concurrent Implicit or Concurrent Data analysis stage (data Complementarity, Unequal weight
nested design explicit transformed and/or initiation and/or
merged) and interpretation expansion
stage (merged
Concurrent Explicit Concurrent Data analysis stage (separated) Complementarity, Equal or unequal
transformative (advocacy lens) and interpretation stage initiation and/or weight
design (merged) expansion
Source: Adopted from Adu (2015, slide 29).

Writing About Your Selected Research Method

After you have selected the right method for your study, your next step is to intro-
duce the tool to your readers or research/practitioner community. When writing
about the method, you first state what it is. Here is an example: “The research approach
I will be using to conduct this study is a causal-comparative design.” You then describe what
it is used for, which is about stating the functions and circumstances that warrants
the use of the approach. This is followed by a justification supporting the selec-
tion of the method. You could also add the philosophical paradigm or theoretical
foundations that informed your decision to use the approach. By providing a jus-
tification, you are also demonstrating the consistency between the purpose of the
study, the research questions and the method chosen. In other words, your role is
to show how the method of your choice will help you to meet what you want to
achieve in your study. Lastly, you could briefly discuss the role that the method will
play in your study, sharing how it will be used in the study.
Summary
As discussed above, research methods can be categorized into three main
types: quantitative, qualitative and mixed methods. Each encompasses a variety
of research approaches. As you familiarize yourself with them, including knowing
their strengths and weaknesses, you will be able to choose the right research method
for your study. After selecting the appropriate method, you then write about it,
sharing its characteristics and providing reasons why it is appropriate considering
the purpose of the study and the research questions you want to address or the
hypotheses you plan to test.
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5 Understanding the Seven Types
of Research Gaps
Objectives
1. Recognize common research gap types
2. Identify research gaps
3. Write about research gaps
Introduction
One of the most prevailing issues in the craft of research is developing a research
agenda and building the research on the development of the research gap. Most
research of any endeavor is chiefly attributed to the development of the research
gap. This is a primary basis for the investigation of any problem, phenomenon or
scientific question. Given this accepted tenet of engagement in research, it is sur-
prising in the research fraternity that we do not train researchers on how to system-
atically identify research gaps as a basis for their investigation. This continues to be
a common problem with novice researchers. Little theory and research has been
developed on identifying research gaps as a basis for a line of inquiry.
When working with doctoral students, this concept of addressing a gap in prior
research seems to be foreign to them. The idea of finding gaps in the research
has been troubling for most researchers, most particularly doctoral students. For
a considerable period of time, there were no formal or established frameworks
for identifying or characterizing research gaps. It appears that identifying research
gaps is in the eye of the beholder. One researcher’s gap may be another researcher’s
non-gap. Most of this conflict with research gaps tends to touch on perception.
Many researchers may argue that a gap is one thing or it is not. It is still a struggle
for most researchers, especially doctoral researchers, to identify and define gaps in
their studies. This chapter will introduce the seven types of research gap (see Figure 5.1).
Theoretical Foundation and Development

This theoretical model was developed from two important articles by two
researchers who did an outstanding job of building a taxonomy of research gaps.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003268154-5
Understanding the Seven Types of Research Gaps 75
The first known article that developed a framework for defining research gaps was
by Robinson et al. (2011). In their model, they identified and described five types
of research gap: (a) population, (b) intervention, (c) comparison, (d) outcomes, and
(e) setting.
Müller-Bloch and Kranz (2014) developed a research gap model that itself was
developed from Robinson et al.’s (2011) framework. Their theoretical framework
was developed after exhaustive research on the conducting of literature reviews and
was based on Jacob’s (2011) theory on research problems. Jacobs (2011) identified
six kinds of research problem. These problems parallel research gaps as discussed
by Müller-Bloch and Kranz (2014). While research problems are not necessarily
research gaps, they might be synonymous with research gaps. Their framework
consists of six types of research gap: (a) contradictory evidence; (b) knowledge void;
(c) action-knowledge conflict; (d) methodological; (e) evaluation void; and (f) theory
application void (Müller-Bloch & Kranz, 2014).
We found the frameworks proposed by Müller-Bloch and Kranz (2014) and
Robinson et al. (2011) to be significant theoretical developments on research gaps.
Building on the foundation of these two theories, we developed a theoretical frame-
work that is an amalgamation of the two theories and did two things. First, the new
framework is a mixture of the two frameworks but only uses one construct from
Robinson et al.’s (2011) model. Second, we reconceptualized the model developed
from Müller-Bloch and Kranz (2014) by simplifying the names of the constructs
in their proposed framework. Miles (2017) proposed a new model built on the two
previous models that consists of seven core research gaps, renamed and ranked
from the most common to the least common: (a) population; (b) empirical; (c) meth-
odological; (d) knowledge; (e) theoretical; (f) evidence; and (g) practical-knowledge
(see Figure 5.1).
The Seven Research Gaps from Most Common to Least Common

Another prevailing issue with research gaps is being aware of the most common to
the least common. Many doctoral students are not aware that some gaps are more
common than others. To help the readers of this book, we have strategically ranked
the most common research gaps to the least common (see Figure 5.1).
Population Gap
This gap concerns a focus on a population that is under-researched or not adequately

represented in prior research (e.g., gender, race/ethnicity, age, etc). A population gap
is the most common gap recognized by researchers.
Characteristics
• Very common gap. A population gap is the most common gap recognized by
researchers.
76 Understanding the Seven Types of Research Gaps
Figure 5.1 T he seven types of research gap, from the most common to the least common.
• Underserved population. There are always underserved populations that

have been under-researched. This gap addresses a population that is under-
researched or not adequately represented in the evidence base or prior research
(Miles, 2021; Robinson et al., 2011).
Empirical Gap
This gap is concerned with research findings in prior research that lack empirical
research or a subject matter that needs to be evaluated or empirically verified. An
empirical gap deals with gaps in prior research. This conflict deals with the research
findings or propositions that need to be evaluated or empirically verified.
Characteristics
• Common gap. An empirical gap is the second most common gap recognized
by researchers.
• Conflict with prior findings. This gap deals with the research findings or
propositions that need to be evaluated or empirically verified.
• Lack of an empirical line of inquiry. For example, the empirical gap often
addresses conflicts that no study to date has directly attempted to evaluate a
subject or topic using an empirical approach (Miles, 2017, 2021; Jacobs, 2011;
Müller-Bloch & Kranz, 2014).
Methodological Gap
This gap is the type of gap that deals with the lack of variation in research methods
in prior research that could use a different line of inquiry (Jacobs, 2011; Müller-
Bloch & Kranz, 2014; Miles, 2017). A methodological gap is the type of gap that
deals with the conflict that occurs due to the influence of methodology on research
results.
Characteristics
• Common gap. A methodological gap is the third most common gap recognized
by researchers.
• Conflict with prior research methods. This gap addresses the conflicts
with research methods in prior studies and offers a new line of research that is
divergent from those research methods.
• Variation. A variation in research methods is necessary to generate new insights
or to avoid distorted findings.
• New line of inquiry. For the researcher, it might be useful to vary research
methods, especially if certain research topics have been mainly explored using a
singular or common research methodology (Miles, 2021).
Knowledge Gap
This gap is concerned with the lack of research on a particular subject. Thus, the
desired research findings do not exist (Jacobs, 2011; Müller-Bloch & Kranz, 2014;
Miles, 2017). The knowledge gap is a common gap in prior research. There are two
situations where a knowledge gap (knowledge void) might occur.
Characteristics
• Common gap. The knowledge gap is the fourth most common gap in prior
research.
• Two conditions. There are two settings where a knowledge gap (knowledge
void) might occur:
• Knowledge may not exist. Knowledge may not exist in the actual field compared
to theories and prior literature from related research domains.
• Differing results. It might be the case that the results of a study differ from what
was expected (Miles, 2021).
Theoretical Gap
This gap is concerned with a lack of theory on or conceptual/theoretical models

for a particular subject matter in prior research. Because there is a lack of theory, a
gap exists (Jacobs, 2011; Müller-Bloch & Kranz, 2014; Miles, 2017). The theoretical
gap deals with gaps in the theory in prior research.
Characteristics
• Common gap. The theoretical gap is the fifth most common gap in prior research.
• Lack of theory. For example, if one phenomenon is being explained through
various theoretical models, then, similar to a methodological conflict, there
might be a theoretical conflict.
• Examine the theory. Researchers and scholars could examine whether one
of the theories is superior in terms of the gap in prior research.
• Common occurrence. Theoretical gaps are a common occurrence when
examining prior research on a phenomenon (Miles, 2021).
Evidence Gap
This gap is concerned with contradictions in the findings of prior research. There
are conflicts in prior studies that have contradictory results and conclusions (Jacobs,
2011; Müller-Bloch & Kranz, 2014; Miles, 2017).
Characteristics
• Somewhat common gap. An evidence gap is somewhat common compared

to its counterparts. However, it is recognized by researchers and does exist in
prior research.
• Evidence conflict. An evidence gap occurs when a provocative exception
arises, when new research finding contradicts widely accepted conclusions.
• Contradiction. This occurs if results from studies allow for conclusions in
their own right but these results are contradictory when examined from a more
abstract point of view.
• Analyze the research stream. The identification of contradictory evidence
starts with analyzing each research stream.
• Analyze the results. The results from these analyses need to be synthesized in
order to reveal contradictory evidence (Miles, 2021).
Practical-Knowledge Gap
This gap is concerned with professional behavior or practices that deviate from
research findings or are not covered by research (Jacobs, 2011; Müller-Bloch &
Kranz, 2014; Miles, 2017).
Characteristics
• Uncommon gap. A practical-knowledge gap is not a common gap compared

to its counterparts. However, it is recognized by researchers and does exist in
prior research.
Table 5.1 T he seven research gaps from most common to least common
Research Gap Type Definition
Population gap Research regarding the population that is under-

(also known as the “under- represented or not adequately represented in the
researched sub-groups gap”) evidence base or prior research (e.g., gender, race/
ethnicity, age, etc.). (Robinson et al., 2011).
Empirical gap Research findings or propositions that need to be
(also known as the “evaluation evaluated or empirically verified (Jacobs, 2011; Müller-
void gap”) Bloch & Kranz, 2014; Miles, 2017).
Methodological gap A variation of research methods is necessary to generate
(also known as the “methodology new insights or to avoid distorted findings (Jacobs,
void gap”) 2011; Müller-Bloch & Kranz, 2014; Miles, 2017).
Knowledge gap The desired research findings do not exist (Jacobs, 2011;
(also known as the “knowledge Müller-Bloch & Kranz, 2014; Miles, 2017).
void gap”)
Theoretical gap Theory should be applied to certain research issues to
(also known as the “theory generate new insights. There is a lack of theory, thus a
application void gap”) gap exists (Müller-Bloch & Kranz, 2014; Jacobs, 2011;
Müller-Bloch & Kranz, 2014; Miles, 2017).
Evidence gap Results from studies allow for conclusions in their own
(also known as the “contradictory right but these are contradictory when examined from
evidence gap”) a more abstract point of view (Jacobs, 2011; Müller-
Bloch & Kranz, 2014; Miles, 2017).
Practical-knowledge gap Professional behavior or practices deviate from the
(also known as the “action- research findings or are not covered by the research
knowledge conflict gap”) (Jacobs, 2011; Müller-Bloch & Kranz, 2014; Miles,
2017).
Source: Robinson et al. (2011); Müller-Bloch & Kranz (2014); Miles (2017).
• Discrepancy. This kind of gap tends to be a discrepancy that can motivate

new research in this direction.
• Conflict with practices vs. advocated behavior. A practical-knowledge
(action-knowledge) conflict arises when the actual behavior of professionals is
different from their advocated behavior.
• Determine the scope of conflict. In this case, research could seek to deter-
mine the scope of the conflict and to uncover the reasons for its existence (see
Table 5.1).
Writing Up the Research Gaps in a Research Proposal

To discuss the gaps in prior research, you must first highlight some of the prior
research in the literature that does not address the particular focus of the research.
The contributions noted should relate back to the gaps, inconsistencies and contro-
versies noted earlier (see Figure 5.2).
Figure 5.2 Example 1 of how to write up a research gap (general).
Figure 5.3 Examples 2 and 3 of how to write up a research gap (general).
Then, researchers need to identify important gaps, inconsistencies and/or con-

troversies in the literature. This serves to establish the need for additional research
in the topic area of interest. This task, like those that precede it, can be achieved in
a concise manner (see Figure 5.3).
Finally, and most importantly, the researcher must provide a concise statement
about the manuscript’s purposes and the contributions made by the manuscript to
the literature. This statement should follow logically from the text that identifies
the gaps, inconsistencies and/or controversies in the literature (see Figure 5.4 and
Table 5.2).
Summary
This chapter proposed a theoretical model based on the two preceding models
concerning research gaps. This chapter examined the different types of research gap
and the characteristics that afflict researchers, and it offers a theoretical framework
that simplifies the concept of research gaps. This research contributes to the practice
of research by providing a taxonomy for novice and experienced researchers,
and it highlights the importance of understanding the different constructs of
research gaps and their functionality. The chapter discusses a proposed seven-point
theoretical framework that encompasses the most common gaps a researcher will
encounter in a review of the prior research and literature. The foundation of this
research is based on asking questions and finding a new line of inquiry based on
gaps in prior research. This is a driving force in the inquiry of new knowledge. We
Figure 5.4 Examples 4 and 5 of how to write up a research gap (general).
hope that the proposed framework will provide researchers with a template and a
foundation for conducting a systematic and thorough literature review.
Summary of Key Points in the Chapter
Four key points and the following topics were discussed in the chapter:
• The background and history of research gaps. If you develop a taxonomy of

research gaps, there are seven primary research gaps. The research gaps model
proposed by Miles combines two previous models from Robinson et al. (2011)
and Müller-Bloch and Kranz (2014). Forensic science has grown and spread into
many specialized fields. Forensics began in the medical field but has since grown
and integrated into the field of criminology as a science.
• Some research gaps are more common than others. Most interestingly, the
population gap is the most common gap found in research. The second most
Table 5.2 Performing a gap audit: The research gap audit tool
Research Gap Type Audit for Research Gaps
Population gap (also • Are there any underserved populations in the prior research
known as the “under- that have not been investigated?
researched sub-groups Yes____ No _____
gap”) • Are there any subpopulations or sub-groups underserved in the
prior research that have not been researched?
Yes____ No _____
• Are there any subpopulations or sub-groups that present
any opportunities for further research that have not been
investigated?
Yes____ No _____
Empirical gap (also • Does the majority of the prior research use only one type of
known as the research methodology or design (non-empirical)?
“evaluation void Yes____ No _____
gap”) • Does the majority of the prior research use only a qualitative
research methodology and design (case studies, narrative and
so on)?
Yes____ No _____
• Does the majority of the prior research use a non-empirical or
non-evaluation type of research methodology and design?
Yes____ No _____
Methodological gap • Does the majority of the prior research use only one type of
(also known as the research methodology or design (empirical)?
“methodology void Yes____ No _____
gap”) • Does the majority of the prior research use an empirical type
of research methodology?
Yes____ No _____
• Is the majority of the prior research empirical or evaluative?
Yes____ No _____
Knowledge gap (also • Has the topic as the basis of the research been discussed in
known as the prior research?
“knowledge void Yes____ No _____
gap”) • Has the majority of the prior research ever discussed the topic
in depth?
Yes____ No _____
• Has the majority of the prior research ever discussed the topic
extensively?
Yes____ No _____
Theoretical gap (also • Has a theory or conceptual model ever been developed on the
known as the “theory topic as the basis of research in prior research?
application void gap”) Yes____ No _____
• Has the majority of the prior research ever discussed the topic
as a theory or conceptual model?
Yes____ No _____
• Has the majority of the prior research ever developed a
theoretical framework or structural construct concerning
this topic?
Yes____ No _____
Research Gap Type Audit for Research Gaps
Evidence gap (also • Is the majority of the prior research consistent in its findings on
known as the the topic of interest?
“contradictory Yes____ No _____
evidence gap”) • Is the majority of the prior research in agreement in its findings
on the topic of interest?
Yes____ No _____
• Does the majority of the prior research contradict itself in its
findings on the topic of interest?
Yes____ No _____
Practical-knowledge gap • Does the majority of the prior research overwhelmingly agree
(also known as the with the practices of professionals in the field concerning the
“action-knowledge topic of interest?
conflict gap”) Yes____ No _____
• Does the majority of the prior research moderately agree with
the practices of professionals in the field concerning the topic
of interest?
Yes____ No _____
• Does the majority of the prior research overwhelmingly
disagree with the practices of professionals in the field
concerning the topic of interest?
Yes____ No _____
popular research gap is the empirical gap. One of the least common research
gaps is the practical-knowledge gap, which is rarely encountered.
• The chapter discusses writing up the research gaps in a research proposal and
the different methods for doing so, providing three examples.
• The last section of the chapter discusses how to perform a “research gap audit.”
The audit provides the researcher with a tool to help them find the most appro-
priate research gap in prior research. This section of the chapter discusses the
research gap audit based on the seven primary research gaps.
References
Barrios, L. O., (2016). The only academic phrasebook you’ll ever need: 600 examples of academic lan-
guage. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.
Jacobs, R. L. (2011). Developing a research problem and purpose statement. In T. S. Rocco
& T. Hatcher (Eds.), The handbook of scholarly writing and publishing (pp. 125–141). Jossey-Bass.
Miles, D. A. (2017). A taxonomy of research gaps: Identifying and defining the seven research gaps
[Doctoral student workshop]. Finding Research Gaps –Research Methods and Strategies,
Dallas, Texas.
Miles, D. A. (2021). Understanding, defining and ranking the seven research gaps [Doctoral student
workshop]. Finding Research Gaps –Research Methods and Strategies, Dallas, Texas.
Müller-Bloch, C., & Kranz, J. (2014). A framework for rigorously identifying research gaps in
qualitative literature reviews. In The Thirty Sixth International Conference on Information Systems
(pp. 1–19). Fort Worth.
Peterson, S. L. (1998), The research writer’s phrase book: A guide to proposal writing and research phrase-
ology. International Scholars Publications.
Robinson, K., Saldanha, I., & McKoy, N. A. (2011). Development of a framework for to
identify research gaps systematic reviews. Journal of Epidemiology, 64(1), 1325–1330.
Summers, J. (2001). Guidelines for conducting research and publishing in marketing: From
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29(4), 405–415.
6 Developing the Research
Problem
Objective
1. Write a problem statement
Introduction
Many researchers and doctoral students in particular are not properly taught how
to write a clear problem statement. Let’s face it, some of the universities do a poor
job of teaching students how to write a problem statement. Many are confused and
do not know how to frame a research problem and a rationale for their investigation.
So, this is the reason why many doctoral students and researchers have consider-
able trouble writing the problem statement for their study. The reason stems from a
poor research agenda leading to a poor problem statement. The research problem
is one of the most important tasks of a research proposal or dissertation because it
provides a focus and direction for the study. This chapter illustrates how to develop
and write a problem statement with key words and syntax and is based on a confer-
ence workshop we conducted in Atlanta, GA, for doctoral students. Perhaps unsur-
prisingly, our workshop had a surprising large turnout.
Problem Statement: Definition and Meaning

A well-written problem statement defines the problem and helps identify the
variables investigated in the study. The problem statement (a) provides the rationale
for the study and (b) uses data and research to confirm the need to address the
problem in the study (Miles & Scott, 2017). Hernon and Schwartz’s (2007) def-
inition of a problem statement includes many key points: (1) clarity and precision (a
well-written statement does not make sweeping generalizations and irresponsible
statements); (2) the identification of what will be studied while avoiding the use of value-
laden words and terms; (3) the identification of an overarching question and key factors or
variables; (4) the identification of key concepts and terms, the articulation of the study’s bound-
aries or parameters, some generalizability, a conveyance of the study’s importance, benefits and
justification (regardless of the type of research, it is important to address the “so
DOI: 10.4324/9781003268154-6
86 Developing the Research Problem
what” question and to demonstrate that the research is not trivial); (5) no use of
unnecessary jargon; and (6) a conveyance of more than the mere gathering of descriptive data
providing a snapshot. This pretty much lays down the foundation of what a problem
statement is.
Newton and Rudestam (2007) argue that a problem statement is important and
timely. It should include a timely and relevant literature review, problem statement
with corresponding hypotheses and method of data collection and analyses. They
referenced the research wheel of iterative processes. Jacobs (2011) asserts that, in
general, problem statements describe a gap in sets of information, which results in
a call for action or resolution. There are usually three major functions of a problem
statement. First, problem statements establish the existence of two or more factors,
which by their interactions produce a perplexing or troublesome state that yield an
undesirable consequence (Jacobs, 2011).
Furthermore, a problem might be defined as the issue that exists in the litera-
ture, theory or practice that leads to a need for the study (Mauch & Birch, 1998;
Thomas & Brubaker, 2000; Creswell, 2009). Lastly, Creswell (2013) describes the
problem statement in terms of steps that need to be taken to conduct the research: (a)
establishing the problem leading to the study; (b) reviewing the literature about
the problem; (c) identifying deficiencies in the literature about the problem; and
(d) targeting an audience and noting the significance of the problem for this research.
Trouble with the Problem Statement: Ask Two Questions

Many times, when I work with doctoral students trying to pick a topic and research
a problem, they fail to ask two questions: (1) Why does this topic warrant an investigation?
and (2) What drives the investigation? Below are some of the reasons for a poorly written
problem statement by doctoral students and researchers:
• No compelling reason. Lack of a compelling reason for the research. Many

students lack a compelling reason for investigating the problem (research).
• Lack of persuasion. Not persuasive enough in identifying the problem as a
basis for the study. They don’t sell it.
• Clarity. Lack of clarity about the problem. As a result, this lack of clarity
pervades the dissertation. Thus, there is failure to identify gaps in prior research
as a basis for the investigation.
• Topic choice. Poor topic choice for researching a problem is an issue. For
example, you do not want to pick a problem related to something like “basket
weaving” if there is no basis for the problem and investigation.
• Problem nexus. There is a nexus issue with the problem under investigation
and the research. Many doctoral students do not make the connection between
the problem and the basis for the study. Thus, a poor problem statement is
written.
• Failure to develop a clear problem statement. This is the fault of the aca-
demic community. There is always a clear purpose statement, but there is never
a clear problem statement (Miles, 2016; Miles & Scott, 2017).
Developing the Research Problem 87
You must consider these points when you are developing a problem for investi-
gation or as a basis for research. When you have identified a problem as the basis
for your study, the task is easier to address.
When developing your problem statement, consider two points:
• Uniformity. You should always write each of your subproblem statements in

the same way for the dissertation.
• Completeness. Your problem statement should list all the variables that are
under focus in the study. This is important to the structure and will minimize
confusion (Miles & Scott, 2017).
Writing Up the Problem Statement

There is a tool that I use when helping doctoral students to develop their problem
statement called the Statement Grid. The Statement Grid is a helpful tool that
aids students and shows their problem and problem statement visually. It guides
them through the problem and develops the problem statement with supporting
statements. I use this to help doctoral students who are having trouble coming up
with their problem statement. It helps them with their thought process and describes
three possible subproblems as a basis for their research, which helps with the rule
of three (supporting your argument and position with three points) (see Table 6.1).
Webster (1998a, 1998b) provides a very good template for constructing the
problem statement. Here is an example: The central problem to be researched in the
proposed study is the identification of salient motivating influences characteristic of
college-bound high-achieving African American high school graduates of low socio-
economic backgrounds. These influences are likely to include parental values and
influences, peer influences, significant others and many other unknown variables.
Directions
Using this template, we set up the foundation for building the problem statement.
First: Write the overall problem statement template. Second: Divide the
Table 6.1 Introducing the Statement Grid for problem statement development
Problem Statement:
Issue (subproblem) 1: Issue (subproblem) 2: Issue (subproblem) 3:

Table 6.2 Example: The Statement Grid for problem statement development
Problem Statement:
Write and describe the overall problem as identified by the researcher. Then write,
“The central problem to be researched by the proposed study is…” Last write, “As a basis for this
study, the researcher identified the problem to be [number of issues].” Or write, “The researcher
identified three major problems as a basis for this study” (Webster, 1998a).
First, … Second, … Last, …
Problem Statement:
The central problem to be researched by the proposed study is the shortage in the nursing field. This has
a lot to do with the current nursing shortage and the need for more nurses in the field. There is a huge
problem with this shortage and the availability of nurses. As a basis for this study, the researcher
identified the problem to be threefold.
First, the prevailing issue is Second, the prevailing issue in Last, the prevailing issue is that
that the education of new the United States is that the current nursing faculty
nurses is the responsibility 75% of nursing faculty will express low job satisfaction
of institutions of higher reach retirement age in 2017 (Bittner & O’Connor, 2012)
education, but the national (Brett et al., 2014). This is due to complexities in the
shortage of nursing faculty alongside the existing problem nursing educator role making
(McSherry et al., 2012; that 6.9% of nursing faculty the retention and recruitment
Rosseter, 2015) is limiting positions remain unfilled due of qualified faulty difficult
the enrollment, education and to a lack of qualified nursing (Byme & Martine, 2014).
graduation of new nurses educators (Rosseter, 2015). The current problems include
from institutions of higher a shortage of qualified nursing
learning. faculty to educate new nurses, the
complexity of nursing education
and current faculty complaints
of poor job satisfaction (Cook,
2017).
problem to be investigated into two or three parts (or subproblems) that are
compelling (see Table 6.2). Please note, use the word issue when writing the
subproblem so that it is not misinterpreted as four separate problem statements
(see Table 6.3).
The Example in Paragraph Form
The central problem to be researched by the proposed study is the shortage in the
nursing field. This has a lot to do with the current nursing shortage and the need for
more nurses in the field. There is a huge problem with this shortage and the availability
of nurses. As a basis for this study, the researcher identified the problem to be threefold.
(FIRST) The first prevailing issue is that the education of new nurses is the respon-
sibility of institutions of higher education, but a national shortage of nursing fac-
ulty (McSherry et al., 2012, Rosseter, 2015) is limiting the enrollment, education
and graduation of new nurses from institutions of higher learning.
(SECOND) The second prevailing issue is that, in the United States, 75% of the
nursing faculty will reach retirement age in 2017 (Brett et al., 2014). This is along-
side the existing problem that 6.9% of nursing faculty positions remain unfilled
because of a lack of qualified nursing educators (Rosseter, 2015).
(THIRD) Last, the prevailing issue is that the current nursing faculty express low
job satisfaction (Bittner & O’Connor, 2012) because of complexities in the nursing
educator role making the retention and recruitment of qualified faculty difficult
(Byme & Martine, 2014).
The current problems include a shortage of qualified nursing faculty to educate
new nurses, the complexity of nursing education and current faculty complaints of
poor job satisfaction (Cook, 2017). See the examples of problem statements from
real studies.
Advantages of Using the Statement Grid
A key advantage to using the Statement Grid to develop your problem statement is
that it also provides alignment with the development of your purpose statement
and research questions (see Examples 6.1 to 6.4). We will discuss this further in
Chapter 9 on research alignment for dissertations and research projects.
Example 6.1
The central problem to be researched in the proposed study is the lack of

intercultural competence within peer mentoring between international students
and domestic students’ relationships and the lack of a personal account of
students’ experience in a peer-mentoring program. As a basis for the study, the
researcher identified the problem to be twofold.
The first prevailing issue identified by the researcher is the lack of research
on intercultural competence and the peer-mentoring skills of domestic students.
Universities admit international students to drive globalization but fail to bridge
the gap between domestic and international students to help create intercultural
competency. Past researchers conducted different studies within formal classroom
settings and extracurricular settings (Kohnova, 2007; Maeda, 2017; Washburn
& Hargis, 2017). The researcher for the present study will reference Kohnova’s
research to determine ways to sustain effective intercultural interaction by investi-
gating how the attitudes, skills and knowledge of both domestic and international
student peer mentors affect external and internal outcomes (Deardorff, 2011).
Last, the prevailing issue identified by the researcher is the lack of personal
accounts from students about their experiences with a peer-mentoring program.
International students will share their experiences to increase understanding
of the impact of peer mentoring from a domestic student mentor on their
intercultural competence and vice versa. Giving students a voice to share
these experiences might contribute greatly to the effectiveness of such a peer-
mentoring program. Once these personal accounts are known, it might shed
light on the experiences of both domestic and international students and how
they relate to each other (Akanwa, 2015; Bartlett, et al., 2016; Gartman, 2016,
Kwapong, 2019).
[Note: In-text citations included for illustrative purposes only]
Example 6.2
The central problem to be researched in the proposed study is the extent to which
the completion of Teen Leadership, a character education class, impacts the aca-
demic achievement of high school students in Texas. As a basis for the study, the
researcher identified the overall problem to be threefold.
First, there is an issue concerning a variance in the scores for the Texas
Assessment of Knowledge and Skills (TAKS) that was present in schools
throughout the state for the overall reporting category. For this study, student
discipline and a lack of successful interaction skills were considered influencing
factors in that disparity. The prevailing issue identified by the researcher was
whether there is a difference between the group that took the character educa-
tion program and the group that did not. The issue is whether a character edu-
cation program influences passing rates on the TAKS for the overall part of the
assessment.
Second, there is an issue concerning a variance in the scores for the TAKS
that was present in schools throughout the state for the Math reporting category.
Patterns in the variance could not be attributed to the geographical location,
size or demographic makeup of the campus. Personal accountability, attendance
and social intelligence are determined to be factors. The issue identified by the
researcher was whether there is a difference between the group that took the
character education program and the group that did not. The issue is whether a
character education program influences passing rates on the TAKS for the Math
part of the assessment.
Last, there is an issue concerning a variance in the scores for the TAKS
that was present in schools throughout the state for the ELA category. Again,
patterns in the variance could not be attributed to the geographical location, size
or demographic makeup of the campus. It is believed that the variances were
influenced by factors that include student discipline and time distracted from
work, attendance and accountability toward academic responsibilities. The issue
identified by the researcher was whether there is a difference between the group
that took the character education program and the group that did not. The issue
is whether a character education program influences passing rates on the TAKS
for the ELA part of the assessment (Zeig, 2019).
Example 6.3
The central problem to be researched in the proposed study is that the achievement
gap between minority students and non-minority students has barely narrowed
over the last half century. Academic gains have been produced among minor-
ities, but these gains are insignificant, resulting in the gap persisting and minority
students continuing to be left behind (Williams, 2013). As a basis for the study, the
researcher identified the problem to be threefold.
The first issue identified as a basis for this study is the question of achievement
gaps between minorities and non-minorities in public schools located in southwest
Virginia. Generally, the “achievement gap” refers to assessment performances
that are compared between minority students and their non-minority peers.
The National Education Association posits that achievement gaps are complex
and interconnected and vary from school to school and district to district. The
differences between the achievement scores of minorities and non-minorities are
apparent on large-scale standardized assessments.
The second issue identified as the basis for this research study is the com-
parative achievement gaps between additional subgroups such as students with
disabilities and English language learners. Achievement gaps are not specific to
just minority and non-minority students. Gaps in achievement may exist between
groups of students from different backgrounds on state-administered assessments
that include gender, disability and income.
Last, the third issue identified is the factors that contribute to these achievement
gaps. There are factors that are within a school’s or district’s control that dir-
ectly impact student performance such as class sizes, highly qualified teachers
and school safety. Other factors that are outside a school’s control may include
safety in the community, after-school programs and the socioeconomic status of
families.

Example 6.4
The central problem to be researched by the proposed study is the issue of organ-
izational performance, leadership and employee empowerment. As a basis for this
study, the researcher identified three key problems that demanded this investiga-
tion. The first major issue identified as a basis for this study regards customer and
market focus and operational performance in air transportation organizations.
Market orientation strategies in these organizations have been shown to have a
positive relationship to organizational performance and profitability (Balas et al.,
2014). Market-oriented strategies improve operational effectiveness (Mokhtar
et al., 2014).
Pekovic et al. (2016) stated that customer-orientation strategies permit the
organization to identify and respond to customers while creating value for them.
Chu et al. (2016) stated that organizations achieve competitive advantages and
better performance when they oriented themselves to customers. In a study
about shift work schedules in the nursing sector, Faraz et al. (2014) mentioned
evidence that reflects working beyond 50 hours per week is harmful to workers’
health. Stefanovska- Petkovska et al. (2015) stated that employee satisfac-
tion has been demonstrated to promote organizational performance. They
mentioned that, when their employees’ job satisfaction increases, companies
create a comparative advantage for themselves. The intention of this investi-
gation is to study customer-and market-focus issues within air transportation
organizations.
The second major issue as a basis for this study is the concerns with employee
empowerment and organization performance in air transportation organizations.
Malik et al. (2013), in their study of the telecommunication sector in Pakistan,
mentioned that future researchers might target other cities to conduct research
about employee empowerment. Verhulst and Boks (2014), in their study related
to employee empowerment in various Benelux firms, mentioned that a larger
study could look at firms in different countries and companies that integrate sus-
tainability into the entire company. Abbasi et al.’s (2011) study about employee
empowerment in Pakistani banks might stimulate further research in other parts
of the world, especially in other developing countries.
The last major issue identified as a foundation for this study concerns leaders’
openness to new business strategies and organizational performance in air trans-
portation organizations. Organizational performance statistically measures how
the organization is addressing their leaders-employees work relation and employee
empowerment towards the goals of the company. The problem identified in this
study, based on prior research, is that corporations and organizations in related
industries have a limited knowledge of the variables that strive for excellent
organizational performance. Miller (2014) stated that many organizations need
to strive for operational excellence, not for perfection, using a comprehensive
approach focusing on people and effecting change by engaging customers, always

innovating, continuously improving operations and moving at optimal speed
(Morales, 2017).
Summary
This chapter discussed the issue with problem statement development for novice
and burgeoning researchers and proposed a conceptual model based on the research
methods. The chapter provided conceptual models and tools for helping doctoral
students and researchers to develop their problem statement. It contributes to the
research method literature by demonstrating the importance of problem statement
development and the factors that are vital. It also makes a key contribution by pro-
viding a conceptual contribution. The chapter provides a conceptual model and
some theory with regard to problem statement development. The foundation of
the research is based on providing a template for problem statement development.
The development of the problem statement can be challenging, but it is an inte-
gral part of the research endeavor. Possible future studies in research methods and
strategies could provide further development for problem statement development
in research. Also, future work on research methods could focus on other aspects
of research development such as purpose, research questions and other items of
interests. We hope that our proposed framework will provide researchers with a
template and a foundation for developing a solid and clear problem statement in
their research projects and dissertations.
References
Bittner, N. P., & O’Connor, M. (2012). Focus on retention: Identifying barriers to nurse fac-
ulty satisfaction. Nursing Education Perspectives, 33(4), 251–254.
Brett, A. L., Branstetter, J. E., & Wagner, P. D. (2014). Nurse educators’ perceptions of caring
attributes in current and ideal work environments. Nursing Education Perspectives, 35(6), 360–
366. https://doi.org/10.5480/13-1113.1
Byme, D. M., & Martine, B. N. (2014). A solution to the shortage of nursing faculty.
Awareness and understanding of the leadership style of the nursing department head.
Nurse Educator, 39(3). https://doi.org/10.1097/NNE.0000000000000031
Cook, L. (2017). The current issues affecting job satisfaction by nursing faculty as a lived experience
[Unpublished dissertation]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses.
Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Sage
Publishers.
ed.). Sage Publishers.
Hernon, P., & Schwartz, C. (2007). What is a problem statement? Library & Information Science
Research, 29(3), 307–309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lisr.2007.06.001

Kwapong, S. (2019). Investigating the experiences of international and domestic students in a peer
mentoring program and its effects on intercultural competence at a university: A qualitative study. ProQuest
Dissertations and Theses.
Mauch, J., & Birch, Jack (1998). Guide to the successful theses and dissertation: A handbook for students
and faculty (4th ed.) Marcel Dekker, Inc. Publishers.
McSherry, R., Pearce, P., Grimwood, K., & McSherry, W., (2012). The pivotal role of nurse
managers, leaders, and educators in enabling excellence in nursing care. Journal of Nursing
Management, 20(1), 7–19. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2834.2011.01349.x
Miles, D. A., & Scott, L. (2017, October 26–29). Confessions of a dissertation chair, Part 1: The
six mistakes doctoral students make with the dissertation [Workshop]. 5th Annual 2017 Black
Doctoral Network Conference, Atlanta, GA.
Miles, D. A. (2016). The one-page dissertation proposal matrix: A guide for developing the dissertation
proposal.
Morales, L. (2017). A Baldrige assessment of an organization: An empirical study of Baldrige criteria
and organizational performance in air transportation organizations [unpublished dissertation].
ProQuest Dissertations and Theses.
Newton, R., & Rudestam, K. (2007). Surviving your dissertation: A comprehensive guide to content and
process (3rd ed.). Sage Publishers.
Rosseter, R. (2015). Nursing faculty shortage fact sheet. American Association of Colleges of
Nursing. Retrieved September 17, 2015, from www.aacn.nche.edu/media-relations/
FacultyShortageFS.pdf
Thomas, R. M., & Brubaker, D. (2000). Theses and dissertations: A guide to planning, research, and
writing. Bergin and Garvey.
Webster, W. (1998a). Developing and writing your thesis, dissertation or project. Academic Scholarwrite.
Webster, W. (1998b). 21 models for developing and writing your theses, dissertations or projects. Academic
Scholarwrite.
Zeig, M. (2019). Effects of a character education course on standardized testing in Texas high schools.
7 Developing the Purpose
Statement
Objective
1. Develop a purpose statement
Introduction
The purpose statement is a key component in the development of your study.
The craft of developing your purpose statement follows the development of the
problem statement. The purpose statement is a type of go-between for the problem
statement and the research statement with research questions. In my experience
of working with doctoral students, they sometimes do not make the connection
between these aforementioned items. This causes them to have trouble connecting
the dots, which affects the alignment of their study. This is a common issue for
novice researchers and doctoral students.
Researchers must think of the purpose statement as a continuation of the
problem statement. The purpose statement acts as a support for the problem
statement. If novice researchers can view the purpose statement this way, it will
save a considerable amount of time when developing it. The purpose statement is
a key component of the study and must be developed carefully. Again, the craft of
research has some foundation of making them align and connect. Therefore, this
chapter focuses on the importance of developing the problem statement.
Purpose Statement: Definition and Meaning

The purpose statement is defined as a declarative statement that describes the goal and
objective of the study. The purpose statement has two key questions: (1) What is the
overall objective of the study?; and (2) What are the specific objectives of the study
(Miles & Scott, 2017)? Again, many doctoral students have considerable trouble
writing the purpose statement. The reasons stem from a poor research objective
leading to a poor significance statement. The research purpose is a statement
of “why” the study is being conducted, or the goal of the study. Also, the pur-
pose statement follows the description and analysis of the problem. The purpose
DOI: 10.4324/9781003268154-7
96 Developing the Purpose Statement
statement identifies the variables, population and setting for a study. Every study has
an explicit or implicit purpose statement. The research purpose statement should
be stated objectively or in a way that does not reflect particular biases or values of
the researcher (Long et al., 1985; Jacobs, 2011; Abbas, 2020).
A well-written purpose statement defines the purpose and helps identify the
variables investigated in the study. The purpose statement (a) provides the rationale
for the study and (b) uses data and research to confirm the need to address the pur-
pose in the study (Long et al., 1985).
Based on goals to alleviate or reduce the problem, you can create your pur-
pose statement (Weintraub, 2016). For example, it would be written something like
this: “The purpose of this study is to discover what tools are needed to better pre-
pare high school students for the AP Spanish exam and to measure the level of
efficacy of those tools” (Weintraub, 2016).
Another way to look at the purpose statement is to view it as a restatement. For
example, the purpose of the study can be described as a succinct restatement of
the problem statement. The purpose of the study offers a precise summation of
the study’s overall purpose. There are some cases where the purpose statement
may include several subcategories: research questions, hypotheses, limitations,
delimitations and definitions of the key terms. The researcher must state the pur-
pose and provide a rationale that supports this purpose. Thus, it acts as a precursor
to the questions. The purpose of the study also includes the variables studied and
the primary unit of analysis (Calabrese, 2006, 2009).
Another approach to developing the purpose statement is to begin with a
declarative statement. This would be an economical way of grounding the study in
a context. An example would be: This study will analyze or study or explore or be about …
. A paragraph or two is sufficient. A researcher wants to keep the purpose statement
short, direct and to the point (Bryant, 2003).
The research purpose is a statement of “why” the investigation is being
conducted or the objective of the examination. The objective of the research may
be to distinguish or depict an idea or to elucidate or foresee a circumstance or
answer for a circumstance that shows the kind of concentration to be directed
(Singh, 2020). The research purpose is generally classified into three research
methods: descriptive, exploratory and explanatory. As the research question can
be both explanatory and descriptive, the research project may have more than one
reason (Singh, 2020).
Purpose Statements Based on the Research Methodology
Development of the Purpose Statement for Quantitative Studies
Another approach to developing the purpose statement is to base it on the method-

ology. The purpose statement tends to tell the reader the overarching focus or
goal of the study, with the methodology (quantitative and qualitative) included. For
example, the quantitative purpose statement includes variables, participants and
sometimes the specific location of the problem being investigated (Terrell, 2015). In
Developing the Purpose Statement 97
Figure 7.1 T he quantitative purpose statement components.
Figure 7.2 T he qualitative purpose statement components.
addition, the purpose statement identifies the unit of analysis, which is the who or
what the researcher is studying. Lastly, the purpose statement allows the researcher
the opportunity to identify the independent variables and dependent variables.
More specifically, the independent variable is the “cause” and the dependent vari-
able is the “effect” in the study (Terrell, 2015) (see Figure 7.1).
Development of the Purpose Statement for Qualitative Studies
For qualitative studies, there is a different approach to developing the purpose

statement. For example, when developing the purpose statement for qualitative
studies, you include the participants and location of the study. However, rather
than focus on the variables and unit of analysis, the researcher focuses on the cen-
tral phenomenon of the study. The central phenomenon for the qualitative purpose
of the study is clear (Terrell, 2015) (see Figure 7.2).
In a qualitative study, these two components are very important in developing
the purpose statement. This is a completely different approach compared to the
quantitative study.
So, when a researcher chooses a particular methodology, understanding the
different characteristics of the two methodologies will be a tremendous help in
developing the purpose statement. In a qualitative study, the purpose statement is
developed from both the phenomenon and unit of analysis.
The Most Powerful Purpose Statement Verbs

One of the key problems that novice researchers face is not only how to
develop the purpose statement but also what verbs to use. Not knowing the
most powerful verbs to use is one of the biggest issues when it comes to the
development of the problem statement. Remember, the purpose statement is
a declarative statement that defines the goal and objective of the study. Using
the right verbs and terminology is key to developing a good purpose statement.
I like to help novice researchers with this particular area. Table 7.1 shows the
most powerful purpose statement verbs. I really do like the proactive trait of
these purpose statement verbs.
I like to advise students to use verbs such as analyze, compare, define, examine, investi-
gate and interpret. When the researcher uses these types of verbs, it makes them sound
like a researcher. However, one word that I do not recommend novice researchers
use is understand. In my opinion, the word understand is a weak purpose statement
verb. So, if the researcher uses some of the verbs in Table 7.1, this will help them
develop their purpose statement.
Writing Up the Purpose Statement

When developing the purpose statement, we will use the Statement Grid. Again,
the Statement Grid is a helpful tool that aids students visually with the pur-
pose statement. This tool helps doctoral students when they have trouble
coming up with their purpose statement. It helps them with their thought
process and describes three possible subproblems as a basis for their research
(see Table 7.2).
Directions
First, write the overall purpose statement. Second, divide the purpose to be
investigated into two or three objectives (or subpurposes) that align with the
issues (subproblems) of the problem statement (see Table 7.2). Please note, use
Table 7.1 A list of the 40 most powerful purpose statement verbs
analyze compare define examine interpret

apply conceptualize demonstrate explain investigate
appraise consolidate design evaluate justify
argue construct describe formulate propose
calculate contrast develop identify recommend
categorize criticize differentiate illustrate relate
challenge debate dissolve indicate review
clarify deduce establish integrate suggest
Source: Miles and Scott (2017).

Table 7.2 T he Statement Grid for purpose statement development
The Purpose Statement:
Objective 1: Objective 2: Objective 3:
Table 7.3 Example: The Statement Grid for purpose statement development

The purpose of this study is to investigate the issues affecting the job satisfaction of nursing faculty
members in metropolitan New York. Interviewing and questioning nursing faculty living in metropolitan
New York provides insight into their personal experiences of job satisfaction while working in the nurse
educator role. The researcher has identified three primary objectives as a basis for this study.

First, … Second, … Last, …

The purpose of this study is to investigate the issues affecting the job satisfaction of nursing faculty
members in metropolitan New York. Interviewing and questioning nursing faculty living in metropolitan

First, the objective of this Second, the objective of Lastly, the objective of
study is to examine the this study is to investigate this study is to examine
issue of job satisfaction the impact of low wages the complexities of the
among the nursing on the nursing faculty. nursing faculty role
faculty. (Cook, 2017).
the word objective when writing the subpurpose. It is done this way to prevent mis-
interpretation of the objectives as four separate purpose statements (Tables 7.3
and 7.4).
Here is another example using the Statement Grid for purpose statement devel-
opment (see Table 7.5). Also provided are examples in paragraph form from actual
dissertations .

The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between leadership self-perceptions of communal
or agentic attributes and follower perceptions of authentic leadership in different industry sectors. The
researcher has identified three primary objectives as a basis for this quantitative study.

First, the objective of this Second, the objective of Last, the objective of this
study is to measure this study is to measure study is to perform a
leader self-perceptions follower perceptions of study focusing on the
of communal or agentic leader identity. relationship between
attributes. leadership self-perceptions
of communal (or
agentic) attributes and
follower perceptions of
authentic leadership,
since the previous study
used transformational
leadership theory (Hemmi,
2020).
Example 7.1
The purpose of this study is to examine if there is a statistically significant diffe-

rence among K–12 performing arts and non-performing arts teachers’ opinions
on the necessity of music education in the Southern part of the US. The
researcher has identified two primary objectives as a basis for this study.
The first objective of this study is to examine if there is a statistically signifi-
cant difference among K–12 performing arts and non-performing arts teachers’
opinions on the necessity of music education in school. Analyzing performing
art teachers’ opinions versus non-performing arts teachers’ opinions will be
interesting for the study. Performing arts teachers have a direct relationship with
the music education curriculum because of the courses they teach (Daykin &
Stickley, 2015). Non-performing arts teachers can consist of core, physical edu-
cation and vocational teachers that are not governed by the music education
curriculum.
The second objective of this study is to determine if there is a statistic-
ally significant difference among K–12 elementary, middle and high school
teachers’ opinions on the necessity of music education in school. Teachers
who teach at different grade levels will probably contain different opinions.
Elementary teachers begin the molding process of their students and can be
over-protective because the students cannot cognitively depend on themselves.
Middle school teachers are teaching the students to use their minds more and
become more self-sufficient. High school teachers are pushing students to be

more mature and to think critically. The different focuses and approaches that
these teachers are using can directly impact their opinion towards music edu-
cation (Jefferson, 2022).
Example 7.2
The purpose of this study is to investigate how veterans describe the challenges,
if any, of limited transferability and second-career preparedness in making the
transition from active duty to the teaching profession in the Southeast. The
researcher identified two phenomena of the study, which are the challenges
that active-duty military veterans encounter with their limited transferability
and preparedness. The researcher has identified two primary objectives for
this study.
The first objective of the study is to investigate how active-duty veterans
describe the challenges they encounter with the limited transferability of their
Military Occupation Specialty (MOS) and skills. Service-members that perform
combat occupations or military occupational specialties possess skills that are less
transferable to civilian careers than those in non-combat MOSs (MacLean &
Parsons, 2010; Mangum & Ball, 1987). The transferability of military veterans’
MOSs and skills demonstrates the importance that these have transferred to the
success of civilian occupational programs (Mangum & Ball, 1989). One such
civilian occupational program that can benefit from this transferability is the
teaching career field, which is not a career choice for military service members
(Jones, 2017). Skills transfer is still a work in progress, and military veterans con-
tinue to encounter barriers to teaching and require additional training to earn
state teacher certification (Doe & Doe, 2013; Moorhouse, 2014; Robertson &
Brott, 2014).
The second objective of the study is to investigate how active-duty vet-
erans describe the challenges they encounter with second-career preparedness
as they transition from the military to the teaching profession. Military transi-
tion programs provide planning and logistical assistance for transitioning vet-
erans; however, studies have shown that, emotionally, veterans feel they are
unprepared to manage the transition to the civilian workforce (Wolpert, 2000;
Baruch & Quick, 2009; Robertson & Brott, 2014). Research has also found that
pre-retirement planning and preparation for retirement is essential to military
personnel being better prepared for the successful transition into the civilian
workplace (Shultz et al., 2003; Spiegel & Shultz, 2003; Vigoda-Gadot et al.,
2010). Despite documented improvements in the military’s transition program in

recent years, the military’s Transition Assistance Program (TAP) remains the only
preparation that service members receive prior to leaving the military (Zogas,
2017). The effectiveness of the program is hindered by its brevity, and by ser-
vice members only being able to complete the training weeks before retirement
(Zogas, 2017; Martinez, 2021).
Example 7.3
The purpose of this study is to investigate the lived experiences of parental

involvement and how it contributes to the lives of their disabled children in special
education classrooms in a Title 1 school in Brooklyn, New York. This is a quali-
tative research study using a phenomenological approach that will utilize semi-
structured interviews with open-ended questions to investigate participants’ lived
experiences of parental involvement in the lives of disabled students. The sample
is derived from a population of parents of disabled children studying in Title 1
schools that offer special education in Brooklyn, New York. The study employs
a sample size of 15 parents committed or involved with the educational activities
of their disabled children. The participants’ share their lived experiences through
interviews that will focus on questions centered specifically on the six categories
outlined by Joyce Epstein. Thus, the purpose of this study is to illustrate how the
lived experiences of parental involvement contribute to the academic achievement
of disabled children in special education classrooms in Brooklyn, New York. As a
basis for the study, the researchers identified two primary objectives of the study.
The first objective is to examine the parents’ lived experiences with disabled
children in special education classrooms. Based on this objective, the researcher
seeks to know how the parents’ experiences influence the academic performance
of their disabled children. Moreover, the objective is derived from categories
of the Epstein Parental Involvement Model, whereby various involvement
approaches are proposed and proven to influence the academic achievement of
disabled children (Epstein, 1987).
The second objective is to investigate the lived experiences of parental involve-
ment and its importance in developing the child. The development of children
is determined by parental care and overall involvement in every other aspect of
a child’s life. This objective seeks to know how using the six categories of the
Epstein Parental Involvement Model impacts on the overall development of chil-
dren (Epstein, 1987; Hussain, 2020).
Summary
The development of the purpose statement is an integral part of the research
endeavor. The foundation of research is based on providing a template for the pur-
pose statement development. The development of the purpose statement can be a
challenging endeavor. This chapter discussed the writing of the purpose statement
for novice and burgeoning researchers. It also provided a conceptual model for
developing the purpose statement as well as a conceptual model and tool for helping
doctoral students and researchers to develop their purpose statement.
In this chapter, we covered four things. First, we discussed the definition of the
purpose statement. Second, we illustrated how to develop and write the purpose
statement. Third, we provided a model and a framework for developing the purpose
statement. Fourth, we provided examples of how a purpose statement is written.
We hope that our proposed model and framework provided students and
researchers with a template for developing a solid and clear purpose statement in
their research projects and dissertations.
References
Abbas, W. (2020). The research purpose. PDF4PRO. Retrieved from https://pdf4pro.com/
view/the-research-purpose-3-dr-wafa-a-k-abbas-defi nition-6307e5.html
Bryant, M. T. (2003). The portable dissertation advisor. Corwin Press, Inc.
Calabrese, R. (2006). The elements of an effective dissertation and thesis: A step-by-step guide to getting
it right the first time. Rowman & Littlefield Education, Inc.
Calabrese, R. (2009). The dissertation desk reference: The doctoral student’s manual to writing the disser-
tation. Rowman & Littlefield Education, Inc.
Daykin, N. & Stickley, N. (2015). The role of qualitative research in arts and health. In S.
Clift & P. M. Camic (Eds.), Oxford textbook of creative arts, health, and wellbeing: International
perspectives on practice, policy and research (pp. 73–82). Oxford University Press. https://doi.
org/10.1093/med/9780199688074.003.0010
Hemmi, J. (2020). Leader self-perception of gender identity: Its influence upon follower perceptions of
authentic leadership [Unpublished dissertation]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses.
Hussain, E. (2020). Contributions of involvement of parents in the lives of their disabled children
[Unpublished dissertation, Grand Canyon University]. ProQuest Dissertations and
Theses.
Jacobs, R. L. (2011). Developing a research purpose and purpose statement. In T. S.
Rocco & T. Hatcher (Eds.), The handbook of scholarly writing and publishing (pp. 125–141).
Jossey-Bass.
Jefferson, R. (2022). A quantitative study on the opinions of K–12 administrators towards music education
[Unpublished dissertation].
education: A systematic guide for graduate students. Jossey-Bass.
Martinez, O. (2021). A qualitative descriptive study examining the experiences of active-duty veterans
that have transitioned from the military to the teaching profession [Published dissertation]. ProQuest
Singh, S. (2020). Purpose and process of research. In R. N. Subudhi & S. Mishra (Eds.),
Methodological issues in management research: Advances, challenges and the way ahead (pp. 27–36).
Emerald Publishing Limited.
Terrell, S. (2015). Writing a proposal for your dissertation: Guidelines and examples (3rd ed.). The
Guilford Press.
Weintraub, D. (2016). The problem and purpose statement. NSU/FCE Summer Institute 2016,
Nova Southeastern University. https://education.nova.edu/summer/2016-presentati
ons/The%20Problem%20and%20Purpose%20Statement.pdf
8 Developing the Research
Statement and Research
Questions
Objective
1. Develop a research statement and research questions
Introduction
The craft of conducting research is one of the most exciting endeavors for professors
and students. Conducting research provides us with many fascinating subjects
of inquiry. To conduct research, we must develop research questions. Research
questions are the driving force behind many studies.
Some researchers and doctoral students in particular are not properly taught
how to develop research questions. This is a common issue with researchers.
They mix quantitative research questions with qualitative research questions. This
presents a challenge that we want to underscore with this problem.
Research Questions: Definition and Meaning

How do we define what a research question is? There are many definitions, so we
will try to keep this simple. A research question is defined as a specific inquiry that
the research seeks to provide a response to. The research question resides at the
core of systematic investigation, and it helps you to clearly define a path for the
research process (Formplus Blog, n.d; White, 2017).
The research question is usually the first step in any research project. The
research question is the primary interrogation point of your research, and it sets the
pace for your work (Formplus Blog, n.d.). Most commonly, the research question
focuses on the research, determines the methodology and hypothesis and guides all
stages of inquiry, analysis and reporting. For the researcher, with the right research
questions, you will be able to gather useful information for your investigation
(Formplus Blog, n.d.).
For doctoral students, developing research questions is one of the hardest parts
of starting a dissertation. It is important to make sure that the research questions
address these characteristics: (a) your questions must be precise; (b) your questions
DOI: 10.4324/9781003268154-8
106 Developing the Research Statement and Research Questions
must cover the problem you want to address; and (c) your questions must indicate
how you will create the answer (Creswell, 2009, 2013; Newton & Rudestam, 2007).
Developing Research Questions for a Quantitative Study

In quantitative studies, investigators use research questions and hypotheses to shape
and focus on the purpose of the study. These research questions tend to be inter-
rogative questions that the researcher seeks to answer.
Creswell (2009) asserts that there are two usual types of quantitative questions: (a)
descriptive questions, based on descriptive statistics; and (b) inferential questions, based on
inferential statistics. Here are some examples.
Descriptive Research Questions
• What is the students rate on critical thinking skills (a descriptive question focused
on the independent variable)?
• What are the students’ achievement levels (or grades) in science classes (a descrip-
tive question focused on the dependent variable)?
Inferential Research Questions
• Does critical thinking ability relate to student achievement (an inferential

question relating the independent variable and the dependent variable)?
• Does critical thinking ability relate to student achievement, controlling for the
effects at prior grades in science and the educational attainment of the eighth
graders’ parents (an inferential question relating the independent and the
dependent variables) (Creswell, 2009)?
These two question types are one approach to developing quantitative research
questions. Another approach to developing research questions for a quantitative
study is to use a typical template. The typical research question for a quantitative
study uses about four to five phrases, such as “To what degree …,” “How much …,”
“Is there a relationship between …,” “What is the relationship between …,” and “What is the
difference… .”
The researcher will be measuring the relationship between the independent
variables and dependent variables (Creswell, 2009). Table 8.1 shows typical
examples of quantitative questions that will drive the investigation.
Using the Theoretical Constructs in the Instrument as a Basis for

Developing Quantitative Research Questions
Using a Researcher-Designed Instrument and Developing Research Questions
When developing research questions, the researcher usually develops them based
on the problem statement. Sometimes the researcher can do this and sometimes
Developing the Research Statement and Research Questions 107
Table 8.1 Example of common research questions for a quantitative study
Question Type Question Example
Type 1a 1a: To what degree do first-year department managers subscribe to

Theory X management beliefs as measured by the Myers-Brigg
Scale?
Type 2a 2a: Does a rise in bad management behavior lead to employee
turnover in an organization as measured by the Myers-Brigg Scale?
Type 3a 3a: Do first-year department managers report adhering to an
authoritative leadership style as measured by the Myers-Brigg
Scale?
Type 4a 4a: Is there a relationship between autocratic management style and
the narcissistic behaviors of first-year department managers as
measured by the Myers-Brigg Scale?
Type 5a 5a: What is the relationship between autocratic management style
and the narcissistic behaviors of first-year department managers as
measured by the Myers-Brigg Scale?
Type 6a 6a: How much time do first-year department managers spend
mentoring and coaching during their first year as measured by the
Myers-Brigg Scale?
Type 7a 7a: What is the difference between autocratic management style and
the narcissistic behaviors of first-year department managers as
measured by the Myers-Brigg Scale? (Miles & Scott, 2017)
they can’t. Take that into consideration when using an instrument. Many times,
when doctoral students are using an established instrument for their dissertation
research, they should use the theoretical constructs in the instrument as a basis
for the research questions. However, that does not work if the researcher creates
their own instrument. This is because the instrument is neither established nor
has it been proven to have both reliability and validity. So, the rule for developing
research questions with a researcher-developed instrument is that the researcher
can develop the research questions from a descriptive or inferential point of view.
The researcher can develop general descriptive or inferential types of research
questions. Again, because the researcher-developed instrument generally does not
have constructs or a theoretical framework, the researcher would have to develop
general research questions.
Using an Established Instrument and Developing Research Questions
Nevertheless, when the researcher uses an established instrument, it is best to use

the theoretical constructs in the instrument as a basis for developing the research
questions. You must align the research questions with the theoretical constructs
or subscales within the instrument used for the study. For statistical analyses, most
likely the researcher will align their data analyses with the theoretical constructs of
the instrument. For example, if the instrument has three theoretical constructs or
Table 8.2 Example of aligning quantitative research questions with instrument/scale constructs for a
dissertation study
Theoretical Constructs and Quantitative Research Questions

Subscales in the Baldrige
Instrument
CONSTRUCT 1: R1: Is there a relationship between leadership behaviors

Category 1: Leadership and management style as measured by the Baldrige
Instrument?
CONSTRUCT 2: R2: Is there a relationship between strategic planning
Category 2: Strategic Planning behaviors and management style as measured by the
Baldrige Instrument?
CONSTRUCT 3: R3: Is there a relationship between customer and market focus
Category 3: Customer and behaviors and management style as measured by the
Market Focus Baldrige Instrument?
(Morales, 2017)
subscales, there must be three different research questions to align with those theor-
etical constructs (Table 8.2).
Another rule for developing research questions using an established instrument
is always use the name of the instrument in the research question. For example, if
you are using an instrument in the research question, it should be written like this:
• RQ1: Is there a relationship between autocratic management style and the nar-
cissistic behaviors of first-year department managers as measured by the Myers-
Brigg Scale?
• RQ2: Is there a relationship between autocratic management style and the
followship behaviors of first-year department managers as measured by the
Myers-Brigg Scale?
Once more, the researcher should always use the name of the established instru-
ment in the research question. The researcher must align the research questions
with the theoretical constructs or subscales within the instrument used for the study.
This is usually not taught by dissertation chairs and committee members, but it is a
much-needed practice that needs to be shared with doctoral students (Bryant, 2003;
Jacobs, 2011; Madsen, 1990; Mauch & Birch, 1998; Thomas & Brubaker, 2000;
Webster, 1998a, 1998b).
Writing Up the Research Statement and Research Questions

When developing the research statement, we will use the Statement Grid. Again, the
Statement Grid is a useful tool that helps doctoral students visually when they are
Table 8.3 T he Statement Grid for research statement development
The Research Statement:
Research Question 1: Research Question 2: Research Question 3:
Table 8.4 Example: The Statement Grid for research statement development

The central problem to be researched is … . There are three research questions that will guide this
research.

RQ1: … RQ2: … RQ3: …
having trouble coming up with their research statement. It helps them with their
thought process by describing three possible research question that will guide the
study (see Table 8.3).
Directions
First, write the research statement. Second, divide the research questions to be
investigated into two or three questions that align with the issues (subproblems) of
the problem statement and the purpose statement objectives (see Table 8.4).
Here is another example using the Statement Grid for research statement devel-
opment and research questions (see Table 8.5)
Here is another example using the Statement Grid for research statement devel-
opment and research questions (Table 8.6). Also provided are examples in para-
graph form from actual dissertations.

The central problem to be researched involves how principals manage job stress. There are three research
questions that will guide this research.

RQ1: How do K–12 RQ2: How do K– RQ3: How do K–
principals and 12 principals and 12 principals and
administrators describe administrators describe administrators describe
their experiences of their experiences of using their experiences of
job stress in an urban coping skills for job stress coping with work-life
Central Texas school in an urban Central balance and job stress
district environment? Texas school district in an urban Central
environment? Texas school district
environment (Beltran,
2020)?

The central problem identified by the researcher is the issue of organizational performance, leadership and
employee empowerment. There are three research questions that will guide this research.

RQ1: To what extent RQ2: To what extent does a RQ3: To what extent does a
does a relationship relationship exist between relationship exist between
exist between customer employee empowerment leaders’ openness to
and market focus and organizational new business strategies
and organizational performance? and organizational
performance? performance
(Morales, 2017)?
Example 8.1: Quantitative Research Questions Based on the

Theoretical Framework and Constructs in the Instrument
(with Hypotheses)
The research questions and hypotheses included in this study are for addressing
if and to what extent statistically significant differences in levels of technostress
exist among employee groups in US higher education (faculty administrative,
staff and contractors). Five objectives delineate the purpose of this study for
analyzing differences in technostress levels (techno-overload, techno-invasion,
techno-complexity, techno-insecurity and techno-uncertainty) based on employee
groups (faculty, administrative, staff and contractors) in the stated population. The
following five research questions and hypotheses guide this quantitative study:
• RQ1: Is there a statistically significant difference in levels of techno-overload

among employee groups (faculty, administrative, staff and contractors) in US
higher education as measured by the Technostress Productivity Instrument?
• RQ2: Is there a statistically significant difference in levels of techno-invasion
• RQ3: Is there a statistically significant difference in levels of techno-
complexity among employee groups (faculty, administrative, staff and
contractors) in US higher education as measured by the Technostress
Productivity Instrument?
• RQ4: Is there a statistically significant difference in levels of techno-insecurity
• RQ5: Is there a statistically significant difference in levels of techno-
uncertainty among employee groups (faculty, administrative, staff and
contractors) in US higher education as measured by the Technostress
Productivity Instrument? (Cornish, 2022).

(with Hypotheses)
A correlational analysis will be conducted to determine if there is a relation-

ship between the following variables: leadership; strategic planning; customer
and market focus; measurements, analysis, and knowledge management; human
resources focus; process management; and business results. Six questions guided
this study:
RQ1: Is there a statistically significant relationship between leadership and

strategic planning as measured by the National Baldrige Quality Survey
Instrument?
Ho1: There is no statistically significant relationship between leadership
and strategic planning as measured by the National Baldrige Quality
Survey Instrument.
Ha1: There is a statistically significant relationship between leadership
and strategic planning as measured by the National Baldrige Quality
Survey Instrument.
RQ2: Is there a statistically significant relationship between strategic planning
and customer and market focus as measured by the National Baldrige
Quality Survey Instrument?
Ho2: There is no statistically significant relationship between strategic

planning and customer and market focus as measured by the National
Baldrige Quality Survey Instrument.
Ha2: There is a statistically significant relationship between strategic
planning and customer and market focus as measured by the National
RQ3: Is there a statistically significant relationship between customer and
market focus and measurements, analysis and knowledge management as
measured by the National Baldrige Quality Survey Instrument?
Ho3: There is no statistically significant relationship between cus-
tomer and market focus and measurements, analysis and knowledge
management as measured by the National Baldrige Quality Survey
Instrument.
Ha3: There is a statistically significant relationship between customer and
market focus and measurements, analysis and knowledge management
as measured by the National Baldrige Quality Survey Instrument.
RQ4: Is there a statistically significant relationship between measurements,
analysis and knowledge management and human resources focus as
measured by the National Baldrige Quality Survey Instrument?
Ho4: There is no statistically significant relationship between
measurements, analysis and knowledge management and human
resources focus as measured by the National Baldrige Quality Survey
Instrument.
Ha4: There is a statistically significant relationship between measurements,
analysis and knowledge management and human resources focus as
measured by the National Baldrige Quality Survey Instrument.
RQ5: Is there a statistically significant relationship between human resource
focus and process management as measured by the National Baldrige
Quality Survey Instrument?
Ho5: There is no statistically significant relationship between human
resource focus and process management as measured by the National
Ha5: There is a statistically significant relationship between human
resource focus and process management as measured by the National
RQ6: Is there a statistically significant relationship between process manage-
ment and business results as measured by the National Baldrige Quality
Survey Instrument?
Ho6: There is no statistically significant relationship between process
management and business results as measured by the National Baldrige
Quality Survey Instrument.
Ha6: There is a statistically significant relationship between process man-

agement and business results as measured by the National Baldrige
Quality Survey Instrument.
These research questions, in conjunction with the Baldrige Quality Criteria

survey, have the purpose to demonstrate Theory X and Theory Y of Douglas
McGregor. These theories have been studied in different organizations, but there
is a lack of studies based on these theories in air transportation organizations. The
Baldrige Quality Criteria instrument is developed in a way that demonstrates,
based on empirical data, if the employees surveyed have work responsibilities
on their own (Theory Y) or need incentive (Theory X) to perform their duties
at work.
(Morales, 2017)

(with Hypotheses)
The purpose of this quantitative, correlational study is to determine if or to what

extent OCBs predict job stress among middle grade-level teachers in one dis-
trict located in the southwestern United States. OCBs, categorized as OCB-I
and OCB-O, are the predictor variables for this study as measured by Somech’s
(2016) OCBs (OCB-I and OCB-O) Scale. OCB-I are geared towards the indi-
vidual, and the OCB-I tasks are those that employees perform with intentions
that the tasks will aid individuals to include students, fellow workers or colleagues.
OCB-O are geared towards the organization, and the OCB-O tasks are those
that employees perform with the intentions that the tasks will benefit the whole
organization. “Job stress” is the criterion variable as measured by Yozgat’s et al.
(2013) Job Stress Scale. The criterion variable “job stress” is described as an emo-
tional condition experienced by individuals when they encounter circumstances,
demands and restrictions that have important and undetermined outcomes
(Yozgat et al., 2013).
This study will use the the OCB (OCB- I and OCB- O) Scale (Somech,
2016) and the Job Stress Scale (Yozgat et al., 2013) quantitative surveys to
collect data on OCBs and job stress among middle grade-level teachers. The
OCB (OCB-I and OCB-O) Scale will be used to measure the predictor variable
“OCBs”. The OCB Scale contains 13 questions for measuring the degree of
OCBs. The Job Stress Scale will be used to measure the criterion variable “job
stress.” The Job Stress Scale contains 13 statements used to measure the degree of
stress experienced by middle grade-level teachers. The OCBs and the job stress
are scaled at the interval level. The research questions and hypotheses are framed
from the theoretical concept observation of resources theory (Halbesleben, et al.,
2014) and the role theory (Biddle, 2013). The research questions and hypoth-
eses may be answered using a quantitative methodology. The sample will include
a minimum of 68 public middle grade-level teachers. The following research
questions and hypotheses will be used to guide this study.
RQ1: If or to what extent do organizational citizenship behaviors individualized

(OCB-I) have a relationship with job stress behaviors among middle grade-
level teachers?
Ho1: Organizational citizenship behaviors in the individualized (OCB-I)
do not have a significant relationship with job stress behaviors among
middle grade-level teachers.
Ha1: Organizational citizenship behaviors individualized (OCB-I) do have a
significant relationship with job stress behaviors among middle grade-
level teachers.
RQ2: If or to what extent do organizational citizenship behaviors organization
(OCB-O) have a relationship with job stress behaviors among middle grade-
level teachers?
Ho2: Organizational citizenship behaviors organization (OCB-O) do not
have a significant relationship with job stress behaviors among middle
grade-level teachers.
Ha2: Organizational citizenship behaviors organization (OCB-O) do have a
significant relationship with job stress behaviors among middle grade-
level teachers (Kinsey, 2021).
Developing Research Questions for a Qualitative Study

Because qualitative research is exploratory in nature, your qualitative research
questions should be open-ended and start with words such as what, why, where and
how. Qualitative researchers normally generate research questions from the pur-
pose of the study in order to maintain consistency among the main components of
the study. For example, if your plan is to explore the way Generation Z (i.e., people
born between 1997 and 2021) use social media to create worth (Dimock, 2019),
your research question could be, “How does Generation Z use social media to
create worth?” As shown here, you can see that the research question is open-ended
and aligned with the purpose statement.
Qualitative research questions can be grouped into descriptive, exploratory,
process-focused, comparative and explanatory (see Table 8.7). Note that some
Table 8.7 Types of research questions and their characteristics
Type of Research When To Use First Word Example

Question Normally Used
Descriptive When you plan to use data What What is the experience
collected to describe the of mothers
phenomenon of interest homeschooling their
children?
Exploratory When you want to engage What, How What makes physicians
in inquiry to find out quit their jobs?
what is going on
Process-focused When you want to How How do people labeled
demonstrate how a as Generation Z
phenomenon occurs become financially
independent?
Comparative When you plan to compare How How is working from
entities or phenomena home different from
or processes working in the office?
Explanatory When you plan to explain Why, How Why are some CEOs
a phenomenon or concerned about
process allowing employees to
work from home?
questions can be associated with more than one type of research question. For
instance, an exploratory research question could also be considered a process-
focused question.
You may ask, “How many research questions do I need?” You can have as
many questions as you want, but make sure they are consistent with your purpose
statement. Also, it is important to note that the more questions you have, the more
data you need to help you address the questions. So, we advise that you focus on not
more than three questions. You could even have one research question if it covers
everything you plan to find out as depicted in the purpose statement.
Concerning whether you need to have a sub-research question, you do not need
to have one unless it would assist you to adequately address the main research
question. Some research questions may have some layers/components that warrant
the need to be broken down into simple questions. These questions generated from
the main questions become sub-research questions.
Let’s look at this example, “How does experience of mindfulness contribute to
doctoral students’ quality of life?” With this main research question, there are two
main concepts in the question: (1) experience of mindfulness; and (2) quality of life.
Based on these components, these are the suggested sub-research questions:
1. What is the experience of mindfulness among doctoral students?

2. What is the experience of quality of life among doctoral students?
Table 8.8 Example of research questions for a qualitative study
Question Type Question Example
Type 1b 1b: How do freshmen students describe the experiences of living in a

residence hall learning environment?
Type 2b 2b: How does a 9/11 tragedy survivor describe their lived experiences
and health issues in the US?
Type 3b 3b: What is the experience of nursing staff during an interrogation
following Chief Nursing Officer separation turnover?
Type 4b 4b: Why does domestic violence often occur with victims who are
financially dependent on the perpetrators for shelter (Miles & Scott,
2017)?
With this format, addressing these two sub-questions will help in answering
the main questions. Alternatively, you could add a question to the main research
question to get two main questions, such as:
1. What is the experience of mindfulness among doctoral students?

2. How does the experience of mindfulness contribute to doctoral students’ quality
of life?
As you can see, you can create any number of qualitative main questions and
sub-questions. The most important thing is to make sure they align with the pur-
pose of the study, and you have the rich data to adequately address them.
Qualitative research questions assume two forms: (a) central questions; and
(b) associated sub-questions. The format of the qualitative research questions usually
relates back to the strategy of inquiry (Bryant, 2003).
The typical research question for a qualitative study uses a few different phrases,
such as “How do …,” “How does …,” “What is the experience of …” and “Why does …”
(see Table 8.8). In the practice of conducting qualitative research, the researcher
will be investigating a phenomenon.
Qualitative research questions typically use exploratory verbs and convey the
research design. Common verbs used in qualitative research questions include
(a) discover (e.g., grounded theory); (b) seek to understand (e.g., ethnography); (c) explore a
process (e.g., case study); (d) describe the experiences (e.g., phenomenology); and (e) report
the stories (e.g., narrative research) (Bryant, 2003). Table 8.8 shows some typical
examples of qualitative questions that drive the investigation.
Using the Theoretical Framework as a Basis for Developing

Qualitative Research Questions
Previously, we stated that, with developing quantitative research questions, you

most likely will be using an established instrument for your dissertation research.
You will use the theoretical model or theoretical constructs based on the research
instrument as a basis for the research questions.
However, this does not necessarily work with qualitative research and method-
ology. With qualitative research, you can use a theoretical framework as a basis for
your research questions, or you can develop your research questions based on the
problem to be investigated as a basis for the study. Because qualitative research is
primarily exploratory in nature, it does not follow the theoretical framework or
theoretical constructs in an instrument compared to quantitative research. It can
be very confusing for doctoral students to understand this difference when using a
qualitative approach to research.
In essence, the qualitative researcher creates their own instrument; this is the
interview questions. However, with the qualitative researcher, the interview must
align with the research questions. The researcher usually develops the research
questions for the study first then the interview questions. Here are some examples
from actual dissertation studies.
Example 8.4: Qualitative Research Questions (without a

Theoretical Framework)
Research questions are the basis of a study, since they determine the methods or
research designs, data collection techniques, analysis procedures and reporting
of the results. The present study seeks to explain how the internal and external
daily experiences of African American women college presidents determine a
successful presidency role. The study employs Collins’ (2021) five dimensions
derived from the model of Black Feminist Thought, leading to the following research
questions:
RQ1: How do African American women college presidents describe their

experiences in terms of success and achievements in their leadership role in
the higher education environment?
RQ2: How do African American women college presidents describe their
experiences with external/internal daily activities and leadership role in the
higher education environment?
This framework explored five specific dimensions that identify how African
American women link their voice to the reality of lived experiences based on
several factors of life that involve race, gender and class. These dimensions
include: (a) core themes of a Black woman’s standpoint, (b) a variation in the
responses to core themes, (c) the interdependence of experience and conscious-
ness, (d) consciousness and the struggle for a self-defined standpoint, and (e) the
interdependence of thought and action (Collins, 2021). Thus, the first research
question proposed to know how African American women college presidents
defined success utilizing Collins’ five dimensions listed above. The second
research question proposed to identify how African American women college
presidents described the experience of internal and external daily activities in

their leadership role at an institution of higher education (Ray, 2020).
Example 8.5: Qualitative Research Questions (with Theoretical

Framework)
The overarching research question that guided this qualitative descriptive

study was intended to address the following problem statement: it is not known
how African American women small business owners in the services industry
describe challenges with professional social networks, challenges with professional
mentoring and challenges with access to resources in their businesses. Networking
is defined in research as a tool for career development (Gibson, 2014), and
networking could provide access to social resources embedded in the network
(Murwatingsih et al., 2019). Dodd (2019) determined in research the influence
professionals have in providing intangible resources for organizations and the sig-
nificance managers play in the social capital for their organizations. In the con-
text of small businesses, networking aids business owners in identifying needed
resources to sustain their firms (Mohamad & Chin, 2019). The theoretical frame-
work derives from the social networking theory and the Social Entrepreneurship
model that guide this proposed study. The research questions were developed
based on the synthesis and on this theory and model.
According to Ritchie et al. (2013), a sample size of under 50 participants is appro-
priate for single studies. The research questions that guide this study are:
RQ1: How do African American women small business owners in the services
industry describe their experiences with the challenges of professional
social networks in the context of the success of their businesses?
RQ2: How do African American women small business owners in the services
industry describe their experiences with the challenges of professional
mentoring in the context of the success of their businesses?
RQ3: How do African American women small business owners in the ser-
vices industry describe their experiences with the challenges of access to
resources in the context of the success of their businesses?
The research questions mentioned in this section will address the gap determined
by literature on African American women small business owners in the services
industry and their descriptions of the challenges with professional social networks,
challenges with professional mentoring and challenges with access to resources.
The research questions provided a guideline for developing interview protocols
in this proposed study. They were intended to provide specific data to develop
perspectives on challenges with professional social networks, challenges with pro-
fessional mentoring and challenges with access to resources in the context of
the business success of African American women small business owners in the
services industry. Aamir (2015) noted in research that it is the way the research
question is structured that will determine the most appropriate study design
(Dwight, 2022).
Summary
The craft of developing a research statement and research questions is based on
the methodology of the research. The craft of developing quantitative research
questions is quite different compared with qualitative research questions.
Understanding the differences between the two research question types is the first
step to getting them done correctly.
First, this chapter discussed approaches to developing the research statement
and research questions for a quantitative study. We also discussed using the theor-
etical constructs in the instrument as a basis for developing quantitative research
questions.
Second, this chapter discussed approaches to developing research questions for
a qualitative study. We also discussed using the theoretical constructs in the instru-
ment as a basis for developing qualitative research questions.
Third, this chapter discussed approaches to examples of quantitative research
questions. We also provided examples of qualitative research questions.
Lastly, this chapter discussed different types of research questions and their
characteristics. A potential shortcoming of developing research questions is that it
can be confusing if the research methodology for the study is not established first.
This will provide a strong foundation.
References
Beltran, V. (2020). Descriptive study of southwest urban school principals’ experience of job stress.
Collins, P. H. (2021). Black feminist thought, 30th anniversary edition. Knowledge, consciousness, and the
politics of empowerment. Taylor & Francis Group.
Cornish, D. (2022). An empirical study of technostress within U.S. higher education employees. ProQuest
Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Sage
Publishers.
ed.). Sage Publishers.
Dimock, M. (2019, January 17). Defining generations: Where Millennials end and Generation
Z begins. Pew Research Center. https://pewrsr.ch/2szqtJz
Dwight, C. (2022). African American women small business owners: Networking and success –A descrip-
tive study [UMI document]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses.
Formplus Blog. (n.d.). Research questions: Definitions, types +(examples). Retrieved

November 14, 2022, from www.formpl.us/blog/research-question
Jacobs, R. L. (2011). Developing a research purpose and purpose statement. In T. S. Rocco
Kinsey, T. (2021). The impact of organizational behavior on job stress among K–12 grade teachers: A
correlational study [Unpublished dissertation].
Madsen, D. (1990). Successful dissertations and theses: A guide to graduate student research from proposal
to completion. Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Mauch, J., & Birch, J. (1998). Guide to the successful thesis and dissertation: A handbook for students and
faculty (4th ed.). Marcel Dekker, Inc. Publishers.
Doctoral Network Conference. Atlanta, GA.
Morales, L. (2017). A Baldrige assessment of an organization: An empirical study of baldrige criteria and
organizational performance in air transportation organizations [Unpublished dissertation proposal].
process (3rd ed.). Sage Publishers.
Ray, P. (2020). Success profile: A case study of the african-american women in the president’s office [UMI
Document]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses.
Webster, W. (1998a). Developing and writing your thesis, dissertation or project. Academic Scholarwrite.
Webster, W. (1998b). 21 models for developing and writing your theses, dissertations or projects. Academic
Scholarwrite.
White, P. (2017). Developing research questions (2nd ed.). Palgrave-Macmillian/Red Globe Press.
9 Research Alignment
Achieving Research Alignment in the Study
Objective
1. Attain research alignment in their studies
Introduction
Many doctoral students and novice researchers have considerable trouble with the
concept of alignment. They have trouble getting their study in alignment. The
reasons stem from not having the knowledge of aligning the problem statements,
purpose statement and research questions. Based on my experience of working with
doctoral students, most of their dissertations or research projects are misaligned.
Alignment is a rather new development with dissertations, emerging prob-
ably within the last five years. So, a considerable number of professors that work
with doctoral students are not familiar with it. If they are not familiar with it,
they cannot possibly assist doctoral students with it. We hope to address this and
enlighten doctoral students (and chairs, if possible). This chapter illustrates how
to achieve research alignment with the research study and dissertation. It is based
on a workshop we conducted at a conference in Atlanta, GA, for doctoral students
in 2017.
Research Alignment: Definition and Meaning

Alignment refers to the logical progression of ideas between the structural elements
of your dissertation proposal (Booton, 2014). One of the most important factors
to keep in mind is that alignment between your problem statement, purpose
statement and research questions is critical. The researcher must actively create
a nexus between the problem, purpose and methodology through the process of
the research. Many times, when your chair or dissertation committee talks about
your proposal’s lack of “alignment,” they are referring to the logical progression
from the introduction to the problem statement, then to the purpose statement,
the research questions and hypotheses (if applicable), and finally the methodology.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003268154-9
122 Research Alignment: Achieving Research Alignment in the Study
Alignment is key to a good dissertation (Weintraub, 2017; Booton, 2020; Alignment

of problem, 2020).
Alignment has gained increasing popularity in research and implementation
studies. Although alignment is frequently suggested as important for successful
implementation, it has rarely been the centerpiece of studies. Our study system-
atically collected evidence related to alignment from implementation studies in
different healthcare settings (Lundmark et al., 2021). The practice of alignment also
helps us be sure we are collecting the right data to answer our research questions
(Fan et al., 2017).
The Importance of Alignment

Good alignment across the components in your study is critical for several reasons:
• A well-aligned study will have methodological rigor. Your research will be of

higher scholarly quality, and the knowledge to be generated will be of more
value to your discipline.
• A well-designed study will reflect that you have a solid understanding of the
nature of the proposed research and the application of a given research method
and research design to your topic.
• A well-aligned study will support implementing the research plan with fidelity to
the research design, helping you to achieve your research objectives and answer
your research questions.
• A well-aligned letter of intent, prospectus, concept paper or proposal is much
more likely to be approved by your chair, committee or research review board,
allowing you to move forward with your dissertation research (“Aligning the
problem,” n.d.).
In contrast, poor alignment across a study’s components is problematic. Here

are the key issues with a poorly aligned study:
• A poorly aligned study will lack methodological rigor and reflect a lack of
understanding of the nature of your research and of the application of a given
research method and research design to your topic.
• A poorly aligned study will not generate valuable information to achieve your
research objectives or answer your research questions.
• A poorly aligned letter of intent, prospectus, concept paper or proposal will not
be approved by your chair, committee and/or research review board, leading to
delays in moving forward with your dissertation research.
The merits of having alignment in a study is critical. The researcher must con-
sider the various components of the study (general problem, specific problem,
knowledge gap, research objective, research question, hypotheses, research method
and research design). In addition, the researcher must make sure these components
Research Alignment: Achieving Research Alignment in the Study 123
align well. The researcher must be aware of incongruence and inconsistencies

throughout the descriptions (“Aligning the problem,” n.d.).
Another perspective on alignment, in terms of quantitative methodology and
validity, is by Hoadley (2004). Hoadley asserts the notion that alignment is essential
to our understanding of research validity. Usually, when people discuss validity, they
are referring to measurement validity, or the ability to ensure that our measurements
accurately reflect the constructs that we are trying to measure. However, validity
has a larger sense: The validity of a study is the likelihood that our interpretation
of the results accurately reflects the truth of the theory and hypotheses under
examination. In this sense, we need to be concerned with two other kinds of val-
idity in research. We need to ensure that we have treatment validity –that is, that the
treatments we create accurately align with the theories they are representing –and
we need systemic validity –that is, the whole research endeavor must not only create
a fair test of the theories, but those theories must be communicated in a way that is
true to the inferences used to prove them (Hoadley, 2004).
In broader terms of alignment in a study, the research task consists of alignment
between all elements of the process: literature review, theories, research paradigms,
research questions, research methods, data analysis and findings. Furthermore,
there should be alignment between the research paradigm and the theory selected.
There should be a strong relationship between the theory and research questions;
these two aspects should align (McCuaig et al., 2022).
The differences between quantitative and qualitative research methodology is
striking. Quantitative research is applied to describe current conditions, investigate
relationships and study cause-effect phenomena. Qualitative research, in contrast,
is suited to promoting a deep understanding of a social setting or activity as viewed
from the perspective of the research participants (Bloomberg, 2019; Bloomberg &
Volpe, 2019).
The Rules of Alignment in a Study

Many times when working with doctoral students, I was surprised to find that they
are completely unaware of research alignment. Below are three basic rules for
achieving alignment:
• Rule #1: If you have three problem statement issues as a basis for the study, you
must have three purpose statement objectives and three research questions. This
is the first step in achieving alignment. This is important.
• Rule #2: You cannot achieve alignment if the elements are misaligned with an
incompatible number of problem statement issues, purpose statement object-
ives and research statement questions (e.g., three issues, two objectives or four
research questions). This is important.
• Rule #3: You must have an equal number of statements. This means you must
have an equal number of problem statement issues, purpose statement objectives
and research statement questions to properly achieve alignment (Miles, 2020).
Table 9.1 T he research alignment model
Problem Statement:
Purpose Statement:
Research Statement:
Lack of alignment between the dissertation elements is one of the most common
reasons why a dissertation proposal does not get approval from the committee.
The researcher must consider these three points when developing the problem
statement, purpose statement and research questions. Research alignment is neces-
sary to manage the dissertation. To achieve alignment, you must align the problem
statement, purpose statement and research questions. It is imperative that these
three components align properly. This chapter provides an alignment model and
template for developing research alignment in a study (see Table 9.1).
Developing Alignment in a Research Study

The basis of the researcher’s problem is the foundation for the research: the problem
statement, purpose statement and research statement. Once the researcher has
identified the problem as a basis for the study, the researcher is ready to develop the
Problem Statement:
purpose statement and the research statement (and questions). All three components
are important.
These are the three core components that form the foundation of your study.
The problem statement provides the background and context of the research
problem as a basis for the study. The purpose statement provides the objective
of the study. It is also an extension of the research problem. Lastly, the research
statement (and research questions) is an extension of the purpose of the study.
These three core components must align.
Phase 1: Writing up the Problem Statement
First, before you can achieve alignment, you have to develop the problem statement.
The tool that I use when working with doctoral students is the Statement Grid
(Miles & Scott, 2017). This helps doctoral students develop the problem statement
with supporting statements. I use this to help doctoral students when they have
trouble coming up with their problem statement. It helps them with their thought
process, describing three possible subproblems as a basis for the research. It also
helps with the rule of three (three plausible reasons to support your argument and
position with three points) (Miles & Scott, 2017) (see Table 9.2).
First, write the overall problem statement. Second, divide the problem to be
investigated into two or three parts (or subproblems or issues) that are compelling.
Please note, use the word issue when writing the subproblem. This is so it does
not cause readers to misinterpret the issues as four separate problem statements
(Table 9.3).
Phase 2: Writing up the Purpose Statement
In the next step, you must complete the purpose statement. First, write the overall
purpose statement. Second, divide the purpose to be investigated into two or three
parts (or objectives) that are compelling. Please note, use the word objectives when
writing the purpose. This is so it does not cause readers to misinterpret them as four
separate purpose statements (see Table 9.4).
Problem Statement:

The first issue is that the The second issue is that, in Last, the issue is that
education of new nurses the United States, 75% the current nursing
is the responsibility of of the nursing faculty faculty express low job
institutions of higher will reach retirement satisfaction (Bittner &
education, but there age in 2017 (Brett et al., O’Connor, 2012) due
is a national shortage 2014). This is alongside to complexities of the
of nursing faculty the existing problem that nursing educator role
(McSherry et al., 6.9% of nursing faculty making the retention
2012, Rosseter, 2015), positions remain unfilled and recruitment of
which is limiting the due to a lack of qualified qualified faculty difficult
enrollment, education nursing educators (Byme & Martine, 2014).
and graduation of new (Rosseter, 2015). The current problems
nurses from institutions include a shortage of
of higher learning. qualified nursing faculty
to educate new nurses,
the complexity of nursing
education and current
faculty complaints of
poor job satisfaction
(Cook, 2017).
Note: In-text citations included for illustrative purposes only.
Purpose Statement:
The purpose of this study is to investigate the issues affecting job satisfaction by nursing faculty members
in metropolitan New York. Interviewing and questioning nursing faculty living in metropolitan

First, the objective of this Second, the objective of this Lastly, the objective of
study is to examine the study is to investigate the this study is to examine
issue of job satisfaction impact of low wages on the complexities of the
among nursing faculty. the nursing faculty. nursing faculty role (Cook,
2017).
Research Statement:
The central problem to be researched is the shortage in the nursing field. As a basis for this study, three
research questions will guide this research.

RQ1: How do nurses RQ2: How do nurses RQ3: How do nurses
describe their describe their experiences describe their experiences
experiences with job with the impact of low with the complexities of
satisfaction on the wages on nursing faculty? the faculty role (Cook,
nursing faculty? 2017)?
Phase 3: Writing up the Research Statement
In the last step, you must complete the research questions. First, rewrite the
problem statement as the overall research statement. Second, divide the research
questions into separate parts. This will help align your research questions with
(a) the problem statement and issues, and (b) the purpose statement and objectives
(see Table 9.5).
Introducing the Alignment Matrix: Achieving Alignment in the

Dissertation
First, before you achieve research alignment, you must develop the problem
statement. The tool that I use when working with doctoral students is the
Alignment Matrix (Miles, 2020). The Alignment Matrix helps doctoral students
align the problem statement, purpose statement and research questions. This is
a tremendous help with providing structure for the dissertation and study (see
Tables 9.6 and 9.7).
See the following formula:
RESEARCH ALIGNMENT =Problem +Purpose +

Research Questions
First and foremost, you must observe the key words in the problem statements,
purpose statements and research statement and questions (see the key word
examples in italics). This is the key to achieving alignment between the three
statements. Once you coordinate this, you have achieved research alignment (see
Table 9.7).
Table 9.6 T he Alignment Matrix for research alignment
Problem Statement Purpose Statement Research Statement
Issues (subproblems) Objectives (subpurposes) Research Questions

Issue 1: Objective 1: Research Question 1:
Table 9.7 Example: The Alignment Matrix

The central problem to The purpose of this study The central problem to be
be researched by the is to investigate the issues researched is the shortage
proposed study is the affecting job satisfaction in the nursing field.
shortage in the nursing by nursing faculty There are three research
field. As a basis for this members in metropolitan questions that will guide
study, the researcher New York. The researcher this research.
identified the problem to has identified three
be threefold. primary objectives as a
basis for this study.
Problem (Issues) Purpose (Objectives) Research Questions

Issue 1: The first issue Objective 1: First, the Research Question 1:
identified as a basis for objective of this study is RQ1: How do nurses
this study is the question to examine the issue of job describe their experiences
of job satisfaction as satisfaction among nursing with job satisfaction on the
experienced by nursing faculty. nursing faculty?
faculty.
Issue 2: The second issue Objective 2: Second, the Research Question 2:

identified as the basis for objective of this study is RQ2: How do nurses
this research study is the to investigate the impact of describe their experiences
impact of low wages on the low wages on the nursing with the impact of low
lived experiences of job faculty wages on nursing faculty?
satisfaction by current
nursing faculty.
Issue 3: Lastly, the third Objective 3: Lastly, the Research Question 3:
issue identified affecting objective of this study is RQ3: How do nurses
the job satisfaction of to examine the complexities describe their experiences
the nursing faculty is the of the nursing faculty role. with the complexities of the
complexities of the faculty role. faculty role (Cook, 2017)?
Example 9.1
The central problem The purpose of this The central

identified in this study study is to investigate problem to
involves how principals the experiences of be researched
manage job stress. The 20 urban Central involves how
issue of how principals Texas school district principals
manage stress is K–12 principals in manage job
threefold. encountering job stress. There are
stress, coping with this three research
stress and achieving questions that
work-life balance. will guide this
The researcher research.
has identified three
primary objectives
for this qualitative
descriptive study.
Issue 1: First, there is Objective 1: First, the Research

the prevailing issue objective of this study Question 1:
concerning the effect is to investigate the RQ1: How do K–
of principals’ job effect of principals’ 12 principals and
stress level. Stressed job stress level on their
administrators
workers are more subordinates and staff. describe their
likely to be unhealthy, experiences
less productive, of job stress
unmotivated and not in an urban
safe at work. Central Texas
school district
environment?
Issue 2: Second, there Objective 2: The Research
is the prevailing issue second objective is to Question 2:
concerning the lack investigate how job RQ2: How do K–
of research on how stress affects principals’ 12 principals and
the job stress level can ability to use coping administrators
affect the principals’ skills. describe their
ability to use coping experiences of
skills. Many authors using coping
have investigated how skills for job
principals cope with stress in an urban
stress. Central Texas
school district
environment?
Issue 3: Lastly, there Objective 3: Lastly, the Research
is a prevailing issue final purpose of the Question 3:
concerning the impact qualitative study is to RQ3: How do K–
that job stress can have investigate the impact 12 principals and
on how principals that job stress can have administrators
balance their work and on how principals describe their
home life. balance their work and experiences of
home life. coping with
work-life balance
and job stress
in an urban
Central Texas
school district
environment
(Beltran, 2020)?
Example 9.2
The central problem The purpose of this The central problem to

to be researched study is to investigate be researched is the
in the proposed how international lack of intercultural
study is the lack and domestic competence within
of intercultural students perceive the peer mentoring
competence effectiveness, if any, between international
within peer of peer mentoring students and domestic
mentoring between on intercultural students’ relationships
international competence at a and the lack of
students and Western, private, personal accounts of
domestic students’ Christian university students’ experience
relationships and in southern in a peer-mentoring
the lack of personal California. This study program There
accounts of has three primary are three research
students’ experience objectives. questions that will
in a peer-mentoring guide this research.
program. As a basis
for this study, the
researcher identified
the problem to be
threefold.

Issue 1: First, there Objective 1: The Research
is a lack of data first objective of this Question 1:
regarding the study is to identify RQ1: What are the
cultural challenges whether there are cultural challenges
with international cultural challenges faced by students
students’ experience that students face on in Christian higher
at a Christian a Christian university education?
university in campus and what
southern New York. these challenges
entail. This study will
include 30 students.
Issue 2: The second Objective 2: The Research

issue is the lack second objective Question 2:
of research on of this study RQ2: Does peer
the intercultural is to examine mentoring influence
competence and and interpret the intercultural
peer mentoring peer-mentoring competence of
skills of domestic interactions between undergraduate,
students. international international and
and domestic domestic students in
undergraduate a private Christian
students and university and, if so,
their influence how?
on intercultural
competence.
Issue 3: Lastly, the Objective 3: Lastly, Research
researcher identified the third objective Question 3:
a lack of personal of the study is to RQ3: What are
accounts from examine the actual students’ experiences
students about their lived experiences during the American
experiences with of international International
a peer-mentoring students through Mentoring program
program. their own words (Kwapong, 2021)?
on the effectiveness
of the American
International
Mentoring program.
Example 9.3
The central problem The purpose of The central problem

identified by the this study is to identified by the
researcher is the issue determine whether researcher is the issue
of organizational a relationship exists of organizational
performance, between customer performance,
leadership and market leadership
and employee focus, employee and employee
empowerment. empowerment, empowerment. There
As a basis for this leaders’ openness are three research
study, the researcher to new business questions that will
identified three key strategies and guide this research.
problems demanding organizational
this investigation. performance in
transportation
companies located
on the west side
of Puerto Rico.
The researcher
has identified three
primary objectives
as a basis for this
study.
Issue 1: The first Objective 1: The Research

major problem first objective of Question 1:
identified as a basis this study is to RQ1: To what extent
for this study is the determine if there does a relationship
issue regarding is a relationship exist between
customer and market between customer customer and
focus and operational and market focus market focus and
performance in and organizational organizational
air transportation performance in performance?
organizations. air transportation
organizations.
Issue 2: The second Objective 2: The Research

major problem as a second objective Question 2:
basis for this study of this study is to RQ2: To what
is the concerns determine if there extent does a
with employee is a relationship relationship exist
empowerment between employee between employee
and organizational empowerment empowerment
performance in and organizational and organizational
air transportation performance in performance?
organizations.
Issue 3: The last major Objective 3: The Research
problem identified last objective of Question 3:
as a basis for this this study is to RQ3: To what extent
study is the issue determine if there does a relationship
relating to leaders’ is a relationship exist between leaders’
openness to new between leaders’ openness to new
business strategies openness to new business strategies
and organizational business strategies and organizational
performance in and organizational performance
air transportation performance in (Morales, 2017)?
organizations.
Summary
The concept of alignment is relatively new in the research community. The goal
of achieving research alignment is important when it comes to research. This
chapter discussed the concept of alignment. Research alignment is a necessary
task to manage the dissertation. To achieve research alignment, it is imperative
that it be taught to both novice and experienced researchers. The purpose of this
chapter is to illustrate and discuss how to achieve research alignment in studies.
This chapter provided a model and template for developing research alignment
in a study.
The chapter discussed four key components. First, the chapter discussed the
meaning and definition of alignment. Second, the chapter discussed the basic
rules for alignment. Third, the chapter introduced two tools: the Statement Grid, for
developing problem statements and purpose statements, and the Alignment Matrix,
a tool used for aligning the problem statement, purpose statement and research
questions. Last, the chapter provided examples of alignment with all three. It is
our expectation that our proposed conceptual models and frameworks will provide
researchers with a template and a foundation for alignment in research projects and
dissertations.
References
Aligning the problem, research objectives, research questions, and research design. (n.d.).
Retrieved from
http://wpc.6fdc.edgecastcdn.net/006FDC//UOR_Curriculum/

canvas/courseFiles/RES/RES8920/08CH_Heitner_Dissertation.pdf
Alignment of problem, purpose, and research questions [Presentation]. (2020). Center for Teaching
and Learning, Northcentral University.
Beltran, V. (2020). A descriptive study of central Texas urban school principals’ experience of influences
contributing to job stress. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses.
Bloomberg, L. (2019). Achieving alignment in your qualitative dissertation [Webinar].
Northcentral University/Center for Teaching and Learning. Retrieved from https://libr
ary.ncu.edu/c.php?g=1069271&p=7782825
Bloomberg, L. D., & Volpe, M. (2019). Completing your qualitative dissertation: A road map from
beginning to end (4th ed.). Sage Publications.
Booton, C. (2014). Using rich pictures to verify, contradict, or enhance verbal data. The
Qualitative Report 2018, 23(11), 2835–2849.
Booton, C. (2020). How to align the elements of your dissertation proposal. Love Your Dissertation.
Retrieved from https://loveyourdissertation.com/alignment/
Fan, M., Antle, A. N., Hoskyn, M., Neustaedter, C., & Cramer, E. (2017). Why tangibility
matters: A design case study of at-risk children learning to read and spell. In Proceedings of
the 2017 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 1805–1816).
Hoadley, C. (2004). Methodological alignment in design- based research, Educational
Psychologist, 39 (4), 203–212. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep3904_2
mentoring program and its effects on intercultural competence at a university: A qualitative study. ProQuest
Lundmark, R., Hasson, H., Richter A., Khachatryan, E., Åkesson, A., & Eriksson, L.
(2021). Alignment in implementation of evidence-based interventions: A scoping review.
Implementation Sci, 16(93). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13012-021-01160-w
McCuaig, L., Dyson, B., Sutherland, S., & Hiromi, M. (2022). Research paradigms & research
questions: Alignment, alignment, alignment [Presentation]. College of Biology and Education,
Ohio State University.
Miles, D. A. (2020). Achieving alignment: How to achieve research alignment in a study. Doctoral
Student Workshop (no publication), pp. 1–12.
Miles, D. A. & Scott, L. (2017, October 26–29). Confessions of a dissertation chair, Part 1: The
and organizational performance in air transportation organizations [Unpublished dissertation].
Weintraub, D. (2017). Alignment: The key to a strong dissertation [Presentation]. NSU/FCE
Summer Institute 2017, Nova Southeastern University.
10 Understanding Limitations and
Delimitations
Objective
1. Write about the limitations and delimitations of their studies
Introduction
In my many years working with doctoral students, I have found that there is still a
prevailing confusion between the terms limitations and delimitations. I have seen this
to be the case with both experienced and novice researchers. There is a dearth in
the research methods class that is required for doctoral students. After all my years
of working with and editing the work of doctoral students, there still seems to be a
prevailing problem.
The problem is that most of them do not know the difference between the two
terms limitations and delimitations. They either have never learned the differences
between the two terms or have learned alternate definitions that further confuse
them. However, I think I have found a useful definition and examples to help
students and researchers understand the differences between the two terms. The
outline of the chapter will provide information on the differences between the two
terms. First, the chapter will provide clear definitions of a limitation and a delimi-
tation. Second, the chapter will provide some examples of how to use them in a
sentence and paragraph. Last, the chapter will provide examples of them from
journal chapters and studies.
Definition of Limitations
Limitations are defined as constraints on your study based on the research methodology
and design. Primarily, limitations deal with the constraints on the research method
(Miles & Scott, 2017). Limitations are constraints you cannot control in your study
(Simon & Goes, 2013). This is why limitations are often defined as being out of the
control of the researcher.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003268154-10
Understanding Limitations and Delimitations 137
However, many students do not know the reason for this definition. A recurring
problem with doctoral students is that they are completely misinformed regarding
the true meaning of a limitation. This is confusing to them because of the generic
definition of a limitation: The characteristics of a study in which the researcher
cannot control delimitations. Many dissertation committee chairs are just as
confused. This generic definition leaves both the dissertation committee and the
doctoral student confused. There is a reason why a researcher has no control over
the characteristics of a study. It is because you cannot control inherent flaws in your
researcher methodology and design. This is the reason why this is out of the researchers’
control.
With limitations, your research method and design remain constant. For
example, 30 years from now, a researcher who wishes to replicate your study can do
so by using the same research method. A future researcher using the same research
method will face the same limitations you faced. These have to do with the means
you have chosen for gathering and analyzing data. Limitations are those restrictions
created by your research methodology. Limitations are the built-in limits of the
method you use to explore your question. If you are thoughtful and analytical
about your chosen method, you should have no trouble identifying the design
factors that might produce inaccurate or misleading data and possibly lead to mis-
taken conclusions (Bryant, 2004).
Another definition of a limitation is that it is a design flaw. Limitations identify
potential weaknesses in the study’s research design and methodology. Limitations
tend to act as an anticipator of the study’s flaws (Calabrese, 2006). Limitations
are restrictions in the study over which you have no control. For example, your
study may be limited to a narrow segment of the population. You want to study
them but may be limited in the research method you choose to use (Newton &
Rudestam, 2007). Further, limitations are constraints outside of the researcher’s
control and are inherent in the study, which could affect the generalizability of the
results (Terrell, 2016).
A limitation is a factor that may or will affect the study but is not under the
control of the researcher. In such studies that use questionnaires, a common
limitation is the willingness of the individuals to respond at all, to respond in
a timely fashion and to respond accurately. Limitations are important for the
possible effects they may have on the outcomes of the study, and they are not
controlled by the researcher. Limitations typically surface as variables that cannot
be controlled by the researcher but may limit or affect the outcome of the study.
Limitations can become a problem for students if they are not specified (Mauch
& Park, 2003).
When a researcher discusses limitations, they are discussing the possible and real
weaknesses of their research design. Limitations described by the researcher are
those that may or did affect the study’s validity or findings. The limitations tend to
address the researcher’s awareness of the shortcomings in their research design and
methodological approach to the study, thus adding to the researcher’s credibility
(Calabrese, 2009) (see Tables 10.1 and 10.2; Figure 10.1).
138 Understanding Limitations and Delimitations
Table 10.1 Examples of limitations
Common Quantitative Limitations Common Qualitative Limitations

• Research methodology • Research methodology
• Research design (type) • Research design (type)
• Use of self-reported data (survey) • Use of self-reported data (interviews)
• Time constraints (time to collect data) • Time constraints (time to interview
• Length of survey instrument subjects)
• Design of survey instrument • Length of study interview time with
• Sampling design (random, stratified or participants
clustering, systematic, convenience); • Design of interview questions
probability sampling-based • Sampling design (purposive, quota
• Sampling bias and snowball); non-probability
• Target population constraints sampling-based
• Data collection modality type • Target population constraints
• Survey question types (closed-ended) • Data collection modality type
• Survey bias • Interview question types (open-ended)
• Researcher misinterpretation of • Researcher bias
participant data from surveys • Researcher misinterpretation of
participant data from interviews
Table 10.2 T he Statement Grid for limitations
Overall Statement:
The study was limited by certain conditions that were identified for this research inquiry. The researcher
identified three major limitations as a basis for this study.
Limitation 1: Limitation 2: Limitation 3:

First, a key limitation was Second, another key Last, another key limitation
the use of self-reported limitation was time was the length of the
data. Data reflected constraints. The window survey instrument. The
the owner’s perception of opportunity to collect instrument was too long,
of domestic violence, the data was very limited and participants refused
which may have been (less than a month). It to complete the survey.
distorted or incomplete. would have been more There were a number
Some of the participants beneficial to take more of incomplete surveys,
may not have properly time to collect additional which was attributed to
comprehended the surveys. the length and amount of
subject matter. time needed to fill out the
survey (Miles, 2019).
Figure 10.1 Formula for limitations.

Example 10.1
Limitations. Limitations are comprised of the restrictions implemented by

the researcher’s choice of methodology. These are factors in a study that cannot
be controlled by the researcher. As a basis for this study, the limitations were
threefold:
1. The first limitation in this study is the instrumentation. This study used an
instrument that was closed and did not have open-ended questions.
2. The second limitation is the data collection. This study used aggregated data
that was collected from the state in a publicly accessible medium. This is
limited in descriptive statistics.
3. The last limitation is the course. Teen Leadership is one of several different
character education opportunities offered throughout the state. Further
investigation into other programs may offer different insights (Zeig, 2019).
Example 10.2
Limitations. Limitations are potential weaknesses that are out of a researcher’s

control. Limitations are inherent limits in the research methodology and research
design. These areas make the study a scientifically rigorous investigation. As a
basis for this study, the researcher identified three limitations:
1. First, this study was limited to personal interviews with the participants. This
limits the length of data collected and thus has a time constraint as to how
much data can be collected during a period of time.
2. The second limitation is the lack of closed-ended questions, which result in
data that is not empirically quantifiable.
3. The last limitation is the method of data collection. All responses
are self-reported, and the researcher assumes all answers are truthful
(Kwapong, 2021).
Example 10.3
Limitations. Limitations commonly focus on the internal and external validity

of the study. Internal validity addresses the rigorous conduct of the study, while
external validity focuses on the applicability of the findings to larger populations
(generalization). Limitations are inherent limits in the research methodology and
research design. These areas make the study a scientifically rigorous investigation.
The following limitations are present in this study:
1. The first limitation is the methodology. This study uses a survey design as a
basis for research. This is a limitation because the survey questions may not
collect all the necessary data. To minimize the limitation of the method-
ology, the researcher will collect as much data as possible to have an excellent
representation of the population.
2. The second limitation is one of time constraint. Employees may not under-
stand the survey questions because of time constraints, as the survey has too
many questions. To minimize the time constrain, the researcher will provide
the necessary time to collect the data.
3. The third limitation is that the study will be held only during the day shift
and night shift. To minimize the shift limitation, the researcher will obtain
data from the most population possible during shifts.
4. The last limitation is the instrumentation to be used to conduct the research.
The instrument to be used is the questionnaire of the Baldrige National
Quality Program survey, with demographics questions added. To minimize
the instrumentation limitation, reliability data will be present showing that
the instrument is reliable to conduct the proposed study (Morales, 2017).
Definition of Delimitations
Delimitations are constraints on your study based on population scope (Miles & Scott,
2017). Think of delimitations as the boundaries of your study. Delimitations are
defined as chiefly concerned with the scope of the study. Delimitations describe the
scope of the study or establish parameters. Delimitations also prevent you from
stating that your findings are generalizable to the whole population.
Another recurring problem that doctoral students have is with misunderstanding
the true meaning of a delimitation. This is confusing to them because of the generic
definition of a delimitation: The characteristics of a study in which the researcher
can control delimitations. Okay, why is that? The primary reason why they have
problems writing delimitations is because that definition is only surface level and
does not give further rationale as to why it is. There is no context behind the def-
inition. So, again, doctoral students often do their delimitations wrong! This gen-
eric definition of a delimitation does not help students understand why they often
write them wrong in a study. As mentioned earlier, they confuse delimitations and
limitations as though they are interchangeable. This has been a recurring problem
with doctoral students.
One of the prevailing issues on delimitations is that there is no consensus on
what they actually are. Many authors profess different definitions of delimitations.
So, we have a conflict in terms of what delimitations actually mean. Many authors
state the conventional definition of delimitations –that they are within the control
of the researcher (Madsen, 1990; Mauch & Birch, 1998). Again, the key meaning
of delimitations is defined as factors that prevent you from claiming that your
findings are true for all people in all times and places (Thomas & Brubaker, 2000;
Jacobs, 2011).
Another interesting aspect of delimitations is that they imply limitations on the
populations to which the results of the study can be generalized. For example, you
may decide to only study males, either because the theory on which your hypoth-
eses are based has not been studied in females or because you have a readily access-
ible population of males but not females (Newton & Rudestam, 2007). Think of
delimitations as self-imposed boundaries that you use to delimit the scope of your
study (Calabrese, 2006). The fact is that delimitations also act as denotations,
meaning as a boundary of the study and ways in which the findings may lack gen-
eralizability. In considering this, you should examine such concerns as the nature
and size of the sample, the uniqueness of the setting, the time period during which
the study was conducted and the limitations of the particular methods selected
(Glatthorn, 1998).
Delimitations are the factors that prevent you from claiming that your findings
are true for all people in all times and places. For a quantitative study, these are the
factors that limit generalization. For a qualitative study, these are the factors that
limit the relevancy of your study to other populations or individuals. For example,
if you study nurses in Oregon, you will not be able to extend your results to nurses
in Arkansas. The point is that many quantitative studies gather data at a moment
in time. For example, if a researcher 30 years from now would seek to replicate
your study, then they would have to decide what factors would get in the way.
Delimitations would be those factors (Bryant, 2004).
When a researcher uses the term delimitation, it means they will point to how he
or she narrowed the study to focus on specific aspects. The researcher will indi-
cate how they will narrow the specific focus of the study by identifying a precise
type of research methodology, participant characteristic, context or research site
or phenomenon studied during the research (Calabrese, 2009). Furthermore,
delimitations are further limitations actively put in place by a researcher in order
to control for factors that might affect the results or to focus more specifically on a
problem (Terrell, 2016).
One strong consideration of a researcher is that delimitations are controlled by
the researcher. In some studies, it is common to have a delimitation regarding the
size or nature of the group questioned. The size might be limited to those working
in a region. Size may also be limited by percentage in a field or sector. Delimitations
help everyone involved think through the design of the study. Delimitations are
integral parts of the design because they set boundaries. They tell the readers what
will be included, what will be left out and why (Mauch & Park, 2003).
Delimitations detail all the aspects of a study that will not be included. This
process is exactly one of “walling out” those segments that are beyond the scope
and purpose of the study. Delimitations inform readers in a given subject area to
hold certain basic expectations. Readers may want to know (a) about the criteria
for determining the scope of the study; (b) what sources will be used to determine
the salient background of the target population; (c) whether gender differences are
important; and (d) how you define “significant others,” to list just a few. However,
while delimitations will inform readers what not to expect, you should note that you
cannot use the section arbitrarily. Furthermore, you cannot exclude those aspects
that are somehow difficult to research. You cannot narrow the breadth of the study
for your convenience. You cannot use delimitations to exclude logical and credible
expectations (Webster, 1998a).
You should use delimitations carefully and conservatively. The following are
delimitations typical of many research studies: (a) exclusions related to gender
differences; (b) exclusions related to socioeconomic backgrounds; (c) absence
of concern for the size of cities, organizations, utility districts or school districts
studied; and (d) exclusions related to years’ training or experience (Webster, 1998b).
When I work with doctoral students, I usually have them list four categories of
delimitations that set the parameters of the study. If the study is being conducted
externally, with data being collected outside of an organization, these are the most
common delimitations: (a) the unit of analysis of the study for which the data is being
collected from the participants; (b) the metropolitan area or city in which the data is
being collected from the participants; (c) the surrounding counties and/or municipalities (or
parishes) of the area in which the data is being collected from the participants; and
lastly (d) the state in which the data is being collected from the participants. Think of
it as a funnel. Now, if a study is being conducted internally within an organization,
then you may have fewer categories for the delimitations (see Figure 10.2).
Figure 10.2 Delimitations categories in a study.

Figure 10.3 Delimitations categories in a study within an organization.
If a study is being conducted internally within an organization mainly by collecting

data, these are the most common delimitations: (a) the unit of analysis of the study
within the organization (or department) from which the data is being collected from the
participants; (b) the target population or type of group within the organization from which the
data is being collected from the participants; and lastly (c) the general population within
the city, surrounding counties and state from which the data is being collected from the
participants. Sometimes if a study is being conducted internally within an organ-
ization, you may have fewer categories for the delimitations (see Figure 10.3 and
Examples 10.4 to 10.6).
When you write your delimitations, the proper sentence should always be written
as: This study was delimited to … . You have to set the parameters of your study so that
you cannot say your results are generalizable to other areas of the country or other
studies with dissimilar results. You want to start off with four categories, from the
unit of analysis to the state of the data collection (see Table 10.3, Figure 10.4 and
Examples 10.4 to 10.6).
Example 10.4
Delimitations. The delimitations of a study are those characteristics that arise

from limitations in the scope of the study (defining boundaries) and from the con-
scious exclusionary and inclusionary decisions made during the development of
the study plan (Simon & Goes, 2013). The delimitations are those characteristics
that limit the scope and define the boundaries of your study (Simon & Goes,
2013). The following delimitations will be present at the time this study will be
conducted:
1. The study is delimited to air transportation organizations’ employees and

will not assess other types of organizations in the geographical location of
Puerto Rico. To mitigate the delimitation of the organizations where the
study will be conducted, the researcher will collect data from the most pos-
sible air transportation companies.
2. The study is delimited to organizations in Puerto Rico. To minimize the
delimitation of the employees, the study will collect data from employees in
all positions within the organization.
3. The study is delimited to floor employees, office employees and managers at
the air transportation organization site. No employees at the higher leader-
ship level (CEO, vice presidents of operations, etc.) will be assessed in this
study (Morales, 2017).
Table 10.3 T he Statement Grid for delimitations
Overall Statement:
This study had some delimitations that restricted the study. The researcher identified four delimitations
concerning the scope of this study. The study was delimited by certain conditions that were identified for
this research inquiry.
Delimitation 1: Delimitation 2: Delimitation 3: Delimitation 4:

First, the study Second, the study Third, the study Lastly, the study
was delimited to was delimited to was delimited to was delimited
domestic violence the metropolitan the surrounding to the state of
victims (DVV). city of Los counties of the California.
[unit of analysis] Angeles. Los Angeles area. [state]
[metropolitan [surrounding
city] counties and
non-city areas]
Figure 10.4 Formula for delimitations.
Example 10.5
Delimitations. Delimitations are weaknesses associated with the scope of the

study (Simon & Goes, 2013). While limitations are not under the researcher’s
control, delimitations are factors that can be controlled. The researcher noted
three delimitations that will affect this study:
• The study is delimited to private Christian institutions in Southern

California.
• The study is delimited to students participating in the AIM peer-mentoring
program.
• The study is delimited to the population sample of ten international students
and ten domestic students (Kwapong, 2021).
Example 10.6
Delimitations. Delimitations are things over which the researcher has control,
such as the location of the study. The following delimitations will be present in
the current study.
1. The survey of parents is delimited to Southern New Jersey’s public schools.

A lack of funding prevents the study being conducted over a larger, more
widespread region. This limits the geographic range of the sample and in
turn impacts the generalizability of the findings. Expanding the range could
produce results that are more widely generalizable and applicable to other
regions.
2. The study will be delimited to a sample study of 20–25 parents of students
who attend New Jersey public schools in the South New Jersey region and
are in kindergarten through eighth grade. Although this limits the applic-
ability of this study to the parents of high school students, the intent of the
study is to focus on the phenomenon of parent involvement as it exists in
lower grades as a foundation to helping students establish sound academic
achievement (Forbes, 2017).
Summary
This chapter discussed the confusion around the terms limitations and delimitations.
It addressed three key points to understanding and differentiating between the
two terms.
This chapter highlighted the main definitions of limitations and their
characteristics. Also, the chapter discussed the definition of delimitations and their
characteristics. First, the chapter defined and discussed the meanings of the two
terms. Second, the chapter gave some examples and characteristics of the two
terms. Last, the chapter discussed the differences between the two terms based on
research questions and data collection methods.
We hope this chapter will act as a guide for helping researchers learn and under-
stand the distinct differences between the terms limitations and delimitations. We hope
to build a foundation for enlightening both experienced and novice researchers on

the two terms and lessen the confusion.
References
Calabrese, R. (2006). The elements of an effective dissertation and thesis: A step-by-step guide to getting
it right the first time. Rowman & Littlefield Education, Inc.
Forbes, S. (2017). Parental involvement in education: The lived experience [Unpublished dissertation].
Glatthorn, A. (1998). Writing the winning dissertation: A step-by-step guide (1st ed.). Corwin
Press, Inc.
mentoring program and its effects on intercultural competence at a university: A qualitative study [UMI
No. 77854669]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses.
Mauch, J., & Birch, J. (1998). Guide to the successful theses and dissertation: A handbook for students and
faculty (4th ed.). Marcel Dekker, Inc. Publishers.
Mauch, J. E., & Park, N. (2003). Guide to the successful thesis and dissertation: A handbook for students
and faculty. M. Dekker.
Miles, D. A. (2019). Research methods and strategies: Let’s stop the madness
Part 2: Understanding the difference between limitations vs. delimitations. ResearchGate.
www.researchgate.net/publication/334279571_ARTICLE_Research_Methods_and_Str
ategies_Let%27s_Stop_the_Madness_Part_2_Understanding_the_Difference_Between_
Limitations_vs_Delimitations
process (3rd ed.). Sage.
Simon, M., & Goes, J. (2013). Dissertation and scholarly research: Recipes for success. Dissertation
Success, LLC.
Webster, W. (1998a). 21 models for developing and writing your theses, dissertations or projects. Academic
Scholarwrite.
Webster, W. (1998b). Developing and writing your thesis, dissertation or project. Academic Scholarwrite.
Zeig, M. (2019). Effects of a character education course on standardized testing in Texas high schools
[UMI No. 5458799]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses.
11 Understanding Assumptions
and How to Write Them
in a Study
Objective
1. Write about the assumptions of their studies
Introduction
In our years of working with many doctoral students, we have found that
there is still a prevailing confusion with the term assumptions when developing
dissertations. In fact, in discussions with even many experienced researchers and
doctoral mentors, this confusion exists. There is a dearth of research methods
classes for doctoral students. As we reflect on our own doctoral journey, an in-
depth discussion on the implications of assumptions on the research development
process is vital to doctoral students. At best, doctoral students gained a back-
ground in philosophical assumptions centered on the values and belief systems
of individuals, such as those related to (a) epistemological assumptions, or what counts
as knowledge and justified (Creswell & Poth, 2018), (b) ontological assumptions, or
questioning whether there are universal or multiple realities, and (c) axiological
assumptions, or the extent to which the researcher’s own values and biases are
known and enter the study.
We believe that having a more robust presentation of information on the topic
of assumptions, as well as providing examples from journal articles and studies,
will help doctoral students and even experienced researchers and doctoral mentors
to become more astute as they investigate, examine or explore problems requiring
research and comprehensive findings that improve decision- making among
researchers and other stakeholders. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to pro-
vide a framework for the presentation of information that defines or clarifies (a) what
is meant by the term assumption when developing research proposals or reports,
(b) making and justifying assumptions, (c) assumptions in qualitative research,
(d) the general types of assumptions, (e) the Statement Grid for assumptions, and
(f) the significance of participant bias on assumptions.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003268154-11
148 Understanding Assumptions and How to Write Them in a Study
Definition of Assumptions
Assumptions can be defined as things that are somewhat out of your control, but
if they disappeared your study would become irrelevant (Hubbard, 1973; Simon,
2011; Simon & Goes, 2013). For example, if you are doing a study on the middle
school music curriculum, there is an underlying assumption that music will con-
tinue to be important in the middle school program. If you are conducting a
survey, you need to assume that people will answer truthfully. If you are choosing a
sample, you need to assume that this sample is representative of the population you
wish to make inferences to (Hubbard, 1973; Simon, 2011; Simon & Goes, 2013).
Another definition of an assumption is an unexamined belief that the researcher
brings to the study and that is accepted as being valid (Bryant, 2004; Webster,
1998a, 1998b).
Assumptions are statements that are taken for granted or considered true, even
though they have not been scientifically tested. Think of assumptions as principles
that are accepted as being true based on logic or reasons but without proof or veri-
fication. Assumptions provide a basis for the development of theories and research
instruments and therefore influence the development and implementation of the
research process (Happen, 2008; Patidar, 2010; Sampson, 2010). Also, assumptions
must clarify aspects of the study that are believed but cannot be proven to be true.
Furthermore, only include assumptions critical to the meaningfulness of the study.
The researcher must describe the reasons why the assumptions were necessary in
the context of the study (Terrell, 2016; Lani, 2018).
During the research synthesis process, Wolgemuth et al. (2017) argued that
focused attention on the constructs of methodology and research design can
be viewed with more objectivity when there is an examination of assumptions
that could affect the decisions related to the research inquiry processes. When
considering writing the assumptions, researchers need to give them some careful
thought. The “basic assumption” that drives design-based research should not
be plucked out of thin air (e.g., “iPods will make students more motivated”), nor
should it only be derived from the literature (e.g., “learning communities enhance
learning”) (Herrington et al., 2007). As an alternative, the assumptions that direct
study are derived from the definition of the research problem in close collaboration
with practitioners and finetuned through literature that serves to (a) help flesh out
what is already known about the problem; and (b) guide the development of poten-
tial solutions. In such instances, the inquiry that forms the basis of the study helps
the researcher to understand the underpinning processes and variables and how
they impact the learning and learning outcomes (Herrington et al., 2007).
Making Assumptions in the Study

In many cases, we make assumptions about how research subjects will behave. Will
they tell the truth as they see it? Will they be forthright with us? Will they inten-
tionally deceive us? We make assumptions about our own behavior. Will we ask the
right questions? Will we gather the right kind of information in sufficient data and
Understanding Assumptions and How to Write Them in a Study 149
amount? Will we, as the products of our own experiences, examine our data and
information impartially (Bryant, 2004)?
In many other cases, we make assumptions about the tools we use to gather
and analyze data. That is, our chosen research method is predicated on epis-
temological assumptions about what constitutes legitimate knowledge and what
constitutes legitimate ways of acquiring that knowledge. If we do survey research,
we make assumptions about the validity of our individual questions and how these
questions will be understood by our subjects. When considering doing a case study,
we make assumptions about whether the case chosen really contains the informa-
tion being sought. In this case, if we do statistical analyses, assumptions are made
about the normal distribution of the data. In doing qualitative research sampling,
for example, a scholar will be gathering data from a limited number of subjects,
usually at a single point in time (Bryant, 2004).
In order to generalize one’s findings from this sample to a larger population,
one must make assumptions about both the representativeness of the sample and
the stability of findings gathered at one point in time. Many factors can impact the
stability of one’s findings (Bryant, 2004).
Lastly, in short, all of our research projects spring from assumptions. These are
not the theories that we might be exploring. Rather, they are the beliefs we bring
to the study and will accept as valid. The identification of these beliefs helps bring
legitimacy to your role as a scholar. In this section, it is appropriate to attempt to
identify some of the major assumptions that you bring to your study (Bryant, 2004).
Researchers Must Justify Their Assumptions
Researchers need to try and expose their assumptions and justify them. Let’s expand
on this further. Considering their hypothesis, researchers need to write about the
assumptions underlying their measures in order to tighten them into a form where
they can be debated with others (Evans et al., 2011). Furthermore, assumptions
must be included in chapter one. Underlying assumptions are present in every
research study, allowing them to only be implicit (Newman et al., 1997).
It may be that the measures themselves are something you have assumed and
not made explicit; it is critical that you directly ask yourself how the outcomes will
be assessed and what the measures are so that these decisions are made clear to the
examiner (Newman et al., 1997). Nevertheless, a final but significant note on this
point is that, ultimately, the argument and your assumptions are subjective. Your
final line of defense in your choice of assumptions, method and so on is that they
are reasonable and consistent (Repp & Glaviano, 1987; Evans et al., 2011).
Assumptions Are the Starting Point for the Investigation
For the researcher, the assumptions should be viewed as the starting point for an
investigation. A basic assumption, or postulate, is a proposition that is not testable
but is accepted as true in the light of the best available evidence. This act of faith
is important because, without basic assumptions, each investigation would have to
begin at the very earliest stage of knowledge (Hubbard, 1973). A third underlying
assumption is that anything which exists must exist in some measurable quantity.
These unstated and often unrecognized assumptions are, in essence, unprovable
value judgments so basic and so universally accepted that we proceed with our
research without giving them a second thought. These are the assumptions under-
lying research methodology (Hubbard, 1973; Ostler, 1996; Pemberton, 2012). The
third class of assumptions that must be made are those specific to the study at
hand. Such assumptions must be clearly stated or explicitly implied. They may
relate to the total field of inquiry on which a study rests or may pertain to a single
aspect of the study. An investigator studying the effects of an exercise routine on
physical fitness must assume, for example, that physical fitness is a real, identifiable
entity subject to definition and measurement (Hubbard, 1973; Thompson, 1994a;
Velez, 2008).
Assumptions are statements taken to be true without the presentation of data
to support them. They must be consistent with present information and readily
acceptable, i.e., statements that would not be disputed. They involve conditions
that underlie the research conditions upon which the research is built in contrast to
the hypothesis, which is tested by the study. If the assumptions are false, the whole
research study will be inadequate. Just as there are assumptions upon which certain
statistical procedures are based, there may be assumptions upon which the research
study itself is based. If any of the formulae that assume a normal distribution are
used with skewed data, the results may be incorrect; in the same way, a research
study built upon a wrong assumption may lead to false conclusions. Again, the
assumptions prevent a researcher from making a scientific choice and narrowing
their list of alternative approaches (Ostler, 1996; Thompson, 1994b).
Assumptions Clarify Aspects of the Study
When thinking of assumptions, researchers must think of them as clarity in the

study, clarifying aspects of the study that are believed but cannot be proven to
be true. Only include assumptions critical to the meaningfulness of the study.
Describe the reasons why the assumptions were necessary for the context of the
study (Lani, 2018).
In the dissertation, assumptions are usually stated in this section of chapter one.
They also usually address limitations that the researcher is aware of that may affect
the study, but which the researcher will not attempt to control (Happen, 2008;
Baron, 2010). Assumptions may also be used to state whether or not limiting factors
are likely or unlikely to affect the outcome of the study. Generally, conditions that
have already been stated as limitations or delimitations should not be addressed in
this section. (For example, if respondents’ honesty has been listed as a possible limi-
tation, there should not also be an assumption that respondents will answer hon-
estly.) Examples of assumptions might include the following: (1) It is assumed that
during this study, participants’ gender will not significantly affect their perceptions;
and (2) It is assumed that all respondents will answer all survey questions honestly
and to the best of their abilities (Happen, 2008; Talab, 2008; Sampson, 2010).
Assumptions in Qualitative Research
Many characteristics make up the collective term of qualitative research,

methods used to specify a certain framework in which researchers operate
(Walters, 2001). Considering working from this framework, there are two major
assumptions that take precedence. Inductive reasoning and topic specificity are
the two characteristics that define qualitative research, and inductive reasoning
is the epitome of qualitative research design (Repp & Glaviano, 1987; Walters,
2001; Calabrese, 2006). Often, researchers seek information from the data
that is gathered; they do not proceed to a project looking for specific findings.
According to Maxwell (2013), qualitative research allows researchers to examine
explanations and data, not to prove a self-fulfilling prophecy. Inductive reasoning
looks for meaning from within the subjects (Repp & Glaviano, 1987; Happen,
2008; Sampson, 2010).
General Types of Assumptions
When considering the assumptions, again, the researcher should list the major
assumptions underlying the study. Here are some general types of assumptions:
• Behavior is characterized by some degree of consistency

• The behavior of interest is observable and properly measured
• All individuals in a group benefit equally from a group treatment
• Subjects have the ability to report their perceptions accurately
• The time allotted for the treatment is adequate to produce the desired effects
• All the important variables influencing the dependent variable have been con-
trolled or explicitly included in the design
• Student achievement is a function of both in-school and out-of-school factors
Based on my experience working with doctoral students, typically, they are

confused when it comes to listing assumptions for their study. They usually write
them, and they are completely wrong. As a chair, this is where you come in and
provide the student with proper guidance.
For more exhaustive types of assumptions, there are many other classifications.
There are generally thirteen types of assumptions that researchers can make about
their study: (1) participant behavior in terms of truthfulness and ethical behavior;
(2) participant qualifications for the study; (3) participant cognitive abilities in terms
of their understanding of the questions being asked; (4) the tools and instruments
used to collect data; (5) the researchers’ beliefs they bring to the study; (6) selected
statistical analyses for the study; (7) the normal distribution of the data; (8) the
chosen research methodology and design, and the information we seek; (9) the val-
idity and reliability of the survey questions; (10) the time constraints of collecting
data in the study; (11) the representativeness of the sample; (12) the stability of
the findings gathered from the study; and (13) the sampling, or the gathering of
Table 11.1 Examples of assumptions
Common Quantitative Assumptions Common Qualitative Assumptions

• Truthfulness and Honesty. • Truthfulness and Honesty.
Assumptions concerning the truthfulness Assumptions concerning the truthfulness
and honesty of the participants in of the participants in the study.
the study. • Qualification. Assumptions concerning
• Qualifications. Assumptions the participants’ qualifications for the
concerning the participants’ study (knowledge).
qualifications for the study (knowledge). • Mental Capabilities. Assumptions
• Mental Capabilities. Assumptions concerning the participants mental
concerning the participants’ mental capabilities and cognitive abilities for
capabilities and cognitive abilities for participating in the study.
participating in the study. • Research Methodology. Assumptions
• Research Methodology. Assumptions concerning the research methodology
concerning the research methodology appropriateness.
appropriateness. • Research Design. Assumptions
• Research Design. Assumptions concerning the research design
concerning the research design (type) appropriateness.
appropriateness. • Self-Reported Data. Assumptions
• Self-Reported Data. Assumptions concerning the use of self-reported data
concerning the use of self-reported data (interviews) from the participants.
(surveys) from the participants. • Time Constraints. Assumptions
• Time Constraints. Assumptions concerning the use of time constraints
concerning time constraints (time to (time to interview subjects and
collect data). collect data).
• Instrument. Assumptions concerning • Instrument. Assumptions concerning
the length of survey instrument the length of study interview time with
appropriateness. participants.
• Instrument Design. Assumptions • Instrument Design. Assumptions
concerning the design of the survey concerning the design of the interview
instrument. questions.
• Sampling Design. Assumptions • Sampling Design. Assumptions
concerning the sampling design type concerning the sampling design type
(random, stratified or clustering, (purposive, quota and snowball, non-
systematic, convenience, probability probability sampling-based).
sampling-based). • Sample Representation.
• Sample Representation. Assumptions concerning the sampling
Assumptions concerning the sampling representativeness of the study.
representativeness of the study. • Population Appropriateness.
• Population Appropriateness. Assumptions concerning the
Assumptions concerning the appropriateness of the study’s
appropriateness of the study’s population.
population. • Data Collection Type. Assumptions
• Data Collection Type. Assumptions concerning the data collection modality
concerning the data collection modality type for the study.
type for the study. • Interview Question Types.
• Survey Question Types. Assumptions Assumptions concerning the interview
concerning the survey question types question types (open-ended).
(closed-ended). • Researcher Data Interpretation.
• Researcher Data Interpretation. Assumptions concerning the researcher’s
Assumptions concerning the researcher’s interpretation of participant data from
interpretation of participant responses interviews (Miles, 2016a, 2016b; Miles &
from the data from surveys. Scott, 2017).
data from the targeted population (Bryant, 2004; Miles, 2016a, 2016b; Miles &
Scott, 2017).
When the researcher discusses the assumptions, they are discussing the pos-
sible and real influences on the study. Think of assumptions as described by the
researcher as those things that usually address limitations that the researcher is
aware may affect the study, but which the researcher will not attempt to control
(Baron, 2010). Assumptions may also be used to state whether or not limiting
factors are likely or unlikely to affect the outcome of the study. Assumptions may
or may not affect the study’s validity or findings. The assumptions tend to address
the researcher’s awareness and shortcomings of their research design and meth-
odological approach to the study, thus adding to the researcher’s credibility. For
example, in order to generalize one’s findings from this sample to a larger popula-
tion, one must make assumptions about both the representativeness of the sample
and the stability of findings gathered at one point in time. Many factors can impact
the stability of one’s findings (Bryant, 2004; Newton & Rudestam, 2007; Calabrese,
2009) (see Table 11.1).
An assumption is a factor that may or will affect the study but is not under
the control of the researcher. In such studies that use questionnaires, a common
assumption is the willingness of the individuals to respond at all, to respond
in a timely fashion and to respond accurately. Assumptions are important to
the possible effects on the outcomes of the study, and they are not controlled
by the researcher. Assumptions typically surface as variables that cannot be
controlled by the researcher but may limit or affect the outcome of the study.
Assumptions can become a problem for students if they are not specified (Mauch
& Birch, 1998).
When the researcher discusses the assumptions, they are discussing the pos-
sible and real weaknesses of their research design. Assumptions described by the
researcher are those that may or did affect the study’s validity or findings. The
assumptions tend to address the researcher’s awareness of the shortcomings in
their research design and methodological approach to the study, thus adding to
the researcher’s credibility (Calabrese, 2009) (see Table 11.2 and Examples 11.1
to 11.3).
Example 11.1 Assumptions
The school district that is the foundation of this study has a variety of races, which
is represented in the teaching pool. Though there are more non-performing arts
teachers than performing arts teachers in the school district, there should be a
good representation as far as the data is concerned. The following assumptions
are present in this study:
1. It is assumed that participants in this study will answer the survey as honestly
as possible.
2. It is assumed that participants will be mentally capable of answering and

completing the survey.
3. It is assumed that participants have the background and experience to
answer and complete the survey.
4. It is assumed that participants are employed as teachers in the K–12 school
system in the area where the study is being conducted (Jefferson, 2022).
Table 11.2 Introducing the Statement Grid for assumptions
Overall Statement:
This research has some assumptions regarding the participants that were a part of the study. An
assumption is an unexamined belief that the researcher brings to the study and that is accepted as being
valid (Bryant, 2004). The researcher identified four assumptions for this study.
Assumption 1: Assumption 2: Assumption 3: Assumption 4:

The researcher The researcher The researcher Lastly, the researcher
assumes the assumes the assumes the assumes the
participants will participants participants participants have
be truthful and will answer will be mentally the experience
honest. the interview capable and have and background
questions to the the cognitive knowledge as
best of their ability to answer an educator
knowledge. the interview to answer
questions. the interview
questions with
credibility
(Martinez, 2021).
This qualitative descriptive study was concerned with the perceptions of ethical
leadership styles based on the lived experiences of twenty FBHCO employees.
The researcher determined that the best approach for obtaining data was to
conduct and record face-to-face interviews. This research has some assumptions
regarding the participants in the study. An assumption is an unexamined belief
that the researcher brings to the study and that is accepted as being valid
(Bryant, 2004).
The researcher identified four significant assumptions for this study:
1. It is assumed that the participants will have knowledge and experience of

the healthcare field and aid the researcher with understanding the problem.
2. It is assumed that the participants responded truthfully to the interview
questions asked by the researcher during the interviewing process.
3. It is assumed that the responses to the questions are accurate, as the

researcher relies on the voice of the participants (Creswell, 1994).
4. It is assumed that the data collected will represent a purposeful sample from
the target population. Purposeful sampling will be performed in this research
because it allows the researcher to acquire a sample that best represents a
larger population (Yin, 2017). Patton (2002, p. 230) revealed that pur-
poseful sampling gives an in-depth understanding rather than empirical
generalizations (McCain, 2022).
This study has some assumptions. Assumptions are defined as something the
researcher accepts as true without any concrete proof (Ellis & Levy, 2009).
The researcher has some assumptions about the participants in the study. The
following assumptions are present in this study:
1. It is assumed that the participants (higher education employees) across the

sector use some form of ICT in the scope of their job functions.
2. It is assumed that the participants are susceptible to technostress based on
the higher education industry’s use of new and changing technology for
teaching students and managing university operations (Jang et al., 2017;
Raspopovic et al., 2016; Sweet et al., 2013).
3. It is assumed that the participants respond truthfully and are forthright
regarding the nature of their internal attitudes when using new and chan-
ging technologies in the workplace.
4. It is assumed that the participants are mentally capable of understanding the
questions in the survey and answering them (Cornish, 2022).
Participant Bias and Assumptions
As can be seen in Examples 11.1, 11.2 and 11.3, one assumption that appears in
many research studies is the participants being honest in providing information
during data collection. In fact, the assumption that a participant is being honest
might, in fact, be a normalized belief without considering that the participants
come to the data collection process with biases. In many dissertations, the nota-
tion of participant honesty is oftentimes not challenged and mistakenly taken as
a norm in the writing of assumptions. However, this is an underlying construct
that has implications for the outcome of any study. Farnsworth (2019) noted that
participants, depending on the environment or purpose of the study, might change
their answers or behaviors; therefore, this bias could produce errors that might
affect the research findings. In fact, understanding the significance of participant
bias or assumptions could present the possibility of reconsidering or reframing the
problem (Wolgemuth et al., 2017).
Summary
This chapter discussed the use of assumptions in the dissertation. The chapter
discussed assumptions as statements that are taken for granted or considered true,
even though they have not been scientifically tested.
The chapter discussed a framework that presents information that defines or
clarifies: (a) what is meant by the term assumption when developing research
proposals or reports; (b) making and justifying assumptions; (c) assumptions in
qualitative research; (d) the general types of assumptions; (e) the Statement Grid
for assumptions; and (f) the significance of participant bias on assumptions.
Overall, we wanted to build a foundation for enlightening both experienced and
novice researchers on the nature of assumptions and their underlying implications
in relation to the research development and implementation processes. We hope
this chapter will act as a guide to help novice and experienced researchers learn and
understand the use of assumptions.
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12 Understanding the Differences
Between Contributions and
the Significance of a Study
Objective
1. Understand the differences between the contributions and significance of
a study
Introduction
In my many years of working with doctoral students, I have found that there is still a
prevailing confusion among them. There is substantial confusion around the terms
contributions of a study and significance of a study. This is so common that I have seen it
to be the case with both experienced and novice researchers, but it is most common
with doctoral students. Again, as professors we need to do a better job at helping
our students to understand the differences between these two terms.
One of the prevailing issues is that they did not properly understand these
concepts in their research methods courses. They either have never learned the
differences between the two terms or they assume they are the same. This shows
when they write their dissertations. However, help is on the way. I think we have
found a useful definition and examples to help doctoral students and novice
researchers understand the differences between the two terms.
The outline of this chapter will provide information on the differences between
the two terms. First, this chapter will provide clear definitions of the contributions
of a study and significance of a study. This chapter discusses the differences
between and definitions of the two terms the contributions of a study and the significance
of a study. Second, this chapter will provide some examples of how to use them in a
sentence and paragraph. It discusses the three types of study significance. Last, the
chapter discusses the three types of research significance. The chapter will provide
examples of these from journal articles and studies.
Contributions: What Are They and Why Are They Important?

The contributions of a study describe how the study will contribute to the body
of knowledge. There are three types of study contribution: (a) conceptual/theoretical,
DOI: 10.4324/9781003268154-12
160 Differences Between Contributions and the Significance of a Study
Figure 12.1 T he three types of research contribution.
(b) empirical, and (c) methodological. These three types of contribution define most
research contributions in a study (see Figure 12.1).
Conceptual/Theoretical Contributions
The conceptual (theoretical) contribution of a study involves contributions such

as (a) improved conceptual definitions of the original constructs; (b) the identifi-
cation and conceptual definition of additional constructs to be added to the con-
ceptual framework (e.g., additional dependent, independent, mediating and/or
moderator variables); (c) the development of additional theoretical linkages (e.g.,
research hypotheses) with their accompanying rationale; and (d) the development
of improved theoretical rationale for existing linkages (Summers, 2001; Asgari,
2015; Miles, 2018; Miles, 2019).
Empirical Contributions
The empirical contribution of a study involves contributions such as (a) testing

a theoretical linkage between two constructs that has not previously been tested;
(b) examining the effects of a potential moderator variable on the nature of the
relationship between two constructs; (c) determining the degree to which a variable
mediates the relationship between two constructs; and (d) investigating the psy-
chometric properties of an important scale (Summers, 2001; Asgari, 2015; Miles,
2018; Miles, 2019).
Methodological Contributions
The methodological contribution of a study involves contributions such as (a) redu-

cing the potential problems with shared method variance through the insightful
use of multiple methods of measurement; (b) increasing the generalizability of the
research through more appropriate sampling procedures; (c) allowing the investiga-
tion of the plausibility of “third-variable explanations” for the results of past
Differences Between Contributions and the Significance of a Study 161
Table 12.1 Introducing the Statement Grid for the contributions of a study
Overall Statement:
The researcher identified a key contribution of this study. This study makes two important
________________ contributions.
Contribution 1: First, this study makes Contribution 2: Second, this study

a contribution by offering a _________ offers a ______ ___________________
______________ that is lacking in the line of inquiry that was not addressed in
prior research that primarily focused on the prior research. This study attempts
________________________ to address the potential problems in
the prior studies with a ____________
through the insightful use of
________________________.
studies; and (d) enhancing the construct validity of key measures through the use
of refined multiple-item measures and/or the use of measurement approaches that
do not rely on self-reports (Summers, 2001; Asgari, 2015; Miles, 2018; Miles, 2019).
Other Research Contributions
These are rare contributions and rarely used except for special situations. The
applied contribution refers to when a theoretical model applies in a different industry
that hasn’t been empirically tested earlier. Survey contributions are attempts to review
and synthesize work done in a research field with the goal of exposing trends,
themes and gaps in the literature (Asgari, 2015). See the Statement Grid (Tables 12.1
to 12.3) for examples of how to write the contributions of a study.
See, also, Examples 12.1 to 12.3, which provide some actual examples of how
the contributions of a study are written.
Example 12.1
The researcher identified two contributions of this study. First, this study will make
a conceptual contribution to the field of leadership and management studies.
This study hopes to contribute to the theory of leadership and body of know-
ledge. Many researchers have explored the impact of leaders’ behavior on their
employees. Many of these studies deal with leadership styles and how employees
respond to their managers’ actions. The results of such studies indicated that
“employees would respond to the manager’s actions with attitudes reflecting their
perception of a supervisor’s leadership style” (Mulki et al., 2015, p. 6). Kim (2014)
suggested that leaders set the tone and atmosphere in the organization, therefore
defining the organization’s culture. This study will contribute to the development
of additional theoretical linkages (e.g., research hypotheses) with their accom-
panying rationale.
The second contribution will be methodological. This study makes a contribution

by providing a divergent research method variance through the insightful
use of multiple methods of measurement. A qualitative line of inquiry is lacking
in the prior research. Some of these unexplored research methods appear to be
important and worthy of investigation in the context of management and job
performance. Yoonk and Poister (2014) also asserted that, by engaging employees
in the building of a team work environment, this could be a leading factor
towards increasing organizational performance and sustainability. An investiga-
tion of these issues is important because there is a dearth in prior research that
approaches this topic from a qualitative line of inquiry. Furthermore, the pre-
vious empirical research has focused primarily on quantitative methodology and
assessment. Very little research has contributed from a qualitative line of inquiry
(Platt, 2019).
Table 12.2
T he Statement Grid –Contributions of a study
Overall Statement:
The researcher identified a key contribution of this study. This study makes a methodological
contribution. This study makes two key methodological contributions.
Contribution 1: First, this study makes Contribution 2: Second, this study offers
a contribution by offering a qualitative a divergent line of inquiry that was not
inquiry that is lacking in the prior addressed in the prior research. This
research that primarily focused on study attempts to address the potential
empirical research. problems in the prior studies with shared
method variance through the insightful
use of multiple methods of inquiry.
Table 12.3 T he Statement Grid –Contributions of a study
Overall Statement:
The researcher identified a key contribution of this study. This study makes an empirical contribution.
This study makes two key empirical contributions.
Contribution 1: First, this study makes Contribution 2: Second, this study offers
an empirical contribution by offering an an evaluative line of inquiry that was
empirical line of inquiry that is lacking not addressed in the prior research. The
in the prior research. The primary line majority of the prior research tended
of inquiry in the prior research tended to focus on a non-evaluative approach
to focus on a non-empirical approach to to the research. This study attempts to
studying this topic. address the potential problems in
the prior studies with shared method
variance through the insightful use of
evaluative methods of inquiry.
Example 12.2
The researcher identified a major contribution of this study. First, this study will
offer a much-needed empirical contribution. This study makes two important
empirical contributions. First, the research uses archival data maintained by the
state for public access to make connections. This information is stored specifically
for research purposes as shown in Appendix F. This facilitates the use of larger
amounts of data and greater populations.
Second, this study will contribute to the empirical evidence for the require-
ment of a student’s socio-intellectual development in the high school setting. This
research may be appropriate for understanding the impact that precise character
and behavioral skills have on student interactions with peers, adults and their
studies. Additionally, the need for a specific, codified character education curric-
ulum may be indicated from the results of the study. Further evidence may be
provided that character education may positively impact student success outside
the classroom (Zeig, 2019).
Example 12.3
The researcher identified a key contribution of this study. This study makes
a methodological contribution. This study makes two key methodological
contributions. First, this study makes a contribution by offering a qualitative
inquiry that is lacking in the prior research that primarily focused on empir-
ical research. Second, this study offers a divergent line of inquiry that was not
addressed in the prior research. This study attempts to address the potential
problems in the prior studies with shared method variance through the insightful
use of multiple methods of inquiry.
In addition, this study encompasses several unexplored dimensions that lately
have attracted research attention and calls for another research method. Some
of these unexplored research methods appear to be important and worthy of
investigation in the context of technostress and job performance. An investiga-
tion of these issues is important because there is a dearth in prior research that
approaches this topic from a qualitative line of inquiry. Furthermore, the pre-
vious empirical research has focused primarily on quantitative methodology and
assessment. Very little research has made a contribution from a qualitative line of
inquiry (Beltran, 2019).
Significance: What Is It and Why Is It Important?

A second problem that doctoral students have is with the meaning of significance.
Many doctoral students have considerable trouble writing and supporting the
significance statement in their dissertation proposal. The reasons stem from a poor
research objective. The significance statement gives plausible rationale as to why
the study matters.
This is a very important section of the proposal. The significance is an explan-
ation of why the proposed study is important, why it represents a potential contri-
bution to the field. Its emphasis should be on why the study is worthwhile (Webster,
1998). The significance of a study is your argument that the study makes a signifi-
cant and original contribution to the profession, the scholarly literature and your
discipline. The significance of the study answers questions related to why the topic
is worth studying (Calabrese, 2006). You offer reasons and arguments pertaining
to why your study is important. The reasons may be confined to the possibility
that your study will add new knowledge to existing information about your area
of interest. These reasons relate to how practitioners behave in carrying out their
work (Bryant, 2004).
With significance, the researcher describes how the study (a) contributes to existing
research, (b) benefits participants, (c) contributes to practice, and (d) generates new
theory. If the significance of the study is presented in the dissertation proposal, then
the researcher is speculative, theorizing his or her contributions in these four areas
(Calabrese, 2009)
It provides answers as to why your study is important and how it will add
something to the body of knowledge. There are three key points to a significance
statement: (a) Why is this research important; (b) How does this research contribute
to the body of knowledge; and (c) How does this research contribute to the practice
and field.
The significance of a study describes why the study is important. There are
three types of study significance: (a) theoretical, (b) practical, and (c) research. These
three types of significance define most research significance in a study (see
Figure 12.2).
Figure 12.2 T he three types of study significance.

Table 12.4 T he Statement Grid –Significance of a study
Overall Statement:
As a basis for this study, the researcher identified one major reason why this study is significant (two
examples).
Example 1: First, this study is important Example 2: Second, this study is

because it provides theoretical significance. important because it provides
This study breaks some new ground theoretical significance by making a strong
in management and human resources contribution to the body of knowledge
theory. This study makes a strong by developing a new conceptual model.
theoretical contribution in terms of This study makes a strong contribution
offering a theory that goes beyond the to the theory in the field of marketing.
prior models from Masterson’s (2008)
own management task.
Theoretical Significance
The idea of saying why a study is important can be challenging. This is why there
is a term called significance. Furthermore, we have theoretical significance. Theoretical
significance is defined as theoretical contributions, which include contributions you
expect to make to the establishment or verification of theories or models or to
an existing body of research. The researcher provides arguments for theoretical
contributions that should be developed from the literature (Long et al., 1985). Thus,
the study is important because it provides a theoretical contribution to the body of
knowledge.
This type of significance is important because it focuses on adding new know-
ledge or theory to the body of knowledge in the field. Novice researchers and doc-
toral students find theoretical importance confusing. They still do not understand
the basics of writing up the significance of a study. The basis of the significance of
a study is your argument that your study makes a significant and original contribu-
tion to the scholarly literature and your discipline (Calabrese, 2009; Miles, 2018;
Miles, 2019; Webster, 1998) (see Table 12.4).
Practical Significance
The second significance type is called practical significance. Practical significance is

defined as a focus on the impact of your results on the profession or on the solu-
tion of practical problems (Long et al., 1985). This is the opposite of its prede-
cessor, theoretical significance. The researcher provides arguments for theoretical
contributions that should be developed from the literature (Long et al., 1985). Thus,
the study is important because it provides a practical contribution to the profession,
industry and practitioners as a body of knowledge.
This type of significance is important because it focuses on the impact of your
results on the profession or on the solution of practical problems (Madsen, 1990).
These reasons relate to how practitioners behave in carrying out their work (Bryant,
Overall Statement:
As a basis for this study, the researcher identified one major reason why this study is significant (two
examples).
Example 1: This study is important Example 2: This study is vital because it

because it also provides practical provides practical significance. This research
significance. This research attempts attempts to provide a template for policy
to provide insight into new practicing makers in the engineering industry and
teachers considering a transition to a field. Second, this study also makes a
career role in the teaching profession. contribution to establishing new policy
This study is important because it for the engineers in the field. Lastly, this
illuminates the experiences of new study provides insight into new practicing
teachers in their new job. engineers.
2004). The significance of a study is your argument that the study makes a signifi-
cant contribution to the profession. The key factor here is how your research
contributes in terms of practice (Calabrese, 2009) (see Table 12.5).
Research Significance
The last type of significance is called research significance. Research significance is

defined as a focus on the research importance of your study and its contribution
to the body of knowledge in terms of research (Miles & Scott, 2017). This type
of significance is important because it focuses on the importance of your study
and how it is important from a research perspective. Research significance is usu-
ally one of three types: (a) continuation; (b) extension; and (c) new inquiry (Miles &
Scott, 2017).
(a) Continuation. A continuation is the type of research significance that con-

tinues the prior research with the same or similar population. This would also
be called a replication study (Miles, 2018; Miles, 2019).
(b) Extension. An extension is the type of significance that is used when you
are extending the prior research or theory to a new, underserved or under-
researched population. Normally you are applying prior established theory or
conceptual framework or research methodology to a new population (Miles,
2018; Miles, 2019).
(c) New Inquiry. A new inquiry is the type of significance that is used when you
are conducting a new study (brand new) with a new theory and/or new popu-
lation or a new research method and design. You are doing something new
(Miles, 2018; Miles, 2019).
Overall Statement:
As a basis for this study, the researcher identified three major reasons why this study is significant.
Example 1: This study Example 2: This study is Example 3: This study is

is important because important because it also important because it also
it also provides research provides research significance. provides research significance.
significance. This study is This study is important This study is important
important because it is because it extends the because it is a new inquiry
a replication study or a prior research on the on the prior research on
continuation. This study theory of marketing techniques for teaching
is a continuation of the strategy (Kenner, 2015). mathematics to gifted
prior research on the Second, this study is and talented students in
nursing shortage. This important because it K–12 schools. Second,
study will replicate a is an extension of the this study is important
prior study by Malvey concept of marketing because it breaks new
and Slovensky (2017). strategy (Kenner, 2015). ground and proposes a
This study will provide This study is an extension new inquiry into teaching
additional insight of the prior research on mathematics with a new
into the shortage and marketing strategy tactics. population of teachers
inform the nursing [extension] for the gifted and talented
professoriate of the students. Lastly, this study
current lived experiences provides a new frontier
of job satisfaction by in the area of teaching
the nursing faculty and learning with gifted
teaching classroom and and talented students
clinical education of in K–12.
baccalaureate nursing [new inquiry]
students (Cook, 2017).
[continuation/r eplication]
We need to think of significance as a ship that explores uncharted waters. As a

novice researcher, you must provide the importance of your study, what your study
tackles in terms of unexplored areas. Throughout this research endeavor, you as a
researcher must try and convince the readers of your work that your study offers
something valuable. Whether it is a continuation (replication), an extension or a
new inquiry. As a researcher, you must convince your readers that you are studying
something new and worthy, possibly adding some value to your field or practice.
Think of significance as the selling point of why your study is necessary and why it
is important. As a researcher, you should craft your significance carefully and con-
servatively. See the Statement Grid (Tables 12.6 and Table 12.7) for examples of how
to write your significance (Miles, 2018; Miles, 2019).
See, also, Examples 12.4 to 12.6, which provide some actual examples of how
the significance of a study is written.
Overall Statement:
As a basis for this study, the researcher identified three major reasons why this study is significant.
Significance 1: First, Significance 2: Significance 3:

this study is important Second, this study is Last, this study is
because it provides important because it important because it
theoretical significance. This also provides practical also provides research
study breaks some new significance. This research significance. This study is
ground in management attempts to provide important because it is
and human resources insight into practicing a replication study or a
theory. Many nursing nurses considering a continuation. This study
program deans and transition to a role in is a continuation of the
administrators will gain nursing education by prior research on the
insight into how nursing elucidating experiences nursing shortage. This
faculty experience job of job satisfaction by study will replicate a
satisfaction in order to nursing faculty. [practical prior study by Morgan
facilitate a workplace significance] and Somera (2014).
conducive of job This study will provide
satisfaction. [theoretical additional insight into
significance] the shortage and inform
the nursing professoriate
of the current lived
experiences of job
satisfaction by nursing
faculty teaching classroom
and clinical education
of baccalaureate nursing
students (Cook, 2017).
[research significance]
Example 12.4
Based on the literature, there are two main reasons why this study is signifi-
cant: research and practical. First, this study provides research significance. This
study is an extension of the prior research on technostress among academics
working in universities in India (Jena & Mahanti, 2014). This study is extending
the prior research to a new population (U.S. higher education employees). This
study is important because the study’s results will show differences in the extent
of technostress experienced based on the technology awareness, demographic
factors and job characteristics of higher education workers.
In addition, the proposed study is an extension of the prior research on
demographic differences in technostress conducted by Jena and Mahanti (2014).
The researchers utilized the technostress-demographic model for investigating
the effects of technology awareness, gender, age, tenure and marital status on
the technostress of academics working in universities in India (Jena & Mahanti,
2014). Jena and Mahanti (2014) called for future research to include a more
diverse sample within higher education, as well as investigate relationships
between technostress and additional demographic factors. This study, therefore,
includes both academic and non-academic roles for investigation and extends the
technostress-demographic model by including additional demographic factors
and job characteristics.
In prior technostress research, technostress has been found to negatively affect
job satisfaction and job performance (Kumar et al., 2017). This study, therefore,
may achieve research significance because it can provide new information ger-
mane to some factors potentially affecting or contributing to technostress in this
population and, based on past technostress research, can be used as justifica-
tion for developing programs for mitigating the effects of technostress among
U.S. higher education workers. Conducting this study may also open up new
inquiries into further technostress research within the higher education realm,
such as how technostress affects technology acceptance and organizational effect-
iveness among this population.
Second, this study provides practical significance. This study is essential because
if results reveal statistically significant differences in the extent of technostress
based on technology awareness, demographic factors and job characteristics,
then these results can become helpful for designing programs for lessening the
effects or preventing technostress in U.S. higher education employees. In other
populations, technostress has been linked to absenteeism, lower productivity and
job satisfaction and costly mistakes (Chiappetta, 2017). This study offers practical
significance to those in the field who may experience technology-related stress to
the extent that it negatively affects work-related progress. These examples dem-
onstrate how addressing the problem of the extent to which technology-related
stress differs based on technology awareness, demographic factors, employment
status and department in the U.S. higher education population can add value
to this population by making their institutions more aware of the problem,
potentially prompting the creation of better-coping programs and reducing
the costs associated with lost revenue due to technostress (Galluch et al., 2015;
Cornish, 2022).
Example 12.5
The researcher found two major reasons why this study is significant. First, this
study offers a theoretical significance. This study breaks new ground by introdu-
cing the parental perception of parental involvement with schools into the existing
framework of the phenomenon. This study is important because through identi-
fication of the parental perspective on their involvement in school to support the
education of their children, school systems may be able to use the information to
address the issue of parental involvement more effectively.
Lastly, the study offers research significance by extending research to the under-
researched parent population through an investigation into their perceptions of
parental involvement in school. This study is an extension of the prior research
on the topic. The study is significant because it will extend the prior research to
the new and under-researched population of parents (Forbes, 2019).
Example 12.6
As a foundation for this investigation, there are three major reasons why this study
is significant. First, this study provides theoretical significance. The contribution
of this study will add to the field of management in theory and practice. This
study will test the linkage between two constructs: the air transportation organ-
ization and the geographical location of Puerto Rico, which has not previously
been tested. The foundation theories in this study are the Douglas McGregor’s
Theory X and Theory Y. Miner (2002) stated that this theory has a lack of inves-
tigation and needs to be tested. Douglas McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
of management remain virtually untested (Schein, 2011). Due to the lack of
published studies related to the theories, a study testing McGregor’s Theory X
and Y with field data would be an important theoretical contribution to the body
of knowledge (Sahin, 2012). This study will allow the researcher to examine
and compare the results of the data from air transportation organizations in
Puerto Rico.
Second, this study also offers practical significance. It is significant to the
field of management practices and relations with employees. This study will
identify if there is a relationship between leaders’ openness to new business
strategies, customer and market focus and employee’s empowerment, on the
one hand, and the organizational performance of air transportation companies
located in Puerto Rico, on the other. There are studies that demonstrate the
relationship of the variables; however, none of these studies are related to air
transportation companies located in the geographical area of Puerto Rico.
Although there are studies in other industry sectors such as health care (Chen
et al., 2014) and the bank industry (Abbasi et al., 2018), it cannot be assumed
that the behavior of the variables will be the same in the air transportation
sector located in Puerto Rico.
Last, this study also offers research significance because it is an extension of the
prior research. This study will extend prior research to a new population and new
industry sector. This study will contribute to the field of knowledge by extending
and enhancing research related to the air transportation organizations’ perform-
ance. The new population on which this study will be conducted is employees
in Puerto Rico. The new industry sector to which this study will extend is air
transportation organizations. This study will fill the gaps presented by conducting
research in air transportation organizations by conducting research in the geo-

graphical location of Puerto Rico, extending current studies about the correl-
ation between customer and market focus, employee empowerment, leaders’
openness to new business strategies and organizational performance. The investi-
gation will demonstrate the behavior of the variables in the study regarding cor-
relation with similar studies in previous research in other geographical locations
(Morales, 2019).
Summary
This chapter discussed the differences between and characteristics and definitions of
the terms the contributions of a study and the significance of a study. This chapter addressed
the two key differences between the contributions of a study and the significance of
a study. First, this chapter addressed the three key study contributions: (a) conceptual/
theoretical, (b) empirical, and (c) methodological. Definitions and examples of the three
types of contribution were provided.
Last, this chapter addressed three types of study significance: (a) theoretical,
(b) practical, and (c) research. Definitions and examples of the three types of signifi-
cance were provided. In addition, the chapter discussed the three types of research
significance: (a) continuation, (b) extension, and (c) new inquiry. We hope this chapter will
act as a guide to help novice and experienced researchers learn and understand the
distinct differences between the contributions of a study and the significance of a
study. We hope to build a strong foundation for enlightening both experienced and
novice researchers on the two terms and lessen the confusion.
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4523136
13 Deciding on the Source of Data
Objectives
1. Choose an appropriate data source(s) for their study
2. Determine a sampling strategy for their study
3. Determine the number of participants for their study
4. Recognize ethical issues associated with accessing the data source
About Data
As you engage in your research journey, one of the crucial moments is deciding
on the appropriate data to collect, analyze and use to address your research
questions or test your hypotheses. Because of this, it is important to get a good
understanding of the features, sources and purpose of data. Before we go further,
we want to note that the word “data” will be used in this text as both singular and
plural. So, what is a data? In a research context, a data is any information that
has the potential of being collected and analyzed, generating findings to meet the
purpose of the study.
When it comes to kinds of data, they are grouped based on the type of research
approach you are using to conduct your study (see Table 13.1). We have quantita-
tive data and qualitative data for a quantitative and qualitative method, respect-
ively. Also, data can be categorized into numeric data and non-numeric data, which
are collected when we conduct a quantitative and qualitative study, respectively.
However, irrespective of the kind of study you are conducting, your data could
be primary or secondary. Primary data are information generated in a study with
the purpose of analyzing them to address research questions or test hypotheses.
They could be data collected in a study when conducting an interview, focus group
or survey. With regards to secondary data, they comprise of any data that were
not generated within your current study, but you plan to retrieve and use them
in your study. They could be archival data, data generated in a previous study,
research literature, documents and artifacts. Lastly, based on its volume, data can
be considered small, such as a survey, or big, such as data generated based on con-
sumers’ online interactions with a product (see Kitchin & McArdle, 2016).
DOI: 10.4324/9781003268154-13
Deciding on the Source of Data 175
Table 13.1 Kinds of data and their respective examples and sources
Kinds of Data Example Source
Quantitative data Likert scale survey data Bhattacherjee (2012)

Qualitative data Interview data Patton (2002)
Numeric data Math score data Salkind (2014)
Non-numeric data Open-ended survey data Craig (2009)
Primary data Data on leadership styles Sethuraman and Suresh
(2014)
Secondary data Existing interview data Cook and Robbins (2005)
from genetic modification
specialists
Small data Level of depression data Shanthi et al. (2007)
Big data Posts and reactions of a Kitchin and McArdle (2016)
Facebook group
Table 13.2 Data sources, their respective examples and sources
Data Source Example Source
People Staff in an The Pell Institute and Pathways to College

organization Network (2022)
Document Newsletter The Pell Institute and Pathways to College
Network (2022)
Observation Parents and teachers’ The Pell Institute and Pathways to College
association meeting Network (2022)
Primary source Fieldwork Benedictine University Library (2022)
Secondary source Census database Benedictine University Library (2022)
Data Sources
A data source is where the data originated from. It could also mean where you
got your data from. Sources of data can be categorized into people, documents
or observations (The Pell Institute and Pathways to College Network, 2022).
Alternatively, data sources can be categorized based on the kind of data they
produce. Secondary sources house data, literature or information generated inde-
pendent of and adopted for the current study (Benedictine University Library,
2022) (see Table 13.2). For example, let us assume that your focus is to examine
a leader-subordinate relationship in an organization, and you plan to analyze its
meeting minutes to help you address your research questions. In this case, the
organization’s meeting minutes are the secondary source of data. However, the
primary source category denotes a data source where you extract data generated
for the purpose of addressing your research questions or testing your hypotheses
(Benedictine University Library, 2022). Let’s say you plan to determine the relations
between employees’ sense of belongingness and job satisfaction.
Determining an Appropriate Data and Its Source

Determining the right data sources for your study starts with examining what you
want to find out (i.e., purpose of the study), the questions you plan to address (i.e.,
research questions) and the method you will use to conduct the study. For a quali-
tative study, you brainstorm, thinking and listing potential data and its source while
addressing the following questions:
• What kind of data do I need to address my research questions?

• Who or where is the source of the data I’m interested in?
After making a list of potential sources and their respective data, you could rank
the data sources based on their accessibility and the data based on the richness of
the information. Degree of accessibility in this context denotes the perceived level
of ease with which the researcher can obtain approval or permission to extract
data from the potential data sources. It could also include the willingness of poten-
tial participants to be part of the study. The degree of richness of the data focuses
on a researcher’s perceived level of ease with respect to transforming the data in
order to address the research questions. In other words, it is about how far the
raw data is from being transformed into answers that can adequately address the
research questions. We know that all these criteria are based on a researcher’s
perception, but utilizing this guide will help you to get closer to choosing the best
data sources and, in effect, to collect the data you need to complete your research
journey.
You then select the top four data sources and, with their respective kind of data,
categorize them into (1) high accessibility and high richness, (2) high accessibility
and low richness, (3) low accessibility and high richness, and (4) low accessibility
and low richness (see Figure 13.1). Hopefully, after completing this activity, you will
know the data and its source that belongs to the first quadrant, which is labeled
the “extremely suitable” option (see Figure 13.1). However, in a situation where
nothing was found in the first option, you could consider the second option, which
is considered to be “moderately suitable.” With this option, you have easy access
to the data source, but the information you extract is not as rich as that of the first
option. This means you will need to spend a considerable amount of time and
resources making sense of the data. Conversely, with the third option, you are more
likely to spend time and resources accessing the source, but you will end up getting
rich data if you successfully gain access to it.
Let’s now focus on strategies you could use to determine the kind of data and
its sources you need to conduct a quantitative study. You begin this process by
addressing these questions:
Figure 13.1 Data source categorization chart for a qualitative study.
• Who are being studied?

• What are the variables of focus?
You will be able to address the above questions by reviewing your purpose
statement and research questions or hypotheses. What you need to do is to describe
the population and information (related to the variable of interest) you plan to
extract from them. You can then think about where and how you plan to access
potential participants (i.e., accessibility) and the possibility of being able to appro-
priately measure the variables of interest (i.e., feasibility). The goal of this activity
is to decide on a data source that is highly accessible and variables that are highly
feasible in terms of being measured (see Figure 13.2).
All the above steps are a guide to help you choose the right primary data source.
At this point, you need to be flexible because you may need to make adjustments to
your initial purpose statement, research questions (hypotheses) and sometimes the
problem statement to get a highly accessible data source and feasible process for
measuring your variables. In terms of feasibility criterion, you could reflect on the
following questions:
Figure 13.2 Data source categorization chart for a quantitative study.
• Can the variables be operationalized?

• Are there existing validated instrument(s) that can be used to measure the
variables?
If there is no validated instrument, then you may need to create your own and
use the data you collect to determine whether the instrument was measuring what it
was supposed to measure (i.e., reliability) and producing a consistent response (i.e.,
reliability) (see Williams et al., 2010). Alternatively, you could adjust the variables of
interest to align with an existing instrument with a good validity and reliability score.
Determining Your Sample Size

Samples are drawn from a population that could be labeled as a data source. Since
most dissertations use humans as their data sources, let us limit our discussion
to recruiting human subjects for research. Generally speaking, when conducting
qualitative research, you need a small sample size compared to doing quantita-
tive research (Crouch & McKenzie, 2006). This is because the goal of conducting
a qualitative study and its philosophical assumptions are fundamentally different
from those of a quantitative study.
Determining an Appropriate Sample Size for Your Qualitative Study
The focus of qualitative researchers is to describe, explore or explain a phenom-

enon of interest using non-numeric information. Because they mainly work with
video, audio, text and artifacts, with the purpose of qualitatively making sense of
them, they are not interested in generalizing what they have found. Their role is to
collect rich qualitative data, analyzing it to generate themes with which to address
their research questions. What they are concerned about is making sure the data
collected reflects the features or covers all aspects of what they are studying. For
example, let’s say that the focus of your study is to examine the experience of
burnout among corporate executives. When recruiting participants, your focus is
to select corporate executives who have experienced burnout, but not only those
who have effectively dealt with this condition. Also, to capture variations in the
experience of burnout, you could draw a sample that reflects demographic vari-
ation based on age, work experience and/or highest educational level. This tech-
nique is based on a concept in phenomenology called imaginative variation (see
Larsen & Adu, 2021).
Now that we know you need a small sample size when conducting a qualitative
study, how many participants are needed? We do not have a specific strategy for
determining an appropriate number of participants, but the following factors could
be considered when deciding on the right sample size for your qualitative study (see
Adu, 2019; Larsen & Adu, 2021; Baker & Edwards, 2012).
• Attainment of saturation: When deciding on the number of participants

for your qualitative study, a question you could ask is, “How many participants do
I need to reach the level of saturation?” Saturation occurs when researchers reach a
stage where they are receiving no new information from participants during
interviews (Adu, 2023). In a qualitative study, saturation can be reached between
the 12th and 15th participant, but it could depend on the selected research
method, variation of participants’ background, perspectives and experience and
complexity of the phenomenon being studied. We recommend you look into
previous studies that used your chosen research approach to get an idea of the
sample size they used.
• Accessibility of participants: You may have an idea about the appropriate
sample size for your study, but how you access the potential participants could
influence the desired number of participants (Adu, 2023; Baker & Edwards,
2012). For instance, you may not be able to get your anticipated sample size due
to difficulties in accessing potential participants. This could affect getting the
number you need to adequately collect rich data from them. You could address
this challenge by spending more time with each participant, making sure that all
your questions are addressed and conducting follow-up interviews when needed
(Larsen & Adu, 2021).
• Type of research approach chosen: Sample size could vary, depending
on the type of research approach you select. For example, you are more likely
to go for between 5 and 25 or between 20 and 30 participants if you plan to
use a phenomenological or grounded theory approach, respectively (Creswell,
2013). Before you determine your sample size, we suggest you read more about
your selected approach, including whether it has been used in studies and its
corresponding number of participants. Lastly, you could have an idea of the
number by looking at the suggestions of qualitative researchers and the rationale

behind their recommendations (see Baker & Edwards, 2012).
Determining an Appropriate Sample Size for Your Quantitative Study
Before you decide on the sample size for your quantitative study, you need to have
at least basic statistics and take on the role of a quantitative researcher. The role
of quantitative researchers is to study a population (Adu, 2022). However, due to
limited resources and time, they focus on sampling a faction of the population to
study, measuring the variables of interest. Consequently, data collected are then
used to conduct statistical analysis. After determining the purpose of the study
and the research questions they want to address, they could conduct descriptive
statistics, inferential statistics or both (see Figure 13.3). Descriptive statistical ana-
lysis focuses on quantitatively reducing the data to mean, median and mode (I.e.,
measure of central tendency), frequencies and percentages, and range, variance
and standard deviation (i.e., measure of variability). However, inferential statistical
analysis involves conducting parametric tests (such as Pearson’s r correlation, t-test,
regression, ANOVA and MANOVA) and/or non-parametric tests (such as Chi-
square, Mann-Whitney and Wilcoxon signed-ranks test).
Figure 13.3 About quantitative data collection and statistics (see Adu, 2022).
In terms of determining your sample size, there are several strategies you could
use to determine the appropriate sample size for your quantitative study (see Israel,
n.d.; Serdar et al., 2021). You could determine your sample size based on the type
of quantitative research design you are using, known population size and the type
of inferential statistics chosen.
If you are using a descriptive design with the purpose of measuring variables
of interest and conducting descriptive statistics, “then nearly any sample size will
suffice” (Israel, n.d., p. 4). This is because, for a descriptive study, your plan is not
to make an inference to the population but to describe (using means, standard
deviations, percentages and frequencies) and learn about the sample (Israel, n.d).
Although there is not a set required sample size for a descriptive study, recruiting
a sample of 50 or more participants for a dissertation would be great, in that the
more participants you have, the less likely the influence of extreme scores will have
on the outcome of the test of central tendency and variability.
Alternatively, you could determine the right sample size if you know the size
of the population you are studying. Israel (n.d, p. 4) noted that you could use the
following formula if you know your population size:
N
n=
1 + N (e )
2
Where:
• n represents sample size

• N represents total population
• e represents statistical significance level (which could be 0.01, 0.05 or 0.10)
Imagining your population of interest is 8,000, then, based on the above for-
mula, your sample size will be 381 at the significance level of 0.05 (see Israel, n.d.,
Table 1).
N
n= N = 8, 000; e = 0.05
1 + N (e )
2
8000
n=
1 + 8000 (0.05)
2
8000
n=
1 + 8000 (0.0025)
8000
n=
1 + 20
8000
n=
21
n = 381
What if you don’t know the size of your population? What would you do? You
could use software to determine your sample size. For some software, you need
to know and provide (enter) the kind of inferential statistical analysis you plan to
conduct before the software can generate an appropriate sample size. For example,
you could use G*Power software to help determine the minimum number of
participants needed to prevent you from conducting a Type II error (Faul et al.,
2007). A Type II error is wrongly rejecting the alternative hypothesis when it is true
(see Serdar et al., 2021).
Let’s do an example. Imagine you plan to conduct a quantitative study to
find out whether there is a statistically significant difference of burnout between
healthcare workers who work during the day and those who work during the night.
With this purpose statement, you can see that you have one dependent variable,
which is “burnout,” and one independent variable, which is “type of work shift,”
with two groups, which are (1) day shift workers and (2) night shift works. Therefore,
an independent t-test will be appropriate for this study. Now that you know the
right statistical analysis for your study, the next step is to use the G*Power software
to determine the sample size. You can download this software for free by going to
www.psychologie.hhu.de/arbeitsgruppen/allgemeine-psychologie-und-arbeitspsyc
hologie/gpower
Demonstration on How to Use G*Power Software
Now you know that an independent t-test is appropriate for the study (based on the
above example), you open the G*Power software. Here are the steps you could take
to arrive at the sample size (see Figure 13.4):
1. Under “Test family,” select “t-tests”

2. Under “Statistical test,” select “Means: Difference between two independent
means (two groups)”
a. This type of test is also known as an independent t-test
3. Under “Type of power analysis,” select “A priori: Compute required sample
size–given α, power, and effect size”
4. Select “Two” under “Tail(s)”
a. Based on the purpose statement, the alternative hypothesis will be, “There is a statistically
significant difference of burnout between healthcare workers who work during the day and
those who work during the night.” This hypothesis is considered to be two-tailed (or non-
directional) because it did not show that one group will have a higher burnout than the other.
5. Select “0.5” (i.e., medium effect size) for the “Effect size d”
a. The higher the effect size, the bigger the sample size. In other words, you will need more
participants if you select a large sample size.
Figure 13.4 Steps on using G*Power.
6. You indicate “0.05” under the “α err prob” (which is also called the significance
level)
7. You indicate “0.95” under “Power (1-β err prob)” (which is also called statistical
power)
a. You could indicate the statistical power as .80 as suggested by social science researchers.
8. The “Allocation ratio N2/N1” will be “1” by default
9. You then click on “Calculate” (see Figure 13.4)
As shown in Figure 13.5, the total number of participants needed is 210.
Ethical Issues
Conducting research on what we are curious about, what interests us and what
could immensely contribute to the body of knowledge is a good approach. However,
we need to think about the wellbeing of the people who will be providing us with
the information to help us accomplish our research goals. Hence the need to have
a guide to govern our decisions and actions in relation to participants’ participation
in our study. A well-known ethical guide that has provisions to regulate how
we should conduct research is called the Belmont report (see OHRP, 2016). This
Figure 13.5 Display of the sample size after using G*Power.
ethical guide was put together in 1978 to regulate research activities and prevent
researchers from putting participants at risk, undermining their rights and violating
their privacy (Barrow et al., 2021). The Belmont report explains three ethical
principles: respect for persons, beneficence and justice.
Respect for Persons
This ethical principle relates to respecting the rights of participants. They have
the right to participate in a study without being forced to do so, and they can
choose to withdraw from the study at any time (Barrow et al., 2021). They also
have the right to know the purpose of the study and what is expected of them in
the study, including potential risks and benefits (Barrow et al., 2021). In addition,
researchers have an obligation to protect participants’ rights, including protecting
their privacy and ensuring their anonymity. Lastly, researchers should make sure
that extra protections are given to those whose freedom has been limited, such as
prisoners and people who need guidance to decide to participate (such as children
and people with a disability).
Beneficence
This kind of ethical principle focuses on the risks and benefits of the research. There
are always risks and benefits associated with conducting a study. As a researcher,
you are responsible for identifying and assessing any potential harm that the study
could cause to participants and comparing them with what participants and/or
stakeholders, including the research community, could gain (Barrow et al., 2021;
Löfman et al., 2004). Similarly, the research board/committee in your institution
(i.e., the Institutional Review Board) are responsible for reviewing your proposed
study to make sure all your actions and decisions in the study meet the ethical
standard enshrined in the Belmont report. In other words, they ensure that the risk
of participating in the study does not outweigh the benefit. According to Barrow
et al. (2021), “The beneficence principle includes two specific research aspects: (1)
participants’ right to freedom from harm and discomfort, and (2) participants’
rights to protection from exploitation” (para. 4, under “Issues of Concern”).
Justice
This ethical principle pertains to the application of fairness in your study (Barrow
et al., 2021). This also implies that a person should not be punished, discriminated
against or unfairly treated if they decide not to participate in a study. For example,
if a teacher plans to do action research to determine how a new teaching strategy
could improve students’ academic performance and a student decides not to par-
ticipate in the study, they should not be deprived of receiving and learning content
that they have the right to have.
Summary
Accessing the right source of data for your study is important for the successful
completion of your dissertation. In this chapter, we have explored different kinds of
data and factors to consider when accessing them from their data sources. We also
provided strategies you could use to determine the right sample size for your study.
As you consider your data sources and the kind of data you plan to collect, it is
important to think about the ethical principles associated with doing research. You
should make sure your decisions and actions are in line with the ethical principles of
research, which relate to the need to respect the rights of participants (i.e., respect
for persons), do research where the benefits outweigh the risks (i.e., beneficence)
and promote fairness (i.e., justice).
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watch?v=tMN3MfC12WQ
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14 Understanding the Different
Kinds of Data Collection
Strategies
Objectives
1. Differentiate between the kinds of data collection strategies
2. Recognize the strengths and limitations of conducting surveys, interviews,
document collection and focus groups
3. Choose an appropriate data collection strategy
Introduction
Your selected data source(s) may have information in terms of variety, uniqueness
and volume. However, your role is not to collect any kind of data they can provide
but to extract the type of data you need to meet the purpose of your study and
address the research questions you have. This is where you must think about a tool
that could be used to effectively and efficiently generate the information you need
for your study. There are a lot of innovative data collection strategies you could use.
However, let’s limit our discussion to the most commonly used ones: testing, survey,
interview, focus group, document collection and observation (see PHINEO, 2021).
Testing Method
The testing method is a kind of data collection method that encompasses the
assessment of participants’ ability, knowledge, skills and capability. It normally
involves completing a task such as a memory test, where participants are asked
to recall the words they were shown a few moments before. It could also involve
answering a series of questions to test their knowledge level, such as the Implicit
Bias Test (see ABA, 2022).
If you plan to conduct a test, make sure the instrument is validated. A validated
instrument is a measure that has been used to test a population similar to the one
you are focusing on. In addition, the tool should have acceptable validity and reli-
ability outcomes. If there is no available instrument to help measure what you plan
to measure, then you could consider developing your own tool and, if possible, use
your study to validate it (see Borsa et al., 2012; Braghetta et al., 2021).
DOI: 10.4324/9781003268154-14
188 Understanding the Different Kinds of Data Collection Strategies
You may ask, “What are the channels through which a test can be administered?”
You could give participants a hard copy of the instrument for them to complete or
ask them to complete it online. It is always advisable to review studies done using
a similar instrument to learn about the best practices and their implications. This
would help you to make informed choices, making you less likely to repeat the
mistakes of previous researchers.
Methods of Data Collection

The task of data collection is a very technical process. Data collection methods are
a key part of the research practice. Data collection methods are an integral part of
research design. There are many types of data collection methods. For our chapter,
we want to separate the quantitative data collection methods from the qualitative
data collection methods. There are several data collection methods, and each one
has its advantages and disadvantages. Using the appropriate methods to research
problems greatly enhances the value of the research. There are two primary data
collection methods: quantitative and qualitative.
Quantitative Data Collection Methods
Quantitative data collection is a method of data collection that focuses on measure-

ment. When researchers choose quantitative data collection, they are contemplating
the implementation of numerical research analysis. Quantitative research methods
are concerned with collecting and analyzing data that is structured and can be
represented numerically. Quantitative data collection is based on the concept of
building accurate and reliable measurements that allow for statistical analysis. The
objective is to focus on quantifiable measurements. Quantitative research is defined
as research that addresses research objectives through empirical assessments that
involve numerical measurement and analysis approaches (Babin & Zikmund, 2008).
Surveys and Questionnaires
The survey is a data collection strategy used to capture or measure people’s

opinions, thoughts and/or experience of a phenomenon. In a quantitative study,
a survey is used to measure a specific variable or a group of variables. It normally
consists of closed-ended questions accompanied with answers to choose from. For
example, a researcher could ask, “Do you consider yourself to be an entrepreneur?” and pro-
vide the following options: (a) Yes, (b) No, (c) Not sure. Besides this, a survey could
contain statements with Likert scale responses. For example, a statement such as “I
feel nervous when I’m about to speak to a group” could have Likert scale options
such as (a) Strongly Disagree, (b) Disagree, (c) Unsure, (d) Agree, (e) Strongly Agree
(see Joshi et al., 2015).
We also have a survey containing open-ended questions. This data collection
tool is usually used when conducting a qualitative study. Qualitative researchers
opt for administering an open-ended survey when working with limited resources
Understanding the Different Kinds of Data Collection Strategies 189
and time and/or targeting a large sample of participants who are not willing to be
interviewed (Huer & Saenz, 2003). Here are a few examples of open-ended survey
questions:
• What do you do when you feel burnout?

• How do you feel about working on your dissertation?
• What do you do when your subordinate is reluctant to work?
Because you will not be there to ask follow-up questions, it is important to

make sure you create simple questions and ask one question at a time. Also, some
participants may skip the questions, and this is one of the reasons why you should
have a larger sample size compared to when conducting interviews. By so doing, you
will get substantial data even if not all the participants addressed all the questions.
Surveys are one of the key methods in terms of quantitative data collection
(Alessi & Martin, 2010). A survey is a system for collecting information on a range
of topics, including health, education, psychology, law, etc., of which the main
characteristics are that data are collected from a number of individuals using a
systematic and standardized approach (e.g., questionnaire/structured interview
schedule/scales or tests) and that these individuals are a representative sample of
the population under study (Meadows, 2003).
There are three fundamental types of survey that are popular with social
investigators: factual, attitude and explanatory. The factual survey is used to collect
descriptive information about a population of people. The national population
census of any country falls within this category of survey. The factual survey can
be used to investigate the sociological problems of a specific population of people
(Ahmad, 2018).
The attitude survey is designed to investigate the subjective stance of individuals
on events, issues and trends. A typical example of an attitude survey is opinion
polling on political issues and events such as elections, voting patterns and the
government’s policies and activities. Market research that is conducted to know
consumers’ attitudes towards products also belongs to this category of survey
(Ahmad, 2018).
Lastly, the explanatory survey is the most sophisticated and most comprehensive,
in that it takes an inquiry beyond description. It is a survey that involves theory
development through hypotheses testing. It is also the survey type that is used to test
the validity of existing theories and to generate new hypotheses from such theories
in order to examine patterns of statistical correlation among variables. A typical
example of an explanatory survey is a study conducted purposively to know why
a section of a community prefers to vote for a particular candidate in an election
(Ahmad, 2018).
Quantitative Observations
A quantitative data collection method that focuses on observational assessment is a

direct observation (see Table 14.1). A direct observation is an observational assessment
Table 14.1 Quantitative data collection methods
Research Method Characteristics Example
Surveys and The survey is a data collection The national population

questionnaires strategy used to capture or census of any country falls
measure people’s opinions, within this category of
thoughts and/or experiences survey. The factual survey
of a phenomenon. In a can be used to investigate
quantitative study, the survey the sociological problems
is used to measure a specific of a specific population of
variable or a group of people (Ahmad, 2018).
variables. It normally consists
of closed-ended questions.
Quantitative A direct observation is an An example of this method
observations observation assessment that is counting the number of
produces detailed records of customers entering a retail
what people actually do during store and observing their
an event. The researcher is behavior. In a structured
responsible for recording the observation, the researchers,
behavior of the subjects, with rather than observing
observational assessment as a everything, focus only on
measurement approach. very specific behaviors of
interest. It allows them to
quantify the behaviors they
are observing.
Quantitative Quantitative interviews involve An example of this method
interviews question and response is recording data from
categories that are determined interviews with participants
in advance. Responses are while administering a
fixed, and respondents choose survey. The survey questions
from among these fixed are closed-ended, as are the
responses. participants’ responses.
Quantitative This quantitative data collection An example of this is
focus groups method takes a quantitative administering newly
approach. Rather than using developed or previously
qualitative methods, this validated surveys to a
method administers surveys group of people who
and questionnaires to focus are representative of a
groups. This method uses population. Quantitative
quantitative (survey) research focus groups only focus on
to guide the design of collecting data from the
appropriate research protocols. focus group with a survey or
questionnaire. Rather than
using qualitative methods,
this method administers
surveys and questionnaires
to focus groups. Thus, the
results of the quantitative
focus group are analyzed.
that produces detailed records of what people actually do during an event. The
researcher is responsible for recording the behavior of the subjects, with observa-
tional assessment as a measurement approach. The researcher plays a passive role,
making no attempt to control or manipulate a situation, instead merely recording
what occurs. The researcher assesses the subjects in the observation, then records
and scores the assessment. Every effort is made for the researcher not to insert
himself or herself into the situation (Babin & Zikmund, 2008). In this method,
researchers collect quantitative data through systematic observations by using
techniques such as counting the number of people present at a specific event at a
particular time and a particular venue or the number of people attending an event
in a designated place. More often, for quantitative data collection, researchers have
a naturalistic observation approach that needs keen observation skills and senses
for getting the numerical data about the “what” and not the “why” and “how”
(Calderon et al., 2000).
Structured observation is an example of this. In this type of observation method,
the researcher has to make careful observations of one or more specific behaviors in
a more comprehensive or structured setting compared to naturalistic or participant
observation. In a structured observation, the researchers, rather than observing
everything, focus only on very specific behaviors of interest. It allows them to quan-
tify the behaviors they are observing. When the observations require a judgment
on the part of the observers, it is often described as coding, which needs a clearly
defined set of target behaviors (QuestionPro, 2019).
Another example of an observation assessment is recording traffic counts and
traffic flows within a supermarket to help managers to design store layouts that
maximize a typical customer’s exposure to the merchandise offered while also facili-
tating search efforts. Such an observation assessment will also ensure that a manu-
facturer can then better determine shelf locations, the arrangement of departments
and merchandise within those departments, the location of checkout facilities and
other characteristics that improve the shopping value that consumers obtain from
visiting a store (QuestionPro, 2019). In this example, data can be more accurately
gathered simply by observing consumers’ movements in a store rather than by
asking them about their movements.
Quantitative Interviews
The quantitative interview is a quantitative data collection method that focuses on

interviews. Quantitative interviews involve question and response categories that
are determined in advance. Responses are fixed, and the respondents choose
from among these fixed responses. With quantitative interviews, the data analysis
is simple. Lastly, the responses can be directly compared and easily aggregated;
many short questions can be asked in a short amount of time (Cohen et al.,
2007). An example of this is recording the data from interviews with participants
while administering a survey. The survey questions are closed-ended, as are the
participants’ responses. Another example of an observation assessment is when
data can be more accurately gathered simply by interviewing consumers with a

survey and recording their closed-ended responses.
Quantitative Focus Groups
Quantitative focus groups are a divergent research data collection method. Focus
groups can be used to collect a shared understanding from several individuals as
well as to get views from specific people (George, 2013). They are also useful when
the time to collect information is limited and individuals are hesitant to provide
information (some individuals may be reluctant to provide information in any type
of interview) (Creswell, 2012). However, quantitative focus groups take a com-
pletely different data collection approach. This quantitative data collection method
takes a quantitative approach. Rather than using qualitative methods, this method
administers surveys and questionnaires to focus groups. It uses quantitative (survey)
research to guide the design of appropriate research protocols. An example of this
is administering newly developed or previously validated surveys to a group of
people who are representative of a population. When a survey is going to be used
on a larger scale and focus groups will subsequently be conducted with the same
group based on these surveys, this approach allows the researcher to obtain infor-
mation that ensures the survey’s cultural appropriateness, readability and compre-
hensibility (Calderon et al., 2000).
Qualitative Data Collection Methods
Qualitative data collection is a method of data collection that focuses on a

phenomenon.
In the practice of qualitative research, the intent is not to generalize to a popula-
tion but to develop an in-depth exploration of a central phenomenon. Thus, to best
understand a phenomenon, the qualitative researcher purposefully or intentionally
selects individuals and sites (Creswell, 2012).
The craft of qualitative research explores attitudes, behavior and experiences
through such methods as interviews and focus groups. It attempts to get an in-
depth opinion from participants. As it is concerned with attitudes, behavior and
experiences, qualitative research often concentrates on conversational and similar
exchanges between people in interviews, the media, counselling and so forth. It is
rarely, if ever, concerned with analysis at the level of individual words, phrases or
even sentences. It analyzes broader units of text, though what the minimum unit of
analysis is depends on the theoretical orientation of the qualitative analysis (Howitt
& Cramer, 2011).
Lastly, with qualitative research, you select people or sites that can best help you
understand the central phenomenon. You have to remember that this understanding
emerges through a detailed understanding of the people or site. This line of inquiry
can lead to information that allows researchers to learn about the phenomenon.
There is no focus on random sampling like what is used in quantitative research.
There are primarily five types of qualitative research collection methods, and we
will illustrate and discuss them here.
Interviews
The interview is considered to be one of the most used data collection strategies in
a qualitative study (Jowett et al., 2011; Turner, 2010). Why is conducting interviews
so prominent in a qualitative study? When used properly, you can generate rich and
relevant information from participants, especially when you spend time building
trust with them and creating a conducive space for them to freely express what they
think, feel and have experienced (Gray et al., 2020). Also, asking the right questions
could help to extract rich data from participants. Your interview questions should
be consistent with the research questions. Your research questions help you to know
what you are looking for, while your interview questions for your participants are to
assist you get what you are seeking.
There are two main types of interviews: structured and semi-structured. With
a structured interview, the researcher strictly follows a set of predetermined
questions, including their order, when interviewing participants. The essence of
having structured questions is to standardize the interview process, making sure
that each participant is asked the same questions, including in the same order.
This is appropriate if you plan to cover a large number of participants with
more than one interviewer. One of the main advantages is that it saves time for
the researcher when generating questions and interviewing participants, for the
research assistants when training to collect data from participants, and for the
participants when being asked only predetermined questions. However, one main
disadvantage is that it inhibits the free flow of conversation and participants’
ability to freely express themselves. Also, participants may feel that the researcher
is not listening to what they are saying if they ask questions that participants feel
they have already addressed.
A semi- structured interview involves interviewing participants with guided
questions. This means that you don’t have to strictly follow the questions prepared
for the interview, but they are there to guide your conversation with participants.
In other words, the questions help draw the parameters of the topics or areas that
the interview will cover. With this kind of interview, you don’t have to follow a cer-
tain order when asking the pre-prepared questions; you ask questions based on the
participants’ initial responses, thus enhancing the flow of the conversation. You
have the liberty to provide prompts and ask follow-up questions for elaboration and
clarification. The semi-structured interview strategy is more effective if you want
to give participants a chance to freely tell their stories with less interruption to their
flow of thought. One of the disadvantages is that participants may veer off the issue
they need to share, and, if not checked, this may lead to the collection of data that
are less relevant to the research questions being addressed. To tackle this issue, the
researcher should be prepared to gently guide participants back to the topic being
discussed.
CREATING INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
First, you need to review the research questions to determine the kind of informa-
tion you need to address. You then embark on a brainstorming phase to come up
with a list of potential questions you could ask participants (see Table 14.2). During
the brainstorming process, you do not need to focus on the quality and clarity of
the potential interview questions. You can go back to review each of the questions
Table 14.2 Research questions, their respective topics and potential interview questions
Research Questions Kinds of Topics Potential Interview Questions
How do people • Feelings and emotions • Can you share with me the mental
with a mental experienced in relation health condition you face?
health condition to their mental health • How does the experience of a mental
experience mental • Incidences that health condition make you feel?
health stigma? portray or trigger their • What are people’s reactions when
experience of mental they learn you have a mental health
health stigma condition?
• Perspectives, reactions • Can you share any situations
and understanding of where you experienced negative
the negative attitudes feeling towards your mental health
that people have condition?
towards mental health • How does that negative attitude
conditions make you feel?
• Where their stigma • What was your reaction to their
originates from negative attitude?
• Can you share instances where you
were treated badly because you have
a mental health condition?
• What was your reaction to this bad
treatment?
• How does discriminatory treatment
make you feel?
How do people with • The kind of mental • How do you handle an experience
a mental health health-related stigma of discrimination due to your mental
condition deal they experience health condition?
with mental health • How they cope with • How do you react to an experience
stigma? the stigma of rejection due to your mental
health condition?
• Can you share with me a time when
you felt reluctant to disclose your
mental health condition due to a
fear of the negative attitude you may
receive?
• How did you cope with that
feeling?
• What strategies do you use to deal
with the stigma associated with the
mental health condition you have?
afterwards, accessing their appropriateness and clarity, including their alignment

with the research questions.
Focus Group Discussions
The focus group discussion is considered a qualitative data collection strategy. It

involves gathering a group of people with the goal of collecting relevant informa-
tion from them to help address the research questions (Leung & Savithiri, 2009).
You may ask, “In what situation is the focus group appropriate as a data collection
strategy?” It is most suitable when you want to gather participants’ views about
a situation, event, phenomena or experience that is considered as non-sensitive.
Gathering a group of people together to have a conversation that generates conver-
ging as well as diverging views is the hallmark of a focus group.
Your role in a focus group session is to facilitate the conversation, making sure
everyone is given the chance to speak. As the facilitator, you start the session by
letting them know the purpose of the study and their role as participants. You make
sure that they have consented to be a part of the study and are aware of their rights
and expectations. After that, you can ask them the open-ended questions you have
prepared. Similar to conducting interviews, you can make your questions semi-
structured and be ready to ask follow-up questions when needed. Also, be ready to
politely guide participants back to the focus of the discussion if they move beyond
the topic.
Using the focus group technique could dramatically cut the data collection time,
compared to conducting interviews that involve talking to each individual participant.
Also, we see the data collected during a focus group session as a consolidation of the
views and opinions shared in the group. Because of this, researchers are generally
more likely to spend less time analyzing focus group data compared to interview data.
Besides the above strengths of the focus group discussed above, there are
weaknesses that researchers should be aware of. Focus groups may not be appro-
priate when researching sensitive issues. Sensitive issues are experiences, events
and conditions that participants may feel uncomfortable sharing in a group setting.
They could also be issues considered forbidden to share in a public setting. Lastly, a
sensitive issue could be any issue that is capable of traumatizing or retraumatizing
participants when discussed in a group.
Another limitation is that, as the facilitator, you have limited control over
participants’ decision to disclose what was discussed in the group. To minimize this
risk, you should explain to the group the potential breach of confidentiality and
anonymity and encourage participants not to share with the outside world what is
discussed during the session.
Document Collection
Written words can be a useful source of data when conducting a qualitative study.
Also, an artifact which is also considered a document in qualitative research can
be collected and analyzed to address the research questions you have. Therefore,
anything that is created by an individual or a group of people before or during

a research study can be considered a document. Some examples of documents
include the minutes of a meeting in an organization, students’ written assignments
completed in a class, photos of a cultural event, a daily journal created by
participants, an organization’s yearly reports, research articles and artwork
produced by members of a community.
If you plan to collect documents, the question you may ask is, “How do I deter-
mine the right documents to collect?” You first need to think about the research
question(s) you plan to address and note the kind of document(s) (and their poten-
tial features) you plan to collect. Similar to determining selection criteria when
sampling participants from their population, you come up with the conditions a
document should meet to be part of the data you would analyze. You could create
criteria based on when and how the document was created, who created it and why
it was created.
Another question you should address before embarking on collecting a document
is, “How can the document be accessed?” Knowing the process for accessing the
document you are interested in helps reduce the challenges you may face during the
actual data collection stage. Are the documents publicly available? Is an approval
needed to access the document? How long will it take to be given an approval to
access the documents? What are the conditions associated with using and storing
the document? Addressing these questions will help you to make informed decision
in terms of collecting documents.
One of the advantages of document collection is that it saves the researchers’
time and resources compared to interview and focus group discussions. This
is because, with document collection, the main data collection action you need
to take is collecting existing data. With this data collection strategy, you are not
concerned about recruiting participants and scheduling time with them to collect
data. Another advantage is that it complements well with other qualitative data
collection strategies. For instance, imagine you are interested in studying events
that occurred after Elon Musk bought Twitter in October 2022. In addition to
interviewing current and former employees of Twitter, you could gather documents
such as social media posts, documented expert opinions and press releases in rela-
tion to the aftermath of Elon Musk’s purchase of Twitter.
One limitation is that data analysis can be time consuming, the reason being
that, most of the time, the documents were not produced for the purpose of the
study. So, you have to gather and understand the background information to the
documents before making sense of their content. Also, when developing codes and
themes, you need to consider their history, such as who wrote/created them, under
what circumstances and for what purpose? Knowing more about the documents’
background will help you to better understand what was written/created.
Observation
This type of data collection method can be used in either a quantitative or quali-
tative study. In a quantitative study, you could quantify what you observe in terms
of existence, intensity, magnitude and/or occurrence. However, the content of

this section will be limited to conducting an observation in a qualitative study. In
qualitative research, observation involves viewing an object, event, practice, situ-
ation, process or behavior and documenting it for a qualitative analysis. Let’s dis-
cuss observation by addressing questions related to who, what, how, where, when
and why.
• Who does the observation? As a researcher you could do the observation

yourself. The most important thing is to make sure you know your role as a
researcher-observer. As a qualitative researcher, you are considered to be an
instrument, especially at the data collection and analysis stage. During the obser-
vation period, your role is to document what you consider to be relevant to your
focus of the study and helpful to addressing your research question. As you cap-
ture and take notes of what is happening, you also need to be conscious of the
potential influence you may have on what you are observing (i.e., the observed).
For instance, your presence could influence the behavior of the people you are
observing if they notice you.
The question is, can you manage the influence and at the same time collect
rich data for your study? Deciding how to effectively manage your influence
will be the start to properly planning the observation process. You can choose
to observe and being noticed (i.e., obtrusive observation), observe without being
noticed and participating in a situation, activity or event, (i.e., unobtrusive obser-
vation) or observe and participate in what is going on (i.e., participant observa-
tion). Each has their strengths and weaknesses. We suggest you examine them
and select which one could yield the kind of data you want.
• What do you plan to observe? During the period of observation, there may
be a lot of things happening, and if you do not plan ahead of time, you may not
capture areas relevant to your study. Design an observation protocol that will be
appropriate to help guide what you need to observe. You can start designing an
observation protocol (with the research question in mind) by listing the kinds of
data you plan to collect. You then review the list of expected data and determine
what needs to be observed to generate such data.
For example, let’s say you plan to explore how corporate leaders relate to
their employees and address the research question, “How do corporate leaders
relate to their employees in the financial sector?” With this question, you could
focus on extracting data related to leaders’ interactions with their employees.
Now you know the kind of data you want to gather, you can then decide on what
you want to observe. You could attend leaders’ meetings with their employees to
observe and document their interactions. You could also attend an event held by
the organization you are studying to observe their interactions.
• How do you plan to observe? Planning is key to a successful observation.
At the end of the planning process, you should have a protocol that contains
information about who, where, what, when and how you plan to observe. You
also need to have instruments that will help you to conduct the observation.
Examples of the tools you may need are a computer, notebook, audio recorder
and video recording device. If you plan to employ a research assistant to help
you do the observation, you should ensure that they are well prepared for the
task. As you plan for the observation, it is important to consult a gatekeeper
to help understand the culture and norms of the people or event you plan to
observe, including what instruments are allowed to be used at the data collection
site. A gatekeeper is a person who introduces you to the place and people you
plan to collect data from. They are considered a liaison between you and your
potential participants.
During the observation, if it is allowed, you could use a video recording
device to record what you are observing. Sometimes, you may not be allowed to
video record the observed. In some cases, video recording may be allowed, but
doing so could adversely impact the way participants normally behave, affecting
the richness of the data being collected. Alternatively, you could audio record
or take notes on the observed. In case you want to take field notes, there are two
main things you need to document. First, you need to write about what you see,
and second, you should document your thoughts on what you are observing. It is
important to separate the actual data (which is the former) from the memo you
write about the data (which is the latter). When analyzing the actual data, your
memo could help you to better make sense of the data.
• Where will the observation take place? This is about determining the
location(s) you plan to observe in. To make sure the selected locations are appro-
priate for conducting the observation, it is important to have a conversation
with your gatekeeper. Talking to the gatekeeper will help you to understand the
culture and norms of the research location(s) and what is expected of you. As
a researcher going to an unfamiliar location to conduct a study, you should be
ready to learn, listening more and checking with your gatekeeper when in doubt.
You always need to be sensitive and respectful to the culture and beliefs of the
observed.
• Why should the observed be observed? To ensure that what you will be
watching and documenting is relevant, you need to address why you plan to
observe the event, situation, behavior or process of interest. We need to always
remind ourselves that the purpose of doing the observation is to gather useful
information and analyze it to address our research question.
• When do you plan to observe? It is a good practice to work with the gate-
keeper to determine the potential dates and times that observations can take
place. To get comprehensive information during the data collection stage, it is
advisable to observe the same phenomenon at different times or occurrences of
events when the need arises. The essence is to capture variations of the features
of the observed access times (see Table 14.3).
How to Choose an Appropriate Data Collection Strategy

Choosing an appropriate data collection strategy starts with knowing the kind
of data you need to address your research question(s). Also, the data collection
tool should go well with the selected research method. For instance, if you plan
Table 14.3 Qualitative data collection methods
Research Method Characteristics Example
Interviews When used properly, you can An example of this is the

generate rich and relevant semi-structured interview,
information from participants, which involves interviewing
especially when you spend time participants with guided
building trust with them and questions. This means that you
creating a conducive space don’t have to strictly follow
for them to freely express the questions prepared for the
what they think, feel and have interview, but they are there to
experienced. Also, asking the guide your conversation with
right questions could help participants. In other words,
to extract rich data from the questions help draw the
participants. parameters of the topics or
areas that the interview will
cover.
Focus groups Focus groups involve gathering a An example of this is conducting
group of people together with a focus group with salespeople.
the goal of collecting relevant The researcher takes on the
information from them to help facilitator role and manages the
address the research questions focus group session to facilitate
(Leung & Savithiri, 2009). the conversation. They
continue making sure everyone
is given the chance to speak.
As a facilitator, you start the
session by letting them know
the purpose of the study and
their role as participants.
Observation Observation involves viewing An example of this type of
an object, event, practice, method is conducting an
situation, process or behavior observation of female nurses
and documenting it for a at a hospital. The researcher
qualitative analysis. You should wants to examine their
have a protocol that contains behavior in their natural
information about who, where, environment and observe
what, when and how you plan their actions, behavior and
to observe. other items of interest to the
researcher.
Document collection This is when written words can An example of this type of
be a useful source of data when method is the minutes of a
conducting a qualitative study. meeting in an organization,
Anything that is created by an students’ written assignments
individual or a group of people completed in a class, photos of
before or during a research a cultural event, a daily journal
study can be considered a created by participants, an
document. organization’s yearly reports,
research articles and artwork
produced by members of a
community.
to examine participants’ understanding of their experience and you plan to use

a phenomenological approach, an appropriate data collection strategy would be
interviews. Conducting interviews gives you the chance to ask participants relevant
questions and receive responses that would be useful at the data analysis phase. In
addition, a focus group could help you to generate relevant data to meet the pur-
pose of the study.
Alternatively, relying on best practices when it comes to choosing the right data
collection strategy would be a good approach. When you decide on the research
method for your study, you could look into studies done to see the data collecting
tool used by the researchers and their implications. This would help you to make an
informed decision when selecting your data collection strategy.
Summary
The tasks of data collection and data sampling are the most fundamental part
of the research process. The foundation of all research is based on the task of
data collection. This chapter discussed the essentials of quantitative data collection
and qualitative data collection for novice and burgeoning researchers. The chapter
provided a conceptual model and tool for helping novice researchers and doctoral
students understand the rudiments of quantitative data collection and qualitative
data collection.
In this chapter, we discussed three things: the different sources of data; the
different methods of data collection, such as quantitative data collection and
qualitative data collection; and the different examples of data collection, such as
qualitative data collection. By the end of this chapter, the reader should be able
to understand the different data collection methods and how to apply them to
conducting research. We hope that our chapter provided a foundation for novice
researchers and doctoral students to understand both quantitative and qualitative
data collection methods.
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15 Planning and Implementing
the Data Collection Process
Objectives
1. Prepare a consent form
2. Uphold ethical issues
3. Decide on a data collection location or platform
4. Draw responses from participants
5. Protect participants’ data
6. Develop a survey
7. Develop an observation protocol
8. Develop an interview protocol
9. Collect data
10. Write about the data collection process
Introduction
One of the most important aspects of the research project is planning. Planning
the research project involves careful thought, implementation and execution. An
appreciation for planning and implementing your research project is understated.
The planning of the research project takes place on many levels. The researcher
has to plan all the activities involving in the research, from collecting data and
planning interviews. An important aspect of planning the research project is that it
makes the researcher stick to a procedure.
The planning of the research project entails many aspects that are very
important. When the researcher must complete interviews, observations, surveys,
questionnaires or whatever their chosen technique, planning the research project
is imperative. As part of the process of planning and managing the project, the
researcher must approach the key individuals or gatekeepers involved in the admin-
istration of the project. Another important aspect of planning the research project
is that the researcher must carefully weigh the pitfalls of the project. The pitfalls can
be uncooperative institutions and organizations.
The progress of a research project is attributed to its successful planning. The
planning of a project is further attributed to how the researcher executes the project
DOI: 10.4324/9781003268154-15
Planning and Implementing the Data Collection Process 203
and their ability to manage the many aspects of it. The planning of the research
project also involves collecting the kind of data needed and the cooperation of the
organizations involved. The research project’s success is critically dependent on the
cooperation of organizations and institutions. The planning of the research has
to also consider the management of participants, sampling, data preparation and
data analysis.
In this chapter, we provide an introduction to many elements associated with
the planning of a research project, including information on defining the research
problem and the research objective. The chapter then discusses the many aspects
of planning the research project. It also provides much-needed information on the
practice of planning a research project for novice researchers and doctoral students.
Developing the Plan for Research

When planning a research project, the project should be divided into subparts. This
is key to ensuring that every aspect of the project and its elements are addressed.
Again, the progress of a research project is attributed to its successful planning.
The planning of a research project also involves data collection management and
the cooperation of the organizations involved. The planning of a research project
has to consider the management of participants, sampling, data preparation and
data analysis. The research plan is a document that sets forth a clear objective and
precisely what the researcher must do to address the research problem. Finn (2005)
asserts that there are five significant phases associated with the successful manage-
ment and execution of a research project:
• Initiation. This includes important activities such as a student’s selection and

application for a project, liaison with a potential supervisor and registration at
a university.
• Planning. This typically involves a considerable amount of project definition,
during which the scope and objectives of the project are clarified. Once the
objectives of the project and the research are clear, the researcher can identify
the tasks that must be conducted to achieve these objectives.
• Execution of tasks. This requires the majority of the time and effort of the pro-
ject and is where the traditional research activities are accomplished. However,
other project activities also need to be addressed, such as attending training
courses, participating in workshops and interacting with other researchers.
• Monitoring of project progress. This ensures that the timing, cost and
quality of the tasks proceed as planned. In addition to your own monitoring
and controlling practices, your supervisor should provide important guidance.
Formal arrangements may also contribute to the monitoring of progress
(e.g., formal project meetings, meetings of your thesis committee, end-of-year
meetings).
• Completion of the project. This involves such activities as production of
a final report (the thesis), the PhD examination, dissemination of the research
204 Planning and Implementing the Data Collection Process
findings (publications and presentations) and acknowledging the contribution of

others (Finn, 2005).
It is important that the researcher is familiar with these five phases. The researcher
must consider the many prevailing issues of the research project and make sure they
align with the objective of the research problem. The most important aspect of
the project is to align with the objectives. The research project can conflict with the
objectives in addressing the research problem. It is important for the researcher to
prioritize and rank the importance of activities when managing the planning of the
research project. In Figure 15.1, we provide a template for developing a plan for
the research project.
Define the Research Problem
The first phase in the data planning process is to define the research problem.
The driving impetus for doing any research is articulating the research problem.
Researchers build the impetus for the research with the research problem. The
research problem statement (a) provides the rationale for the study, and (b) uses data
and research to confirm the need to address the problem in the study (Miles, 2016).
The reason for the investigation of a problem is the foundation of all research.
The central idea in gathering information on a phenomenon (instead of merely
dealing with the manifest symptoms) is that these might often reveal the root of
the real problem. A critical step in doing research is to try and pin down the issue
or question (which refers to the research problem) that the researcher will use as a
basis for the study (Leedy & Ormrod, 2019). This is the foundation for doing the
research. Remember, the ultimate goal of the research is to specifically identify,
in a complete sentence, the question the researcher will try to answer. When a
researcher describes their research objective in clear, concrete terms, they will have
a good idea of what is needed to accomplish it and can direct their research efforts
accordingly (Leedy & Ormrod, 2019).
The research problem is also based on the topic of interest, the research endeavor
is based on the research problem, and the problem is based on the selection of the
topic. If the researcher is undertaking the research project as part of a line of
inquiry, the most important attribute will be that it meets the examining body’s
requirements and, in particular, that it is at the correct level. This means that the
researcher must choose the topic with care (Saunders et al., 2009).
When investigating the problem, the researcher needs to consider the resources
involved. The resources that the researcher will have available is a consideration
when it comes to investigating the problem. For example, if the researcher has
colleagues or friends willing to help them with the research, then this will clearly
allow them to do more than if they were on their own. Thus, they must make
sure they are aware of any regulations or restrictions relating to this. When most
researchers undertake small-scale research projects, however, they will probably be
working largely on their own. The researchers will have to leverage their contacts
to access those resources to assist them (Blaxter et al., 2010).
Figure 15.1 Developing the plan for research.

We will discuss this in the later chapters on the literature review and investi-
gation of the research problem. The research problem should have what is in the
literature review to determine the problem of investigation. This could also be used
to uncover any research gaps that have relevance to the research problem. The lit-
erature review should have revealed some questions or issues that call for further
investigation in the research problem.
If possible, the research problem to be tackled in the research should emerge
naturally and inexorably from the literature review. The research problem may
arise as a result of past work that needs to be improved on. It may be that there is a
crucial test that will help to decide between competing theories (Leedy et al., 2021).
The researcher may do the following in terms of researching the problem: (a) pro-
pose a novel theoretical or methodological slant on a topic; (b) create an interesting
intellectual friction by bringing together hitherto unrelated fields or topics; or
(c) develop a new area of application for a method or theory. There should be some
sense that the problem that has been identified is worthwhile (Blaxter et al., 2010;
Saunders et al., 2009; Bell, 2010; Leedy & Ormrod, 2019).
Define the Research Objective
The next phase in the data planning process is to develop the research objective or
the purpose of the study. After defining the problem as a basis for the research, the
researcher should have a doable transition into developing the research objective.
The researcher must have an objective to embark on the research project. The basis
for the objective of a research project is to distinguish or depict an idea or to eluci-
date or foresee a circumstance or answer for a circumstance that shows the kind of
concentration to be directed (Singh, 2020). As every research problem is the basis
for the research endeavor, the researcher must also have a clear research objective
for the study.
Leedy & Ormrod (2019) asserts that the researcher must contend that research
objectives are sometimes likely to lead to greater specificity than the research
problem. This is based on a clear definition of the research problem as a basis
for the study. The development of the research objective cannot be understated.
In terms of planning, the researcher must clearly and specifically articulate the
objective of the research endeavor. It is the critical next step in the research pro-
ject: The research must be set forth in a grammatically complete sentence that spe-
cifically and precisely identifies the question the researcher will try to answer. The
researcher puts themself in a solid position when the research objective is described
in clear, concrete terms, and the researcher will have a good idea of what they need
to accomplish and can optimize the direction of their efforts accordingly. All too
often, novice researchers and doctoral students attempt to include everything they
have learned, without a strong consideration of the research objective (Saunders
et al., 2009; Bell, 2010; Leedy et al., 2021).
Finn (2005) recommended a project management approach to defining the
research objective. He asserts that a project management approach can help
provide “the guiding lines of discipline” and “analysis” that direct and channel
the creative effort necessary to support the intellectual demands of research of a
doctoral standard. He further states that project management is a research tool
that helps translate the researcher’s creativity into an effective approach in two
ways: (a) it helps the researcher develop clarity on the strategic objectives of their
project; and (b) it assists the researcher’s achievement of the strategic objectives
(Finn, 2005).
The task of planning typically involves a considerable amount of project def-
inition, during which the scope and objectives of the project are clarified. When
the objectives of the project and the research are clear, one can identify the tasks
that must be conducted to achieve these objectives. Finn (2005) further states that,
in the project plan or research proposal, the researcher then defines the variety of
tasks and schedules their timing and duration. He asserts, as an effective project
manager, that the researcher needs to continuously plan to cope with change and
deviations from their original plan.
He recommends that, when planning the research, especially a quantitative study,
and working towards achieving clarity in their objectives, the researcher should use
the concept of SMART objectives, which are defined individually: (a) Specific –the
objective is well defined and unambiguous; (b) Measurable –there is a quantitative
method for determining if progress toward the objective is being achieved or not;
(c) Attainable –are the objectives agreed upon (with all supervisors, for example);
(d) Realistic –the objective is achievable within the limitations of resources, know-
ledge and time; and (e) Time-bound –the time required to conduct the tasks has been
considered and there is a stated deadline for the achievement of the objective (Finn,
2005). In terms of specifically describing the scope of the research objective, the
researcher must review this at an early stage. Thus, they will make much quicker
progress and save a lot of time and effort that might have been wasted on irrelevant
actions (Finn, 2005; Saunders et al., 2009; Bell, 2010; Leedy et al., 2021).
Determine the Dissertation Research Model/Design Approach
Considering some of the research projects that I (the second author) have
conducted in the past, I must say that I wished I had been taught the value and
practice of developing the research model first. In many cases of working with
novice researchers and doctoral students, I am still bewildered that they are not
being taught the practice of developing the research model. We as professionals
have to stop this dreadful practice and do better to help our novice researchers
and doctoral students. Essentially, we must establish a proper foundation for
research projects for our novice researchers and doctoral students. So, what is a
research model? It a structural depiction of a research enquiry process, including
its research components and their respective relationship and associated philo-
sophical assumptions. Looking from the research methodology standpoint, there
are three main dissertation research models: quantitative, qualitative and mixed
methods.
Figure 15.2 Quantitative research model.
Quantitative Research Model
Quantitative research is generally based on deductive reasoning. After a research

problem has been identified, researchers determine the objectives and/or purpose of
the study. Based on the purpose and informed by the theoretical or conceptual frame-
work, they develop mainly closed-ended research questions and their corresponding
hypotheses. They access the right data sources and collect and analyze data to address
the questions and test the hypotheses. In sum, with a quantitative research study,
your role is to collect data to test hypotheses drawn from a theory, model or group
of constructs fulfilling the deductive aspects of this research model (see Figure 15.2).
Another aspect of the quantitative research model is the goal of attaining
objective findings. What does it mean to maintain objectivity when conducting a
quantitative study? It means recruiting participants in an ethical and systematic way
using either a probability or non-probability sampling technique that is free from
sampling bias, using a reliable and validated instrument to measure the variables of
interest and conducting appropriate statistical analyses, including assessing whether
all the assumptions associated with selected statistical tests are met. The quantita-
tive research model also includes the concept of arriving at context-free results.
With a quantitative study, the findings can be generalized to the population you
sampled from, providing you randomly sampled participants for the population.
When would you select the quantitative research model for your study? You are
more likely to choose the quantitative research model if you plan to:
• Collect numeric data

• Measure specific variables and/or determine relationships between variables
• Address closed-ended research questions and/or test hypotheses

• Recruit a large sample for your study
Qualitative Research Model
Qualitative research is generally based on inductive reasoning. This is because

qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing data, leading to the develop-
ment of a description, explanation, themes, model or theory for the phenomenon
of study. Like the quantitative research model, a research inquiry under the quali-
tative research model starts with having a research problem and objectives and/
or a purpose statement that are consistent with the problem identified. However,
due to the exploratory nature of qualitative research, the research questions are
normally open-ended in nature, starting with words such as what, how and why
(see Figure 15.3). Also, the theoretical or conceptual framework can be used to
inform how the phenomenon of interest should be studied, the development of the
research questions, areas for interview questions to focus on and how data should
be analyzed.
Subjectivity encompasses the notion that the researcher is an instrument,
developing the questions that participants will be asked, interviewing participants
to extract relevant information from them, making sense of data through system-
atic data analysis and presenting the findings in a way that best represents the rele-
vant data collected and addresses the research questions. Subjectivity in qualitative
research is a product of philosophical assumptions associated with doing qualitative
research (Creswell, 2013). Ontologically, a qualitative researcher conducts research
with the belief that there is more than one truth, and their goal is to capture those
Figure 15.3 Qualitative research model.

multiple perspectives of the phenomenon of study. Epistemologically, to capture

the richness of data, a qualitative researcher tends to get closer to both what and
who they are studying. However, this kind of closeness could lead to the researcher
having an influence on both the phenomenon of study and the source(s) of data.
You could overcome this challenge by engaging in bracketing, which is taking note
of your preconceptions, biases and background and preventing them from influen-
cing the study.
Axiologically, every knowledge is generated from a particular source. The
source, whether it is a group of participants, an organization or a community, has
its identity, values, beliefs, experience and preconceptions. This background infor-
mation influences the data extracted from them. In other words, the context is
part of the data, helping researchers to make sense of the data as they generate
codes, themes and/or theories. Similarly, the context is connected to the qualitative
findings. Although generalization is not possible, transferability of the findings is
appropriate. Transferability is one of the quality assurances of qualitative research,
where qualitative researchers provide rich context so that findings can be trans-
ferred to a similar context.
When would you select the qualitative research model for your study? You are
more likely to choose the qualitative research model if you plan to:
• Collect non-numeric data

• Describe, highlight, explore, understand or explain a phenomenon of study
• Address open-ended research questions
• Recruit a small sample for your study
Mixed Methods Research Model
The mixed methods research model is generally based on both deductive and
inductive reasoning. It has both quantitative and qualitative research characteristics
that focus on collecting and analyzing both quantitative and qualitative data
to help meet the purpose of the study and address the research questions. As
described in Chapter 4, when you decide on using the mixed methods research
model, you need to then decide on the appropriate type of mixed methods design,
the theoretical lens that informs your design, the sequence of implementation
of the quantitative and qualitative phase, when and how both research methods
components will be mixed and the weight of the role they will play in the study
(Hanson et al., 2005).
When would you select the mixed methods research model for your study? You
are more likely to choose the mixed methods research model if you plan to:
• Collect both numeric and non-numeric data

• Use both quantitative and qualitative data collection strategies
• Recruit a large and small sample for the quantitative and qualitative phase,
respectively
Determine the Research Method Approach
The next phase in the data planning process is to determine the research method
approach. After determining the research model as the basis for the research,
the researcher should have a clear idea of the research method to be used. The
objective here is to have a solid research method to build the foundation for the
research project. In the most basic terms, the research methods are concerned with
collecting and analyzing data. For example, one of the key goals is to build a foun-
dation for the research design. Again, as every research problem is the basis for the
research endeavor, the researcher must also have a clear research methodology for
the study (Goertzen, 2017).
To determine the research method, the researcher needs to decide between two
types of methodologies: quantitative and qualitative. However, they can choose both
quantitative and qualitative methods if they plan to conduct a mixed methods study
(Terrell, 2012). The researcher must also decide what the optimal and strongest
research methodology model is for the study, as well as understand the advantages
of both research methods and the optimal choice for their study. Keep in mind
that the objective of the research methodology is to maintain the evaluation’s feasi-
bility and usefulness by selecting the method that will give the most accurate infor-
mation without overburdening the researcher’s resources and capacities (Strategic
Prevention Solutions, n.d.).
Quantitative Research vs. Qualitative Research
Let’s explore the differences between quantitative research and qualitative research
in determining the research method approach. The task of quantitative research
involves experiments and surveys, where data collection uses standardized methods
such as questionnaires and structured interviews. With this method, data are in
the form of numbers, from which statistical generalizations can be made. A key
characteristic of quantitative research is that much of it is pre-specified in terms of
what and how it is going to be done (Meadows, 2003; Barrett, 2008; Yilmaz, 2013;
Babones, 2015; Goertzen, 2017). Lastly, quantitative research chiefly uses a prob-
ability sampling method that consists of four key types: simple random sampling,
stratified random sampling, systematic random sampling and cluster random sam-
pling. In essence, quantitative research generally focuses on measuring social reality
due to the fact that quantitative research has a tendency to search for quantities in
phenomena and establish research mathematically. This is one of the nuances of
quantitative research: It allows researchers to view the world as a reality that can be
objectively determined, so rigid guides in the process of data collection and analysis
are very important (Sukamolson, n.d.).
In contrast, the aim of qualitative research is to help us understand, describe
or explain social phenomena in a natural, as opposed to an experimental,
setting, with emphasis on the meanings, experiences, attitudes and views of the
participants and the focus on determining “why?” rather than “how many?”
(Turner et al., 1998; Dauter, 1999; Sukamolson, n.d.; Bourenkov & Popov,
2005; Dana & Yendol-Hoppey, 2009). Moreover, qualitative researchers collect
non-numeric data utilizing a data collection strategy such as interviews, focus
group discussions, observations or document collection. Lastly, qualitative
research chiefly uses a non-probability sampling method that consists of four
key types: convenience sampling, purposive sampling, snowball sampling and
quota sampling.
The practice of quantitative research involves looking at amounts, or quantities,
of one or more variables of interest. In contrast, the practice of qualitative research
involves looking at characteristics, or qualities, that cannot be entirely reduced to
numerical values. When the researcher can see their differences, they can under-
stand why they measure different aspects of social phenomenon (Finn, 2005; Bell,
2010; Leedy & Ormrod, 2019).
Choosing Between Quantitative and Qualitative Research Approaches
For the researcher that wants to use a quantitative research approach, it is

based on: (a) Causality –seeking the facts and related causes of the social phe-
nomena; (b) Measurement –a careful and explicit definition of the tools (scales
or questionnaires) or devices (instruments) used to measure phenomena;
(c) Replicability –ensuring that the results obtained can be repeated in replication
studies by other investigators; (d) Generalizability –how applicable the findings are
to other situations, settings and people (in other words, the “generalizability” of
the study); (e) Validity –the confidence that you are measuring what you think
you are, the accuracy of your results; (f) Probability –a sampling where every
sampling unit has an equal chance of being selected from the target population;
(g) Objectivity –seeking to eliminate any biases in the way data are collected and
interpreted so that conclusions reflect the true facts about a phenomenon; and
(h) Statistical significance –looking for statistical significance in the data collected in
the study (Meadows, 2003; Bourenkov & Popov, 2005; Botti & Endacott, 2008;
Blaxter et al., 2010).
For the researcher that wants to use a qualitative research approach, it is
based on: (a) Exploration –gaining initial insights into what has previously been
a little-studied topic or phenomenon; (b) Multifaceted description –to revealing the
complex, possibly multilayered nature of certain situations, settings, processes,
relationships, systems or people; (c) Verification –allowing you to test the validity
of certain assumptions, claims, theories or generalizations within realworld
contexts; (d) Theory development –enabling you to develop new concepts or theoret-
ical perspectives related to a phenomenon; (e) Problem identification –helping you to
uncover key problems, obstacles or enigmas that exist within the phenomenon; and
(f) Evaluation –providing a means by which you can judge the effectiveness of par-
ticular policies, practices or innovations (Leedy et al., 2021).
Some may see qualitative research as lacking rigor and not being scientific. As
a researcher in the field of marketing, the field of marketing uses both research
methodologies. I (the second author) like to think that both research approaches
tend to complement each other. This is because they measure different things,
and we as researchers need to appreciate the strengths of both research methods.
It is really unfair to label qualitative research as unscientific and lacking research
rigor. It is a disservice to qualitative researchers, who are masters at their craft.
As a researcher, choose the optimal research method for your study and choose
wisely.
Determine the Research Design Approach: Quantitative Designs
The next phase in the data planning process is to determine the dissertation
research design approach. After determining the research method approach as
a basis for the research, the researcher will be able to determine the research
design. The researcher now has an idea of the research designs and which
design they would prefer to use as a basis for the study. Since we have illustrated
two different research methods (quantitative and qualitative) we must look at
the research designs for them both. Now we have the research method, we
can narrow down which research design we will choose. We will begin with
the five core research designs under the quantitative research approach (see
Figure 15.4).
We want to introduce and define these five research designs in order to famil-
iarize novice researchers and doctoral students with each type and their utilization
in the task of research.
Descriptive Design
This research design is defined as research that encompasses a variety of methodolo-

gies that are best suited to examining and trying to make sense of a situation. Its
objective is simply to describe characteristics of the domain or state of
affairs as it exists at present. A quantitative descriptive study involves measuring
Figure 15.4 Qualitative research designs.

one or more variables in some way. The task of descriptive research is to produce
an accurate profile of persons, events or situations in the investigation. Descriptive
research studies address complex variables such as people’s or animals’ day-to-day
behaviors, or perhaps people’s opinions and attitudes toward a particular topic. It is
descriptive of a population under investigation. Nevertheless, descriptive research
does not involve changing or modifying the situation under investigation, nor does
it involve determining cause-and-effect relationships. Descriptive research primarily
uses surveys to gather information about people, groups, organizations and
so forth (Kothari, 2004; Swanson & Holton, 2005; Jackson, 2009; Saunders et al.,
2009; McNiff & Whitehead, 2010; Leedy & Ormrod, 2019).
Correlation Design
This research design is defined as a statistical investigation of the relationship between

two or more variables. Correlational research examines common relationships but
does not examine casual relationships between variables. The objective of cor-
relational research is to seek and determine relationships between two or more
variables without necessarily inferring causality. Both causal- comparative and
correlational research generally begin with hypotheses generated from a theory
or theoretical framework. Again, we reiterate that correlations do not tell us any-
thing about causation, which is a mistake that novice researchers frequently make
when interpreting them. There are several methods for determining a relationship
between variables; furthermore, no method can tell us for certain that a correlation
is indicative of a causal relationship.
If a correlation exists, then when one variable increases, another variable either
increases or decreases in a somewhat related fashion. In statistics, this is represented
by a correlation coefficient. Statistically, a correlation coefficient enables you to
quantify the strength of the linear relationship between two ranked or numerical
variables. Furthermore, this coefficient (usually represented by the letter r) can take
on any value between +1 and –1. Notwithstanding, a value of +1 represents a per-
fect positive correlation. This means that the two variables are precisely related;
as the values of one variable increase, the values of the other variable will also
increase. Conversely, a value of –1 represents a perfect negative correlation, which
is called an inverse relationship. There are issues with correlation, such as illusory correl-
ation, the perception of a relationship that does not exist (Kothari, 2004; Swanson
& Holton, 2005; Jackson, 2009; Saunders et al., 2009; McNiff & Whitehead, 2010;
Leedy et al., 2021).
Causal-Comparative Design
This research design is defined as a statistical investigation that attempts to deter-

mine a cause-and-effect relationship between variables. This, in essence, means
the influence of the independent variable on the dependent variable. Please note
that independent variables equal cause, and dependent variables equal effect (Miles
& Scott, 2017). To establish causal relationships, the independent variable is
manipulated. In some cases, it is not always possible to control all the covariates while
manipulating the independent variable in organizational settings where events flow
or occur naturally and normally.
Typically, causal- comparative studies in organizational research include a
number of variables (Sekaran, 2003). Interestingly, causal-comparative research
is similar to an experiment, except that the researcher does not manipulate the
variables under examination. The causal comparative research design measures the
predictive relationship between the independent variables in relation to dependent
variables. There is another name for causal relationships: explanatory research. The
emphasis here is on studying a problem in order to explain the relationships between
variables (Saunders et al., 2009). Causal comparative research is also called ex post
facto designs (the term ex post facto literally means “after the fact”), which provide an
alternative means by which a researcher can investigate the extent to which specific
independent variables, perhaps involving a virus, lack of schooling, a history of
family violence or a personality trait, may possibly affect the dependent variable(s)
of interest (Sekaran, 2003; Swanson & Holton, 2005; Kothari, 2004; Saunders
et al., 2009).
Experimental Design
This research design is defined as a statistical investigation in which participants are

randomly assigned to groups that undergo various researcher-imposed treatments
or interventions, followed by systematic assessments of the treatments’ effects (Leedy
et al., 2021). The purpose of an experiment is to study causal links, also whether a
change in one independent variable produces a change in another dependent vari-
able (Saunders et al., 2009; Leedy et al., 2021). Kothari (2004) and Jackson (2009)
both use a research method that allows a researcher to establish a cause-and-effect
relationship through the manipulation of a variable and control of the situation.
There are two categories of experimental design: experiments done in an artificial
or contrived environment, known as lab experiments; and experiments done in a nat-
ural environment in which activities regularly take place, known as field experiments
(Sekaran, 2003).
An example of an experimental research design is a marketing researcher
who wants to study how humor in television commercials affects sales in North
America. To do so, the researcher studies the effectiveness of two commercials
that have been developed for a new soft drink (Swanson & Holton, 2005; Jackson,
2009; Leedy et al., 2021). For a researcher to better control extraneous variables
when performing an experimental design, they frequently include a control group,
which is a group that receives no intervention so as to have little or no effect on the
dependent variable. The next step for the researcher is to compare the performance
of this group to an experimental group (also known as a treatment group), which is the
group that participates in an intervention. You do not see too many of these types
of studies with dissertations, as they take more time and more resources (Kothari,
2004; Leedy et al., 2021; Leedy & Ormrod, 2019; Saunders et al., 2009; McNiff &
Whitehead, 2010; Malhotra, 2015).
Quasi-Experimental Design. This research design is defined as a statistical investi-

gation in which an independent variable is manipulated in order to determine its
possible effect on another (dependent) variable, but without total control over add-
itional variables that might have an impact on the dependent variable. Sometimes,
however, randomness is either impossible or impractical. In such situations,
researchers often use quasi-experimental designs (Leedy & Ormrod, 2019; Kothari,
2004). The quasi-experimental design is also referred to as an ex post facto design.
Quasi-experimental is a method similar to experimental research, but without
random assignment to groups. The objective of the quasi-experimental design is to
conduct the study without the restrictions of using randomness. This is to minimize
the restrictions of the randomness of the experimental design. The focus is on the
selection of group members in a multiple-group study or on the presentation of
various treatments in a single-group study (Leedy & Ormrod, 2019; Kothari, 2004).
There are three main types of quasi-experimental research design. The first type
is non-equivalent groups. This is a between-subjects design in which participants have
not been randomly assigned to conditions, so the resulting groups are likely to be
dissimilar in some ways. This is a common research method for dissertations. The
second type is the regression discontinuity design. This design involves the use of pre-tests
and post-tests, with the assignment of groups based on a cut point. Such a design
does control for many issues related to internal validity, such as history, maturation,
testing and mortality (Swanson & Holton, 2005). The last type is a time series ana-
lysis. This design is used to determine the influence of a variable or treatment on a
single sample group. It measures the change in behavior after the treatment. The
time series analysis provides a longitudinal analysis over a period of time (Sekaran,
2003; Swanson & Holton, 2005; Jackson, 2009; Saunders et al., 2009; McNiff &
Whitehead, 2010). These designs are the most common quantitative research designs
used in quantitative methodology for dissertation research and general research.
Determine the Research Design Approach: Qualitative Designs
Again, as stated previously, the next phase in the data planning process is to deter-
mine the dissertation research design approach. After determining the research
method approach as a basis for the research, the researcher will be able to deter-
mine the research design. We already discussed and illustrated the quantitative
research designs. Now we will discuss and illustrate the qualitative research designs.
We will begin with the six core research designs under the qualitative research
approach (see Figure 15.5).
We want to introduce and define these different qualitative research designs in
order to familiarize novice researchers and doctoral students with each type and
their utilization in the task of research.
Phenomenological Research Design
This approach is a qualitative research tool used to describe or understand an

experience shared by participants. There are two main levels of phenomenological
Figure 15.5 Quantitative research designs.
research: descriptive and interpretative. With the descriptive level, researchers’ role
is to give the participants the space to share what they have experienced. They
then gather a relevant description of participants’ narratives of their experience,
analyzing them to extract the core features of the experience (Larsen & Adu,
2021). These core features are collectively called the essence of the experience
(Eddles-Hirsch, 2015). This type of phenomenology is informed by transcendental
phenomenology.
With the interpretative level, researchers focus on letting participants reflect on
their experience and provide how they make sense of it. It also involves collecting
views, perspectives and understandings of a phenomenon that participants have
direct or indirect experience of. With this kind of phenomenological approach,
the role of researchers is to give participants the chance to express their views
about a phenomenon or an understanding of what they have experienced. They
then examine participants’ statements with their background to better understand
what they commented. They extract meanings from their selected statements and
develop codes and themes to address their research questions. This kind of phe-
nomenological approach is influenced by interpretative phenomenology (Larsen
& Adu, 2021).
Grounded Theory Research Design
This qualitative research approach is used to generate a data-driven model or theory

to explain a phenomenon, process, situation or behavior (Adu, 2019; Charmaz,
2014). The model or theory developed comprises of a group of concepts and
their relationship, reflecting data collected and explaining a phenomenon of study
(Charmaz, 2014). There are a couple of features associated with the grounded
theory approach that sets it apart from other qualitative approaches. First, data
analysis starts normally with the data collection stage. After getting access to your
initial data, you can start analyzing it. The outcome of the initial data analysis
could lead to a refinement of the interview questions, helping to collect relevant
data from participants. Second, you use coding strategies such as initial or open
coding, focused or axial coding and theoretical coding (Charmaz, 2014). Initial
coding involves going through data (transcripts), extracting relevant information
and assigning codes to them. Codes generated are then categorized using focused
or axial coding, leading to the development of themes. The themes are examined
to determine the relationships between them using theoretical coding. Third, you
use theoretical sampling to sample participants and ask them questions that came
up when analyzing data. Fourth, you then use the constant comparative method
to compare the initial theory generated to the new sets of data, with the goal of
confirming or refining the proposed theory. Fifth, you repeat the third and fourth
steps until you reach saturation. Saturation within the data analysis phase is the
stage at which new data confirms the proposed theory and no new sets of data are
needed to conduct a constant comparison analysis.
Ethnography Research Design
This type of research method involves describing, exploring or examining a phe-

nomenon of study by being in the space where your potential research participants
are located and gathering data as you directly or indirectly interact with them and/
or participate in what they do (Adu, 2019; Murtagh, 2007). To put it in simple
terms, your goal is to study a group of people, a situation or an event in their natural
setting. Researchers using the ethnographic approach normally spend considerable
amounts of time at the research site making observations, interviewing participants,
participating in an event/activity and/or facilitating in focus group discussions.
Another unique aspect of this research method is taking field notes, which includes
documenting not only those being observed but also your reflections. Moreover, the
effectiveness of this approach is partly dependent on proper preparation, which
includes having a clear plan of what kinds of data you plan to collect, how you
intend to collect them and the data collection strategies you want to use. Also,
having a gatekeeper is key to a successful data collection experience. The gate-
keeper can help you to understand the norms and culture of the people you plan
to study, connect to the organization or community you want to study and build
trust with them.
Narrative Inquiry Research Design

Narrative inquiry research design is a type of qualitative approach that focuses on
collecting participants’ stories and analyzing them, leading to the generation of
an overarching story reflecting what participants shared. Collecting participants’
stories is one of the ways that researchers (using the narrative approach) can
generate data. Other options are open- ended surveys, document collection,
observations and focus groups (Bell, 2003). Arriving at a rich narrative starts
with gathering relevant data from selected data sources and having an in-depth
understanding of the data collected. According to Bell (2003), when analyzing your
data, you could group relevant information extracted from the data into six “lit-
erary concepts”: “setting, storyline, perspective, diction, motif and theme” (p. 105).
Think about the setting as the context, which could be geographical, historical,
situational and/or cultural. Also, see the storyline as a series of happenings in a
story that lead to corresponding responses from participants. Further, perspectives
are emotions that inform the participants’ actions and decisions. “The ‘diction’
categories included key metaphors used by participants to refer to the type of work
in which they were engaged (e.g., habitat restoration; naturalization). I used ‘motif ’
to bring together those coding categories which identified elements of knowledge
gained by participants through their involvement (e.g., names and lives of plants
and animals; what plants need and how to do it)” (Bell, 2003, p. 106). Lastly, the
theme concept constitutes the expressions of participants that reflect the main ideas
in their story.
Alternatively, Richmond (2002) suggested that, when conducting narrative
analysis, you could group relevant information extracted from the data into four
categories: orientation, abstract, complicating action and resolution. According
to Richmond (2002), orientation is about descriptions of the “setting and char-
acter,” abstract is about descriptions of “the events or incidents of the story,”
complicated action encompasses description of “events, conflicts and themes”
and resolution focuses on describing “the outcomes of the story or conflict”
(pp. 5–6).
Case Study Research Design
This approach is used when you plan to describe, explore, examine or compare
with the purpose of highlighting, understanding, explaining or showing the dis-
tinctive characteristics of a case (Baxter & Jack, 2008). A case can be a person, a
group of people, an organization or a group of organizations. It can be a commu-
nity or a country. It can even be an event or a phenomenon. The most important
thing is that a case should be well-defined in terms of what it covers, who are part
of it, where the case is and/or when the case happened. For example, a case could
be “the experience of ChatGPT (AI powered information/knowledge generator)
among content creators between 18–35 years living in the US.” One of the unique
features of a case study is collecting data from multiple sources and/or using more
than one data collecting strategy (Baxter & Jack, 2008). Another unique aspect of
the case study approach is the flexibility to adopt data analysis techniques from
other qualitative approaches. You could conduct content or thematic analysis or
use coding strategies for grounded theory, such as open coding, focused coding and
theoretical coding.
These designs are the most common qualitative research designs used in quali-
tative methodology for dissertation research and general research.
Determine the Data Need/Type
The next phase in the data planning process is to determine the data need and
data type. This will involve illustrating and discussing the various types of data. To
help the researchers further understand the distinctions of data, we must illustrate
and explain the different types of data that researchers will encounter while deter-
mining the data need and type. The acquisition of data is an important process
and task for the research project. Every aspect of the data and data types are vital
to managing the research project. As a basis for the research project, the researcher
must also have a clear understanding of the different data types under the appro-
priate research methodology.
Types of Data
There are two types of data: primary and secondary. Researchers must have a clear
understanding of the differences in the data types. When researchers begin
to acquire data, they really do not understand these two types of data or their
differences. In the case of a supplementary analysis that is sometimes used with
collected primary data, there is a tendency for the novice researcher to get confused
about how to use the data. Furthermore, it can be a problem for many novice
researchers who collect primary data and have some understanding on the uses of
secondary data, especially if they are not aware of the differences between the two.
Historical research, one of the more interesting sources of data, can be classified
into two main groups: primary sources, which are the lifeblood of historical research,
and secondary sources, which may be used in the absence of, or to supplement, pri-
mary data (Cohen et al., 2018).
PRIMARY DATA
Primary data is defined as information that is collected for the specific purpose
of a study either by the researcher or by someone else. The key definition of pri-
mary data is originated by the researcher for the specific purpose of investigating
the research problem. Primary data can be both qualitative and quantitative. The
most common method of generating primary data is through a survey. There are
several methods of collecting primary data, particularly surveys and descriptive
research. Important ones are (a) the observation method, (b) the interview method,
(c) through questionnaires, and (d) through schedules (Malhotra & Birks, 2007;
Kothari, 2004; Leedy et al., 2021). There are also other methods such as (a) war-
ranty cards, (b) distributor audits, (c) pantry audits, (d) consumer panels, (e) using
mechanical devices, (f) through projective techniques, (g) in-depth interviews, and
(h) content analysis (Malhotra & Birks, 2007; Kothari, 2004; Leedy et al., 2021).
One of the important things about primary data is that it is individually tailored
for the decision-makers of organizations that pay for well-focused and exclusive
support. Also, compared with secondary data, it is readily available data from a
variety of sources (Sekaran, 2003; Malhotra & Birks, 2007; Kothari, 2004; Sreejesh
et al., 2014; Malhotra, 2015).
According to the literature, there are many types of primary data. However,
there are four fundamental types of primary data, which are distinguished by
the way they are compiled: (a) Measurement is the collection of numbers indicating
amounts, (e.g., voting polls, exam results, car mileages, oven temperatures, etc.);
(b) Observation is the recording of events, situations or things experienced with your
own senses and perhaps with the help of an instrument (e.g., camera, tape recorder,
microscope, etc.); (c) Interrogation is data gained by asking and probing (e.g., informa-
tion about people’s convictions, likes and dislikes, etc.); and (d) Participation is data
gained by experiences of doing things (e.g., the experience of learning to ride a bike
tells you different things about balance, dealing with traffic, etc.) rather than just
observing (Walliman, 2011; Kothari, 2004).
SECONDARY DATA
Secondary data is defined as data collected for a purpose other than the problem at
hand, and secondary analysis is usually undertaken by researchers who did not con-
duct the primary data collection. For this reason, they have a more distant relation-
ship to the data and may not, therefore, fully appreciate the processes by which the
data were constructed (Malhotra & Birks, 2007; Alasuutari et al., 2002; Kothari,
2004; Walliman, 2011; Sreejesh et al., 2014; Malhotra, 2015; Leedy & Ormrod,
2019). Secondary data tends to enable the researcher to (1) diagnose the research
problem; (2) develop an approach to the problem; (3) develop a sampling plan;
(4) formulate an appropriate research design; (5) answer certain research questions
and test some hypotheses; (6) interpret primary data with more insight; and (7) val-
idate qualitative research findings (Malhotra & Birks, 2007).
Secondary data, like primary data, includes both quantitative and qualita-
tive data. Secondary data is principally used in both descriptive and explanatory
research. With secondary data, the researcher can use raw data, where there has
been little if any processing, or compiled data, which have received some form of
selection or summarizing (Sekaran, 2003; Saunders et al., 2009).
Interestingly, secondary data has some significant advantages over primary data.
The first key primary advantage of secondary data is its availability. It is always
faster and less expensive than acquiring primary data. Second, the use of secondary
data eliminates many of the activities normally associated with primary data
collection, such as sampling and data processing. Third, secondary data is more
feasible when data cannot be obtained using primary data collection procedures.
Fourth, secondary data cuts out the need for time-consuming fieldwork because it
has been produced by teams of expert researchers, often with large budgets and
extensive resources way beyond the means of a single student. Lastly, secondary
data can also be used to compare with primary data you may have collected in
order to triangulate the findings and put your data into a larger context (Sekaran,
2003; Malhotra & Birks, 2007; Kothari, 2004; Zikmund & Babin, 2010).
Quantitative Data Types in Research
Quantitative data is a numerical-based data. Quantitative data can be measured

more or less accurately because it contains some form of magnitude, usually
expressed in numbers. Quantitative data primarily uses four levels of measurement
in the collection of the data: (a) nominal, (b) ordinal, (c) interval, and (d) ratio (Walliman,
2011). Below is a definition of each of these quantitative data types:
• Nominal data. This is a type of data for which numbers are used only to
identify different categories of people, objects or other entities; this data doesn’t
reflect a particular quantity or degree of something.
• Ordinal data. This is a type of data for which the assigned numbers reflect
an order or sequence. Ordinal data indicate the degree to which people, objects
or other entities have a certain quality or characteristic (a variable) of interest.
• Interval data. This is a type of data that reflects equal units of measurement.
Interval data is defined as numbers reflecting differences in degree or amount.
This type of data tells us the differences between the numbers and how much
difference exists in the characteristic being measured.
• Ratio data. This is a type of data that reflects equal intervals between values for
the characteristic being measured. However, they also have a true zero point: a
value of 0 tells us that there’s a complete absence of the characteristic (Leedy
et al., 2021; McNiff & Whitehead, 2010).
Furthermore, quantitative data represent phenomena by assigning numbers in

an ordered and meaningful way. The primary purposes of quantitative analysis are
to measure, make comparisons, examine relationships, make forecasts, test hypoth-
eses, construct concepts and theories, explore, control and explain (Saunders et al.,
2009; Zikmund & Babin, 2010). Also, quantitative data can be divided into two
distinct groups: categorical and numerical. Categorical data refers to data whose values
cannot be measured numerically but can be either classified into sets (categories)
according to the characteristics that identify or describe the variable or placed in
rank order (Saunders et al., 2009).
There are two types of categorial data: descriptive and ranked. Descriptive data
(or nominal data) as an approach is impossible to define numerically or to rank.
Rather, these data simply count the number of occurrences in each category of a
variable. Ranked (or ordinal) data are a more precise form of categorical data. In
such instances, you know the relative position of each case within your data set,
although the actual numerical measures (such as scores) on which the position is
based are not recorded (Saunders et al., 2009).
There are two types of numerical data: continuous and discrete. Continuous data
refers to data whose values can theoretically take any value (sometimes within a
restricted range), provided they can be measured with sufficient accuracy. Discrete
data refers to data whose values are measured in discrete units and therefore can
take only one of a finite number of values from a scale that measures changes in
this way (Saunders et al., 2009).
There is also dichotomous data, which is when the variable is divided into two cat-
egories, such as the variable gender being divided into female and male. Rating
or scale questions, such as where a respondent is asked to rate how strongly she or
he agrees with a statement, collect ranked (ordinal) data. Numerical data, which are
sometimes termed “quantifiable,” are those whose values are measured or counted
numerically as quantities (Kothari, 2004; Little, 2014; Blaxter et al., 2010; Saunders
et al., 2009; Zikmund & Babin, 2010; Leedy et al., 2021).
Qualitative Data Types in Research
Qualitative data has many unique characteristics that are quite different from quan-
titative data. Qualitative research can be quite different from quantitative research
in another important way as well. In qualitative research, however, the method-
ology often involves an iterative and recursive process in which the researcher moves
back and forth between data collection and data analysis. In another distinguishing
characteristic, qualitative data cannot be accurately measured and counted and
are generally expressed in words rather than numbers –essentially, human activ-
ities and attributes such as ideas, customs, mores and beliefs. However, quantitative
data that are investigated in the study of human beings and their societies and
cultures cannot be pinned down and measured in any exact way (Walliman, 2011).
Qualitative data has three key characteristics: (a) it is based on meanings expressed
through words; (b) its collection results in non-standardized data requiring classifi-
cation into categories; and (c) its analysis is conducted through the use of concep-
tualization (Saunders et al., 2009).
Qualitative analysis generally involves one or more of the following: summar-
izing data, categorizing data and structuring data using narrative to recognize
relationships, developing and testing propositions and producing well-grounded
conclusions. It can lead to reanalyzing categories developed from qualitative data
quantitatively (Saunders et al., 2009). One interesting aspect of qualitative data is
that it has two key characteristics: (a) it deals with meaning, and those meanings
are mediated primarily through language and action; and (b) it is data in the form
of words that are derived from observations, interviews or documents (Swanson &
Holton, 2005). Qualitative data analysis is a process that entails (1) sensing themes,
(2) constant comparison, (3) recursiveness, (4) inductive and deductive thinking, and
(5) interpretation to generate meaning (Swanson & Holton, 2005).
Again, qualitative researchers don’t usually measure things in terms of the
numerical sense of the word. Conversely, qualitative research is based on trust-
worthiness, that data are collected ethically and accurately and the findings are
credible, plausible and well-substantiated. Many qualitative researchers reject the
terms validity and reliability, viewing them as inappropriate concepts for evalu-
ating the rigor of qualitative research studies. They instead embrace notions such
as credibility and transferability as criteria for judging whether the results from
a study are plausible and believable from participants’ perspectives and if the
findings can be applied to other settings (Saunders et al., 2009; Walliman, 2011;
Leedy et al., 2021).
Qualitative data is a non-numerical type of data. Qualitative data can be gen-

erally expressed in words rather than numbers; essentially, it is expressed in human
activities and attributes. Qualitative data primarily uses five levels of data in the
collection of data: (a) interview data, (b) observation data, (c) focus group data, (d) content
data, and (e) documentary secondary data. Below is a definition of each of these quali-
tative data types:
• Interview data. The most common qualitative data are interviews. This is
the most common way to collect qualitative data. The researcher uses prede-
fined questions and conducts either structured, semi-structured or unstructured
interviews.
• Observation data. This is also a common type of qualitative data and is
collected from an outsider’s perspective. This data is collected by close observa-
tion. The researcher uses field notes for data analysis. In observation data, it is
sometimes necessary for the researcher to become part of the group that is being
studied. This will help the researcher to acquire this type of data and be a part
of the lived experience.
• Focus group data. This is another common type of qualitative data. This type
of data is collected from focus groups, members of a small group who are asked
a series of guided questions. This type of data is about their perceptions, beliefs
or attitudes toward an event, products, concepts and so on.
• Content data. This is also a common type of qualitative data. This type of data
is collected from existing published sources such as documents, journal articles,
newspaper articles, reports, organizational documents and the like. Artifacts are
also a part of this type of qualitative data. This type of data is primarily a sec-
ondary type of data. Also, another example of this data type is organizations’
databases, both internal and external.
• Documentary secondary data. Documentary secondary data are often
used in research projects that also use primary data collection methods.
Documentary secondary data include non-written materials (such as voice
and video recordings, pictures, drawings, films and television programs).
This type of data also includes digital documents and digital recordings
such as DVDs and CD-ROMs (Saunders et al., 2009; Terrell, 2016; Leedy
et al., 2021).
The use of qualitative data is quite comprehensive compared to its quan-

titative data counterpart. There are two tasks involved in using content data.
First, there is the task of data conversion (also called data transformation), which is
the process of changing the original form of the data to a format more suitable
for achieving a stated research objective. Second, there is the task of cross-checks.
This is a comparison of data from one source with data from another. When the
data are not consistent, researchers should attempt data conversion (Zikmund &
Babin, 2010).
Determining the Population and Sampling Methods in Quantitative Research
Step 1. Defining and Choosing the Population
Before a sample is taken, the researcher must define the population from which
they want to collect the data. Choosing the population of interest is a key first
step in conducting research. Choosing the population of interest is very important.
Our experience from working with novice researchers and doctoral students is that
they have difficulty doing and understanding this. The population could be a city,
county, state or region, the population in an organization, a subgroup of the popu-
lation in the United States, college students at a university or voters in a district.
We want to make the point here that a sample can be extracted from any popu-
lation of interest to the researcher. Also, the population is one that the researcher
wants to generalize, thus the population the researcher is interested in. The key is
generalizability. Generalizability refers to the capacity of the case to be informative
about a general phenomenon, to be broadly applicable beyond the specific site,
population, time and circumstances studied (Alasuutari et al., 2002). A researcher
must understand that populations that can be sampled from good organizational
lists include elementary schools, high schools, university students and faculties;
church members; factory workers; fraternity or sorority members; members of
social, service or political clubs; and members of professional associations (Babbie,
2008). That is how a researcher chooses the population for a quantitative research
project.
Step 2. Drawing the Sample from the Population
After completing a list of population members, the researcher must choose a sam-
pling method. Because this is in the area of quantitative research, the sampling
method has to be a probability sampling method. One thing a researcher must
remember is that the chosen sampling method is very important and needs to be
justified and replicable (Bell, 2010).
With quantitative research, probability sampling is the main type of sampling
method. One of the most widely understood probability sampling approaches is
random sampling, where every individual or object in the group or population
of interest (e.g., MPs, dog owners, course members, pages, archival texts) has an
equal chance of being chosen for study (Blaxter et al., 2010). Figure 15.6 illustrates
the different probability sampling methods a researcher can choose in quantitative
research.
Sample size formulas provide the means for calculating the size of your sample
based on several factors. There are two formulas used to calculate sample size: (a)
sampling error formula for surveys; and (b) a power analysis formula (or G-Power analysis)
for experiments. Using these formulas can take the conjecture out of determining
the number of participants for a study and provides a precise estimate of
Figure 15.6 Probability sampling approaches.
your sample size. The formulas take into consideration several factors important to
determining sample size, such as confidence intervals in the statistical test and sam-
pling error (Creswell, 2012).
Determining the Population and Sampling Methods in Qualitative Research
Step 1. Defining and Choosing the Population
Again, before a sample is taken, the researcher must define the population from
which they want to collect the data. The researcher must choose the popula-
tion. This is a key first step in conducting research. In my experience of working
with novice researchers and doctoral students, they have difficulty doing and
understanding the non-probability approach to this as well. In the area of quali-
tative research that involves choosing the population of interest, the researcher
has some considerations. First, find the population of interest that is the most
convenient, cost-prohibitive and easily accessible. Second, choose a population
of interest in which any particular member of the population being chosen is
unknown.
It is essential for the researcher to choose a population of interest that meets
these considerations. However, it is not as rigorous as the quantitative approach.
In qualitative research, with the population investigation, the researcher selects
participants on the basis of their expertise in the subject matter under investigation.
When targeting the population, the most easily accessible members are chosen as
subjects. Also, when targeting the population, the subjects are conveniently chosen
from targeted groups or according to some predetermined number or quota of
participants (Sekaran, 2003; Miller & Yang, 2007; Zikmund & Babin, 2010; Price
et al., 2017). That is how a researcher chooses the population for a qualitative
research project.
Figure 15.7 Non-probability sampling approaches.
Step 2. Drawing the Sample from the Population
After completing a list of population members, the researcher must choose a sam-
pling method. For qualitative research, the researcher uses a non-probability sam-
pling method, a sampling technique in which units of the sample are selected on
the basis of personal judgment or convenience and the probability of any particular
member of the population being chosen is unknown (Zikmund & Babin, 2010).
Because this is in the area of qualitative research, the sampling method has to
be a non-probability sampling method. With qualitative research, non-probability
sampling is the main type of sampling method. One of the most widely used non-
probability sampling approaches is convenience sampling. This type of non-probability
sampling approach is where every individual or object in the group or population
is of interest. With the non-probability sampling approach, it is sufficient to choose
participants as a convenience sample. This is a group of individuals who meet the
general requirements of the study and are recruited in a variety of nonrandom ways.
Quite often, they are from the “subject pool” –general psychology students being
asked to participate in a study or two (Goodwin & Goodwin, 2013). Figure 15.7
illustrates the different non-probability sampling methods a researcher can choose
in qualitative research.
Data Saturation. In addressing this issue, many of the research methods

textbooks simply recommend continuing to collect qualitative data, such as by
conducting additional interviews, until data saturation is reached: in other words,
until the additional data collected provides few, if any, new insights (Bell, 2010;
Blaxter et al., 2010; McNiff & Whitehead, 2010).
For qualitative research, sample size is not the focus. With the non-probability
sampling technique, in which units of the sample are selected on the basis of personal
judgment or convenience, the probability of any particular member of the population
being chosen is unknown (Alasuutari et al., 2002; Goodwin & Goodwin, 2013;
Blaxter et al., 2010; Leedy et al., 2021; Sekaran, 2003; Price et al., 2017).
Data Collection Preparation

Data collection preparation starts by considering where you plan to collect data,
who you want to collect data from and the instrument or tools you will use to collect
data. You also need to think about the time and resources available for you to suc-
cessfully collect data. In addition, you need to make sure you have the skills to apply
selected data collection strategies such as interviews, online surveys, focus groups
and observations to generate the kind of data you want for your study. To use
your selected data collection strategy effectively, you need to know how, learning
about the best practices related to its use and its strengths and weakness (Sreejesh
et al., 2014).
Data Collection Preparation under a Quantitative Study
At this point, you may have decided where you will be accessing your participants
and the potential number of participants you need to complete the questionnaire
for the study. You also have the questionnaire you plan to give to participants
to complete. The next task is to choose the channel through which potential
participants can complete the questionnaire. One option is to administer a paper
version of the questionnaire. It could also be in the form of an in-person or mail
survey (Deutskens et al., 2004). Alternatively, you can build it on an online survey
planform such as Google Forms, SurveyMonkey or Qualtrics. It is important to
choose a channel that potential participants can easily access to complete the ques-
tionnaire. You also need to consider which one would be less challenging to gather,
store and clean participants’ responses, preparing them to be analyzed.
It is also important to think about the cost involved in collecting data, which
could include the cost of using a survey platform, accessing potential participants
and analyzing data (Sreejesh et al., 2014). If it is within your research budget, you
could provide incentives to improve your survey response rate, which is normally
between 10% and 30%, but make sure your research ethics board that approves
research is aware of the incentive you plan to give to participants. Sending
reminders to potential participants to complete the survey is another strategy for
increasing the response rate.
Data Collection Preparation under a Qualitative Study
At this point, you should have determined or secured the place you will be looking
for data, determined how you plan to access participants, decided whether you want
to meet them physically or virtually to interview them and developed an interview
guide or protocol (Creswell, 2012). Alternatively, if you plan to collect documents,

you should know where and how to access them and whether approval is needed.
Whatever qualitative data collection strategy you select, you need to have a guide
that will inform your decisions and actions when collecting data.
Because you are an instrument, engaging in self-reflection is an integral part
of the data collection preparation. This self-reflection process involves thinking
about who you are, your connection to the phenomenon of study and participants,
your preconceptions, your experience and the role you will be playing in the data
collection process. When collecting the data, you then set them aside so that they
do not influence how you collect data from participants. Also, as an instrument,
you need to be knowledgeable about the selected data collection strategy, including
exploring its best practices, strengths and weakness. If it is your first time using the
selected data collection strategy, such as interviews, focus groups and observations,
we recommend you practice it with a group of people (preferably colleagues) to
help gain skills and confidence in utilizing the chosen strategy.
It is important to learn as much as you can about the research location and the
people you will be collecting data from (Creswell, 2012). The best person to help
you learn about the research location and potential participants and build trust with
them is a gatekeeper. Having conservations with someone who has connections
with the society or community you plan to study at the data collection preparation
stage is a great opportunity to learn and build trust. You will also get ideas about
the best way to access participants and the estimated number of participants willing
to be a part of the study.
Lastly, you need to make sure you have all the instruments needed to collect
and securely store the data. You may need a recording device, computer, notepad
and related equipment. If you plan to do your interview virtually using any of
the available virtual communication platforms, then make sure your potential
participants are familiar with the one you plan to use. Such planning does not
always go as intended, but you are guaranteed of having less unexpected events
to deal with.
Preparing the Consent Form

Before collecting data from participants, they need to first agree to be a part of the
study. The document provided to potential participants that contains information
about the purpose of the study, what they will be doing in the study, their rights and
the risks and benefits of the study is called a consent form. A consent form should be
clearly written and free from jargon and should have space for both you and the
participants to sign. When preparing the consent form, you need to think about who
will be reading and signing it and address the question, “How can I write the con-
sent form in such a way that potential participants will understand it?” Concerning
the content of the consent form, you are expected to describe the purpose of the
study, state who qualifies to be a part of the study, which participants will be asked
to do, the amount of time the data collection will take, the specific risks involved
in participating in the study, the specific benefits of participating in the study, the
rights they have as participants, including their right to withdraw from the study at
any time, and how their confidentiality and privacy will be protected.
Consent forms are only given to potential participants who are considered adults
(normally 18 years old and over) and cognitively and physically capable of par-
ticipating in the study. As Goodwin and Goodwin (2013) put it, “Not all research
participants are capable of giving consent, due to such factors as age or disability,
and some persons might experience undue coercion to volunteer for research (e.g.,
prisoners)” (p. 52). For example, if you are focusing on children, you will need to
obtain consent from a parent or guardian. In other words, their parent or guardian
needs to agree and sign the consent form before they are allowed to participate. In
addition, assent is required from the children before they are allowed to participate
(Goodwin & Goodwin, 2013). This means that they can choose not to participate
in the study even if their parents or guardians have approved their participation.
Besides a written consent form, there is also electronic and oral consent. A con-
sent form can be sent to potential participants in electronic form through a channel
such as email, a document signing system or survey platform. The researcher needs
to make sure that the selected channel for the delivery and completion of the con-
sent form is secure (Price et al., 2017). Also, the consent form should be separate
from the data collected and stored in a secure place where only the researcher has
access to it (Price et al., 2017).
There are certain circumstances where a written consent form (either in print
or electronic form) will not be feasible. In such situations, the researcher may opt
for oral consent. For example, oral consent could be an option when working with
potential participants who cannot read or write. Another situation is when the
researcher plans to collect sensitive information from participants and using a con-
sent form could adversely affect their confidentiality and/or anonymity. When in
doubt regarding which type of informed consent is appropriate for your study, we
advise you have a discussion with your dissertation supervisor or a representative of
the ethical board of your institution.
Ethical Issues Related to Data Collection

During the data collection stage, you should make sure you are following all the
instructions you have been given by the ethical board of your institution and
the one at the research location (if any). To put it differently, you are expected
to do what you have told the ethical board you will be doing. Also, you are
expected to notify the board if you plan to go beyond the specified ethical
parameters given to you. For example, if you plan to change the source of your
data, you need to let the board know. Moreover, if you realize that you have
gone beyond what the ethical board has approved, you need to notify them
immediately for direction.
In terms of the sequence of the data collection process when conducting an
online survey, participants can be asked to verify their eligibility by completing a
screening questionnaire. After that, they read the informed consent and click on
“Agree” if they want to be a part of the study. It is a best practice to state the
estimated amount of time it will take for participants to complete the survey. It is
important to be honest and state the appropriate amount of time. This is because,
if they realize that they are spending way more time than was stated in the con-
sent form, they could stop completing the survey, which would affect the comple-
tion rate.
After consenting to participate in the study, they can then complete the survey.
At the end of the survey, there should be a “Thank you” note and any other infor-
mation that will be helpful to participants, including a debriefing, if needed (Price
et al., 2017). Lastly, make sure that participants’ data, including any identifiable
information, are well protected. It is important to review the survey platform’s
privacy policy in relation to participants’ data so that you make informed decisions
about the ways to protect participants’ data.
In the same way, a qualitative researcher should be proactive in upholding the
ethical principles when collecting qualitative data. Because in qualitative research
you normally focus on a small sample size, you need to be careful when collecting
demographic information. In some cases, participants can easily be identified if
you collect and share their demographic information. In other words, demographic
information is very useful in understanding participants’ experiences, perspectives
and/or stories, and it can positively add to the richness of your findings. However,
you need to ensure that sharing participants’ background does not adversely affect
their privacy and confidentiality.
Another ethical practice in qualitative research is to choose a secure location to
conduct interviews with participants. If you have limited control about the choice
of the interview location, you should guide participants to select a place where they
feel comfortable and no one will be listening to the conversation between you and
the participants. Also, throughout the interview, if you notice any discomfort, pause
the interview and ask how they are doing and if they would like to take a break.
As a qualitative researcher collecting data from participants, one of your roles is to
protect participants and make resources available in case they need help as a result
of participating in the study.
Implementing Data Collection

Implementation of the data collection starts by recruiting people who qualify to
be part of the study. Similarly, if you are focusing on documents as your data,
you start the data collection process by getting access to the source of the data.
After recruiting potential participants, the next stage is to invite them to be a
part of the study if they meet the eligibility criteria. Those who qualify are asked
to review and complete the consent form. If they consent to be a part of the
study, they then do what is expected of them as participants, such as completing
a survey or participating in an interview or a focus group discussion. The final
step in the data collection process is to store the data collected, making it ready
for analysis.
Participants’ Recruitment
There are many strategies used to recruit potential participants for a study. One
option is to go to the research location and verbally invite potential participants
to be a part of your study. When interacting with them, you should share what
the research is about, who qualifies to be a participant, what they will be doing,
how long participation in the study will be and who to contact if they want to take
part in the study or have questions. Another option is to send a recruitment letter
through an email list. This would be an email list of an organization or association.
If the list is not publicly available, you may need to contact the authorities of the
institution where the potential participants are and ask whether they can send the
recruitment letter to them on your behalf. Alternatively, you can request an online
survey platform such as SurveyMonkey or Qualtrics to send your survey to people
who may qualify for your study. We suggest you check with your dissertation super-
visor if letting an online survey platform send your survey to potential participants
is appropriate. You can also check with the ethical board of your institution to see
whether they would approve of this participant recruitment strategy.
You could also use social media to access potential participants. For example,
you could create a flyer or poster and post it on your LinkedIn page, inviting quali-
fied participants to complete your survey or take part in an interview. When doing a
qualitative study, you can ask a gatekeeper to help you recruit potential participants
to be interviewed. Gatekeepers can give you an idea of many people you can get
for your study. They can give you suggestions about where and how to search for
participants. As you can see, there are many participant recruitment strategies you
can choose from. The most important thing is to choose the most appropriate and
feasible avenue to access qualified participants for your study.
Ensuring the Eligibility of Potential Participants
When potential participants show an interest in completing your survey, the first step
is to ask them to complete a screening questionnaire. This kind of questionnaire
contains a few closed-ended questions that are consistent with the eligibility criteria
for your study. Here are some examples of questions that researchers ask: Are you
18 years old or older? Do you have at least three years of work experience? Have
you experienced bullying at your workplace before? The screening questions should
be structured in such a way that respondents have an option to indicate “Yes” or
“No,” thus helping you to decide whether they qualify or not. Screening poten-
tial participants to make sure they qualify can be done verbally, especially when
conducting interviews. In this case, they are asked the screening questions, and if
they meet the selection criteria, you then move on to talk about informed consent.
Completing Informed Consent
For a survey study, qualified participants read the consent form and indicate that
they agree to participate in the study before they proceed to complete the survey.
As mentioned above, a consent form should be written in such a way that, after
reading it, participants should know the purpose of the study, who qualifies to
be a part of the study, when it needs to be completed, what they will be asked
to do in the study, the rights they have, the risks and benefits involved in partici-
pating in the study, the amount of time it will take, how the data will be stored to
ensure participants’ privacy and confidentiality and contact information about the
research. When conducting interviews, you can provide a written consent form for
participants to read, and you can ask for clarification if needed. Both you and the
participants can sign it. You give a copy to the participants and keep one in a safe
place. It is important to note that signing the consent form does not prevent them
from withdrawing from the study if they want to. As it is required to state in the
consent form that their participation is voluntary, they can withdraw at any time
without any repercussions.
Participating in the Study
After completing the informed consent, the next stage is to engage in the main data
collection activities leading to the generation of data for analysis. For a quantitative
study, participants will be asked to complete a test or questionnaire with the goal
of measuring variables of interest, collecting the numbers needed to describe a
variable or group of variables and/or test hypotheses. In most quantitative studies
utilizing a survey instrument, participants are asked to first finish the demographic
questions and then complete the main questionnaire (measuring the variables of
interest). After that, participants are provided with “Thank you” information,
which shows appreciation of their time spent completing the survey.
Similarly, in a qualitative study using interview as a data collection strategy, you
can start by asking demographic-related questions. These simple questions could
be a great opportunity to get to know participants and build rapport. In case you
are using focus groups, asking each participant to introduce themselves is a way
of building trust with participants. The next phase is to ask participants questions
that will help generate the responses needed to address your research questions.
Also, be ready to clarify questions and ask follow-up questions when needed. Lastly,
make sure the interview does not go beyond the agreed length of time stated in
the consent form. Before you finish the interview, ask whether they want to share
any last thoughts, giving them a sense of closure and making them feel their voice
was heard.
Storing Collected Data
As researchers, we are responsible for protecting participants’ data, making sure

they are stored in a secure location and used purposely for what they were intended
to be used. “It is also important that data are seen as a valuable commodity that
needs to be treated with respect. This means that they should be stored securely
and, when a project is finished, disposed of securely” (Dale et al., 2012, p. 530).
Their data should be stored in such a way that you are the only person who has
access to them (Cohen et al., 2018). Participants should be informed if the data is
used for something other than what was in the informed consent. Moreover, they
can request their data and ask that their information not be used in the study. We
suggest you follow the directives provided by the ethical board of your institution
with regard to how you should use, store and destroy data after use.
Writing about the Data Collection Process

Writing about your data collection process involves giving a detailed description
of how you gather data from your source. You are expected to describe the data
collection process in such a way that future researchers can repeat what you did
by following your data collection steps. Note that if you are writing your disserta-
tion proposal, you should write about your process in the future tense. However,
after completing your study, you can write this section in the past tense. Readers
can easily follow the narration of your data collection process if you present your
actions in a chronological manner. The main components that you could share
in relation to your data collection process are recruiting potential participants,
screening interested participants, completing informed consent, generating data
and storing data. Below are questions to address to help you write about the data
collection process (see Adu, 2016).
• Recruiting potential participants

• Where will you find potential participants?
• How do you plan to recruit participants?
• Will you be using a flyer, poster, email and/or word of mouth?
• How do you plan to implement your selected recruitment strategy?
• Screening interested participants
• What do you plan to do to ensure that potential participants qualify to be a
part of your study?
• If you plan to use a screening questionnaire, where, when and how will you
be administering it?
• Completing informed consent
• How and where will the consent form or informed consent procedure be
completed?
• Generating data
• What will be the next step after the informed consent process has been
completed?
• What data collection strategy will you be using? Will it be interviews, online
surveys, focus groups or observation (just to mention a few)?
• If it is a survey, where will the participants be taking it?
• If it is an interview, focus group or observation, where will it take place?
• What will the participants be doing or completing to help generate data?
• On average, how long will it take for the participants to complete the survey,
interview and the like?
• How long is the data collection period?

• What tools will you be using to gather the data?
• What will you be doing at the data gathering stage?
• Will you be giving participants a token (or compensation) for being a part
of the study? If yes, what will you give to them and how are they going to
receive it?
• Storing data
• How, where and when do you plan to store the data?
We recommend you address the above questions, arrange your responses in a

chronological manner and write the data collection process with detail and clarity,
promoting the reliability of your study and the credibility of your findings.
Summary
The task of data collection and data sampling are the most fundamental part of
the research process. The foundation of all research is based on the task of data
collection. This chapter discussed the essentials of quantitative data collection and
qualitative data collection for novice and burgeoning researchers. The chapter
provided a conceptual model and tool to help novice researchers and doctoral
students understand the rudiments of quantitative data collection and qualitative
data collection.
In this chapter we went through the procedure of planning your research. We
discussed numerous items in terms of planning the research endeavor: defining
the research problem; defining the research objective; determining the disserta-
tion research model/design approach; determining the research method approach;
determining the research design approach; determining the data need/type; deter-
mining the data need/type; preparing the consent form; ethical issues related to
data collection; and, lastly, writing about the data collection process. By the end of
this chapter, the reader should be able to understand how to plan and implement
the data collection process.
We hope that this chapter has provided a foundation for novice researchers and
doctoral students to understand quantitative data collection methods and qualita-
tive data collection methods.
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16 Understanding Populations and
Sampling
Objectives
1. Determine the population for their study
2. Know the different types of sampling techniques
3. Determine an appropriate sampling strategy for their study
Introduction
The practice of sampling is one of the most important parts of the study. Another
very important aspect of conducting research is that the researcher needs to decide
how to conduct a sample of a population. When the researcher has to conduct sam-
pling, there are many types and categories of sampling that need to be considered.
Based on your research methodology, different sampling methods need to be used.
Consider that qualitative research typically focuses on a different form of sampling
compared to a quantitative method. The researcher has to consider different sam-
pling methods depending on the particular methodology. For example, you would
not consider using purposeful sampling with a quantitative study or using random
sampling with a qualitative study. Sampling has rules that need to be understood
by the researcher.
Sampling is frequently employed to estimate the sizes of populations, groups
and other types of populations. The practice of sampling has so many more
uses for research. When researchers gather information obtained from properly
selected populations, it can give rise to an interesting sample. The researcher
must remember that the sample is selected from the sampling frame, which is a
list of all the units from a population to be surveyed. Consider that the sampling
frame will contain all the units of the population under consideration, which
includes the target population. For example, many qualitative methods texts offer
valuable types of sampling methods. Consider the theoretical sampling method.
This aspect of theoretical sampling refers to data gathering directed by emerging
concepts. With theoretical sampling, the researcher follows the process of the
trailing of concepts, looking for sites, persons or events that will enable further
comparisons of data.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003268154-16
Understanding Populations and Sampling 239
In this chapter, we provide an introduction to many elements associated with

sampling methods and define the basic terminology and underlying principles of
sampling. The chapter goes on to explain sampling strategies and approaches to
both quantitative and qualitative methodologies. The chapter also provides an
introduction to sampling techniques to identify the differences between groups and
populations.
Population, Sampling and Definitions

There are different terms that need to be introduced before we get into the
finer points of sampling. There are some terms and definitions that need to be
underscored.
A population is defined as an aggregate of units such as people, households, cities,
districts, countries, states or provinces. It is also an entire group of people, events
or things of interest that the researcher wishes to investigate (Rao, 2000; ‌Upton &
Cook, 2008; Sekaran & Bougie, 2013; Yaremko et al., 2013). A population under
investigation depends on the nature of the investigation. A population may be
homogenous or heterogeneous. A population can be homogenous when its every
element is similar to each other in all aspects and when its elements are not similar
to each other in all aspects. The variables that make a population heterogeneous
can vary greatly from research to research. Common variables that make a popu-
lation heterogeneous are gender, age, ethnicity, socioeconomic status and so on
(Zedeck, 1986; Alvi, 2016).
A target population is defined as a collection of elements or objects that possess the
information sought by the researcher and about which inferences are to be made.
An element is a single entity of any given population which is not decomposable
further. An element may be an individual, a household, a factory, a marketplace,
a school, etc. What an element is going to be depends on the nature of the popu-
lation. An element is also defined as a single member of the population. Think of
a census as a count of all the elements in the human population (Malhotra et al.,
2013; Alvi, 2016; Sekaran & Bougie, 2013). A census involves a complete enumer-
ation of the elements of a population or study objects.
A sample can be defined as a subgroup of the elements of the population selected
for participation in the study. Sampling is also defined as the selection of some part
of an aggregate or totality on the basis of which a judgment or inference about the
aggregate or totality is made (‌Upton & Cook, 2008; Yaremko et al., 2013; Haque,
n.d.). A sample is a relatively small group of people selected from a population for
investigation purposes. The members of the sample are called participants. A sample
is measured to make generalizations about populations. In order words, a sample
is a subset of a population. It is comprised of members selected from the popula-
tion. Some but not all of the elements of a population form the sample (Sekaran
& Bougie, 2013). A sampling unit is an element or set of elements that is available
for selection at some stage of the sampling process. Some examples of sampling
units in a multistage sample are city blocks, households and individuals within
those households. A subject is considered a single member of the sample, just as an
240 Understanding Populations and Sampling
element is a single member of the population (Alvi, 2016; Malhotra et al., 2013;
Sekaran & Bougie, 2013).
A sampling frame is a list that identifies the individual elements of the population.
A sampling frame should contain all the elements of the population. It is from a
frame, which is a list of all the units of the population to be surveyed, that a sample
is selected. The frame should contain all the units of the population under con-
sideration (Pedhazur & Pedhazur Schmelkin, 1991; Kerlinger & Lee, 1999; Rao,
2000; Thomas & Brubaker, 2000). A sampling design is a mathematical function
that gives you the probability of any given sample being drawn. Considering that
sampling is the foundation of nearly every research project, the study of sampling
design is a crucial part of statistics. Sampling design involves not only learning how
to derive the probability functions that describe a given sampling method but also
understanding how to design a best-fit sampling method for a real-life situation
(Glen, 2020).
A sampling error is a statistical error that occurs when a sample used in a study
does not represent the entire population. Also, a sampling error is a measure of
the departure of all the possible estimates of a probability sampling procedure
from the population quantity being estimated. An important feature of probability
sampling is that, in addition to providing an estimate of the unknown popula-
tion quantity, it enables the assessment of the sampling error of the estimate, the
standard error. These errors often occur in the process of sampling, which is ana-
lyzing a selected number of observations from a larger population. Furthermore,
a sampling error is the value of difference between the sampled value versus the
true or total population value (Rao, 2000; Calabrese, 2009; Beins & McCarthy,
2012; Lepcha, 2022).
Sampling bias is defined as bias that happens when the data sample in a system-
atic investigation does not accurately represent what is obtainable in the research
environment. The samples of a stochastic variable that are collected to determine
its distribution are selected incorrectly and do not represent the true distribution
because of non-random reasons. Furthermore, when you collect data in such a
way that some members of the intended population have a lower or higher sam-
pling probability than others, often the result is sampling bias (Panzeri et al., 2008;
FormPlus Blog, n.d.; Tao, 2022; Terrell, 2015). To reduce sampling bias, the two
most important steps when designing a study or an experiment are (a) to avoid
judgment or convenience sampling; and (b) to ensure that the target population is
properly defined and that the sample frame matches it as closely as possible. When
finite resources or efficiency reasons limit the possibility to sample the entire popu-
lation, care should be taken to ensure that the excluded populations do not differ
from the overall one in terms of the statistics to be measured. In the social sciences,
population representative surveys most commonly are not simple random samples
but follow more complex sample designs (Cochran, 1977).
Confirmation bias is defined as a tendency to seek information and sources that
support our already held opinions. We tend to avoid sampling websites, opinion
articles and news sources that contradict or challenge our values and views
(Nardi, 2016).
A unit of analysis is defined as the basic entity or object about which generalizations
are based in an analysis and for which data has been collected. The unit of ana-
lysis is determined by an interest in exploring or explaining a specific phenom-
enon. The unit of analysis is shaped by three attributes: (a) social phenomena; (b) time;
and (c) space. An example would be observations of a single social entity, such as a
person or an institution (Humphrey, 2001; Miles, 2019).
A unit of observation is defined as the who or what about which data is collected
in a survey or the who or what being studied in an analysis. In a data set, this is
represented by a row. The unit of observation refers to the category, type or clas-
sification to which each who or what belongs rather than to the specific people or
objects included. It is also defined as the entity in primary research that is observed
and about which information is systematically collected. The unit of observation is
determined by the method by which observations are selected. An example would
be observations of multiple entities with a defined relationship, such as family,
employer-employee, etc. In order words, think of the unit of analysis as singular and
the unit of observation as plural. For example, in the United States, the country is
the unit of observation (plural), but each individual state is the unit of analysis (sin-
gular) (Miles, 2019).
Reasons for Sampling
Based on the definitions, sampling is used to take a piece of the population under
investigation. Samples are selected, usually by some random process, so that they
represent the population of interest. Sometimes, in the practice of research,
populations are frequently best defined in terms of samples rather than vice versa;
the population is the group from which you were able to randomly sample. We
have to keep in mind that the sampling objective here is to ensure that all subjects
come from the same population before you treat them differently. Normally, you
take elaborate precautions to ensure that you have achieved a representative sample
of that population; you define your population and then do your best to randomly
sample from it.
The advantage of random sampling consists of randomly assigning subjects to
treatment groups (levels of the independent variable) to ensure that, before differ-
ential treatment, all subsamples come from the same population. Statistical tests
provide evidence as to whether, after treatment, all samples still come from the same
population. Furthermore, generalizations about treatment effectiveness are made
to the type of subjects who participated in the experiment (Tabachnick & Fidell,
2013). An interesting note is that only random sampling allows for findings of sig-
nificance. How the sample was taken will determine whether the researcher can
make scientific statements about the significance of their findings (Garson, 2002).
The following steps should be followed for good sampling: (1) describing the
study population; (2) listing the members of the population; (3) identifying the sam-
pling type; (4) determining the sample size; (5) selecting the sample; and (6) testing
the representation power of the sample. The reliability of research is closely related
to its repeatability. When writing up, the researcher should pay special attention to
presenting information about the characteristics of the sample, including details on

sampling strategies, that would enable others to repeat the research (Delice, 2010).
Advantages and Benefits of Sampling
There are many advantages of the practice of sampling in research. Most people
view sampling as a compromise to be avoided whenever possible. It is much more
feasible to examine a sample rather than a population. There are key primary
advantages of sampling. First, it is feasible and economical. Studying a population
of interest is not a viable option. The total coverage needed to study a popula-
tion may be financially cost prohibitive. There is also the issue of the inefficient
use of human resources. Sampling is mandatory in situations where the elem-
ents are destroyed or rendered useless in the process of obtaining the informa-
tion sought. Another advantage is that it is more economical to collect a sample
from a population rather than study the whole population (Pedhazur & Pedhazur
Schmelkin, 1991).
A second benefit of sampling is the potential for increased accuracy. A sample
may produce more accurate results than the kind of complete enumerations that
can be taken. If accurate information is required for many subdivisions of the
population, the size of the sample needed to do the job is sometimes so large that a
complete enumeration offers the best solution (Cochran, 1977).
Sampling errors are a very common problem. Not surprisingly, the larger the
data set is, the larger the percentage of nonsampling errors will be. In general,
limiting the investigation to a sample affords improved management and control
in such areas as the training and supervision of interviewers and testers, obtaining
responses from participants and amassing and analyzing the data (Cochran, 1977;
Pedhazur & Pedhazur Schmelkin, 1991).
A third advantage of sampling is speed. Data can be collected and summarized
more quickly with a sample than with a complete count. Another advantage of
sampling is scope. A complete census is not practical. The choice lies between
obtaining the information by sampling or not at all. Thus, surveys that rely on sam-
pling have more scope and flexibility regarding the types of information required
for many subdivisions of the population (Pedhazur & Pedhazur Schmelkin, 1991;
Tabachnick & Fidell, 2013).
A state is an ongoing duration of meaningful behavior. An event is a momentary
behavior that happens so rapidly that it is normally recorded only as an occurrence
and not a duration.
Events are often changes in states, such as a hen flying (state), landing on the
ground (event), and then walking (state). All the sampling methods discussed above
will be effective in recording the occurrence of states, but only continuous recording
sampling methods (All Occurrences, Sequence and Sociometric Matrix) will effect-
ively sample events (Christensen et al., 2003; Cokley & Awad, 2013; Lehner, 1992).
There are two other main advantages of sampling. One, it offers faster data
collection and a lower cost. Second, each observation measures one or more prop-
erties of observable subjects distinguished as independent individuals.
Lastly, most commonly used in business research, medical research and agricul-
ture research, sampling is widely used for gathering information about a population
(Nanjundeswaraswamy & Divakar, 2021). There are three major sources of error
in a survey: (1) sampling variability, generally called sampling error, which depends on
the sample size and design; (2) sample biases, which are a function of how well the
study design is executed; and (3) response effects, which are the differences between the
reported and true measures of behavior, characteristics or attitudes (Sudman, 1976).
The Sampling Process
The objective of sampling is to select a specific number of people in a population.

The practice of sampling is a process that is important to conducting research.
Thus, there is a need to select a sample. Again, the objective of sampling is for the
researcher to draw from a population. Figure 16.1 illustrates the major steps in the
sampling process.
Before choosing a specific type of sampling technique, a broad sampling tech-
nique needs to be decided on. One of the difficult aspects of research is launching
an experience-sampling study. It can provide a challenge to even the most seasoned
researcher (Christensen et al., 2003). When a researcher decides to begin the
research process, they must go through the sampling process first. The first stage
in the sampling process is to clearly define the problem. Defining the problem is
the basis for all research. This also relates to determining the sampling frame. The
sampling frame must be representative of the population of interest. This is vital
to the research.
The next step is to determine the sample design. Establishing the sample design
is very important to the researcher. The next step is to determine the appropriate
sample size for the study. We have to remember that the population is commonly
related to the number of people living in a particular area of the country. Lastly,
the researcher has to execute the sampling process. Again, sampling can be used to
make inferences about a population.
Types of Sampling
The practice of sampling can be used to make an inference about a population

or to make a generalization in relation to an existing theory. This is based on the
choice of sampling technique.
The practice of evaluating the characteristics of an entire population through a
representative sample can be an arduous endeavor. As with many research studies,
the best strategy to investigate a problem in an entire population is through the use
of sampling. How, it is not always possible to conduct a study on an entire popula-
tion. So, we use the practice of sampling. Thus, the researcher studies a sample of
the population, which is a suitable representation of the entire population. We must
think of a sample as a subset of the population; thus it is selected to be representa-
tive of the population. Again, one of the advantages of sampling is that it can be
less costly and more efficient. Being able to use a sample to generalize the results to
Figure 16.1 T he sampling process.

Source: Adopted from Sekaran and Bougie (2013).
Figure 16.2 Types of sampling techniques.
a whole population requires the use of one of the statistical sampling methods for
evaluation. Taking a subset from a chosen sampling frame or entire population is
the basic practice of sampling.
There are many types of sampling techniques. However, there are two basic
types: (a) probability or random sampling; and (b) non-probability sampling. Before choosing
a specific type of sampling technique, a broad sampling technique needs to be
decided on. Figure 16.2 shows the various types of sampling techniques (Acharya
et al., 2013; Taherdoost, 2016).
Probability Sampling
The definition of probability sampling is that every item in the population has an equal
chance of being included in the sample. The key is, if all participants are equally
likely to be selected in the study, equiprobability sampling is being used. The odds of
being selected by the research team may be expressed by the formula: P=1/N,
where P equals the probability of taking part in the study and N corresponds to the
size of the target population (Martínez-Mesa et al., 2016).
An interesting aspect of probability sampling methods is that they share three
properties. First, the sampling units’ selection process is random. Second, each
potential sampling unit has a known probability of being selected for the sample,
which is different from zero. Lastly, it is possible to identify all potential samples of a
given size that can be drawn from the population before the actual selection process
starts (Sarstedt et al., 2017). In the context of probability sampling, all units of the
target population have a nonzero probability of taking part in the study. Probability
sampling is the most favored form of sampling by the research community. In this
method, there are five primary sampling designs that are preferred for accurate,
unbiased sampling (Nanjundeswaraswamy & Divakar, 2021).
One way to undertake random sampling is for the researcher to construct a
sampling frame first and then use a random number generation computer program
to pick a sample from the sampling frame (Lancaster & Keller-McNulty, 1998;
Zikmund, 2003; Westfall, 2009). The major advantage of probability sampling is
that it has the greatest freedom from bias but may represent the costliest sample in
terms of time and energy for a given level of sampling error (Taherdoost, 2016).
ADVANTAGES OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING
There are three key advantages of probability sampling. First, the probability sam-
pling technique reduces the chance of systematic errors. Second, the probability
methods minimize the chance of sampling biases. Lastly, probability sampling
provides a better representative sample, and inferences drawn from the sample are
generalizable to the whole population (Alvi, 2016).
DISADVANTAGES OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING
The disadvantages are minimal. There are three key disadvantages of probability
sampling. First, probability sampling requires a considerable amount of effort.
Second, it requires a lot of time. Lastly, probability sampling is costly. It tends to be
more expensive and not cost prohibitive (Alvi, 2016).
Quantitative Sampling Methodology

In the practice of quantitative research, the primary goal of quantitative sampling
is to get a representative sample from a much larger population. To accomplish
this task, researchers may resort to probabilistic sampling (i.e., each member of the
population has the same probability of being included in the sample). In quanti-
tative research, the intent of sampling is to choose individuals who are representa-
tive of a population so that results can be generalized to it (external validity) (Gelo
et al., 2008).
With quantitative sampling, the researcher can study the smaller group and
produce accurate generalizations about the larger group. An interesting aspect
of quantitative sampling is that researchers focus on the specific techniques that
will yield highly representative samples (i.e., samples that are like the population).
Lastly, quantitative researchers tend to use a type of sampling based on theories
of probability from mathematics, which is called probability sampling (Tao, 2022;
Hancock & Mueller, 2010).
The practice of probability sampling is based on a sampling technique in which

each unit in a population has a specifiable chance of being selected. The rationale
behind using probability sampling is to generate a sample that is representative of
the population from which it was drawn. With probability and random sampling,
it does not guarantee that every random sample perfectly represents the popu-
lation. Instead, what it means is that the sample will be close to the population
most of the time, and that one can calculate the probability of a particular sample
being accurate (Alvi, 2016; Tong, 2006; Gelo et al., 2008; Singh & Masuku, 2013;
Sarstedt et al., 2017).
Quantitative Sampling Designs for Research
Simple Random Sampling
Simple random sampling is a method in which any two groups of equal size in the
population are equally likely to be selected. Mathematically, simple random sam-
pling selects n units out of a population of size N. So that every sample of size n
has an equal chance of being drawn in this case, we have a full list of sample units
or participants (sample basis), and we randomly select individuals using a table of
random numbers. This sampling technique provides an unbiased and better esti-
mate of the parameters if the population is homogeneous (Brown, 1947; Sudman,
1976; Lomax, 2001; Acharya et al., 2013; Singh & Masuku, 2013; Taherdoost,
2016; Fricker, 2020; Rai & Thapa, 2015).
In situations where the population is heterogeneous regarding the measures
of interest, simple random sampling easily leads to estimates with unacceptably
high variance, especially when the sample size is restricted. Interestingly, in survey
research, much time and effort are spent in following a method of simple random
sampling until an individual is actually identified and enrolled in the sample.
However, this is called cluster sampling. Given that there is usually a tendency for indi-
viduals found within a cluster to share characteristics, however, the use of cluster
sampling can be expected to decrease the precision of the sample result (Lasswell,
1949; Henderson & Sundaresan, 1982; Scheaffer et al., 2006; Sarstedt et al., 2017).
Systematic Random Sampling
Systematic random sampling is when participants are selected from fixed intervals
previously defined from a ranked list of participants. Systematic sampling is when
every nth case after a random start is selected. With systematic sampling, the selec-
tion of the first subject is done randomly, and then the subsequent subjects are
selected by a periodic process. A systematic random sample is one in which every
kth item is selected; k is determined by dividing the number of items in the sampling
frame by the desired sample size. An initial starting point is selected by a random
process, and then every kth number on the list is selected.
This type of sampling provides a better estimate of the parameters in a study
compared to purposive sampling. This is because every single individual in the
sampling frame has a known and non-zero chance of being selected into the
sample. For this reason, it is the ideal and recognized single stage random sampling.
The advantage of this sampling is that it has moderate usage and moderate cost,
internal and external validity is high, and it is simple to draw and easy to verify. The
disadvantage is that, technically, only the selection of the first subject is a probability
selection, since for subsequent selections there will be subjects with zero chance of
selection (Scheaffer et al., 2006; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2013; Acharya et al., 2013;
Singh & Masuku, 2013; Taherdoost, 2016; Rao, 2000; Martino et al., 2018).
Stratified Sampling
Stratified sampling is most suitable when the population consists of heterogeneous

subpopulation groups. Stratified sampling is used when the population is divided
into strata (or subgroups) and a random sample is taken from each subgroup. A sub-
group is a natural set of items. Subgroups might be based on company size, gender
or occupation (to name but a few). Stratified sampling is often used where there is
a great deal of variation within a population. In this type of sampling, the target
population is first divided into separate strata. Then, samples are selected within
each stratum, either through simple or systematic sampling. The total number of
individuals to be selected in each stratum can be fixed or proportional to the size of
each stratum. Each individual may be equally likely to be selected to participate in
the study. However, the fixed method usually involves the use of sampling weights
in the statistical analysis (inverse of the probability of selection or 1/P). With strati-
fied sampling, the sampling error depends on the population variance within the
stratum but not between the strata (Sudman, 1976; Lomax, 2001; Scheaffer et al.,
2006; Tong 2006; Acharya et al., 2013; Singh & Masuku, 2013; Taherdoost, 2016;
Nanjundeswaraswamy & Divakar, 2021). There are two types of stratified sampling
approaches:
• Proportionate stratified sampling. In proportionate stratified sampling,

variables are selected for the sample based on their original distribution in the
population of interest. This shows that the relative size of a stratum in the popu-
lation of interest determines the likelihood of selecting a variable from that
stratum for the sample.
• Disproportionate stratified sampling. It is common for social science
researchers to employ this method when they do not select a sample representing
the entire population they wish to research. The idea is that people from various
groups will not have the same possibilities of being included in the research
sample (Rahman et al., 2022).
Cluster Sampling
Cluster sampling is also known as area sampling. Cluster sampling is used when
the whole population is divided into clusters or groups. Subsequently, a random
sample is taken from these clusters, all of which are used in the final sample. In
cluster sampling, the total population is divided into a number of relatively small
subdivisions or groups, which are themselves clusters. However, some of these
clusters are then randomly selected for inclusion in the sample. Cluster sam-
pling is advantageous for those researchers whose subjects are fragmented over
large geographical areas, as it saves time and money. Another advantage of using
cluster sampling is economical, but in reducing the cost by concentrating on the
selected clusters, it gives less precision than the simple random sampling (Etikan &
Bala, 2017).
A cluster random sample is a two-step process in which the entire population is
divided into clusters or groups, usually geographic areas or districts such as villages,
schools, wards, blocks, etc. It is more commonly used in epidemiologic research
than in clinical research. It is most practical to be used in large national surveys. The
clusters are chosen randomly. All individuals in the cluster are taken in the sample.
Usually, it requires a larger sample size. Cluster sampling is very useful when the
population is widely scattered and it is impractical to sample and select a represen-
tative sample of all the elements (Sudman, 1976; Lomax, 2001; Scheaffer et al.,
2006; Acharya et al., 2013; Taherdoost, 2016; Haque, n.d.; Nanjundeswaraswamy
& Divakar, 2021).
Multi-Stage Sampling
Multi-stage sampling is an additional progression of the belief that cluster sam-

pling has. Normally, the multi-stage sampling design is applicable to big inquiries
of a geographical area, e.g., an entire country. For example, multi-stage sampling in
combination with the various methods of probability sampling is the most effective
and efficient approach (Etikan & Bala, 2017). Multi-stage sampling is a process of
moving from a broad to a narrow sample using a step-by-step process. This is a
complex form of cluster sampling because it involves two or more levels of units
that are embedded one in the other. It involves the repetition of two basic steps, i.e.,
listing and sampling. Typically, at each stage the cluster gets smaller in size, and in
the end subject sampling is done.
So, the population is organized into groups; subsequently, groups are randomly
selected and then the members are randomly selected in these groups (an equal
number selected per group). This method of sampling is mostly carried out to
increase precision and reduce and non-response (Scheaffer et al., 2006; Acharya
et al., 2013; Martínez-Mesa et al., 2016; Taherdoost, 2016).
How to Avoid Sampling Bias
Sampling bias is said to occur when the selected sample does not truly reflect the
characteristics of the population. The best way to avoid sampling bias is to stick
to probability-based sampling methods. These include simple random sampling, system-
atic sampling, cluster sampling and stratified sampling. In these methodologies,
respondents are only chosen through processes of random selection, even if they
are sometimes sorted into demographic groups along the way.
The opposite form of sampling is called non-probability sampling, and it injects

forms of bias into data collection. This bias can come down to convenience, as is
the case in convenience sampling, or it can involve predetermined ideas about a
population of interest, as is the case in quota sampling. Non-probability sampling
does play a role in data collection and analysis. Among other things, it’s typically
more affordable than true random sampling, but its downside is its vulnerability
to bias (Alvi, 2016; Tao, 2022). Tao (2022) outlines the six types of sampling bias:
1. Self-selection bias. Also known as non-response bias, this source of bias

plagues studies that rely on voluntary responses. When samples show self-
selection bias, they over-represent the subset of the population that feels some
sort of inclination to weigh in on an issue. For example, in presidential election
polls, self-selection bias has been shown to over-represent people who trust
institutions (such as polling firms) and closely follow the news.
2. Observer bias. This type of sampling bias often pops up when researchers
weave their own opinions into questionnaires, which can impede people from
answering neutrally. Surveys weighed down by loaded questions often surface in
the partisan polling industry.
3. Survivorship bias. Survivorship bias overweighs respondents who have
“survived” the selection criteria but don’t necessarily represent an overall popu-
lation. For instance, surveying high school graduates about the efficacy of public
schools may cut out the needed perspective of dropouts who did not earn a
diploma.
4. Undercoverage bias. Also called exclusion bias, this occurs when a popula-
tion of interest is under-surveyed by researchers. This can sometimes trace back
to the practice of convenience sampling, where researchers and field workers
only survey individuals who are easy to reach.
5. Healthy user bias. This type of bias is most commonly found in health
studies, which can oversample healthy members of a population.
6. Berkson’s fallacy. The opposite of a healthy user bias, Berkson’s fallacy occurs
when surveyors only study those who are very ill, such as hospital patients. In this
situation, healthy people end up under-represented (Tao, 2022).
A summary of probability sampling designs is illustrated in Table 16.1.
Non-probability Sampling
The practice of sampling has a non-probability, non-statistical based counterpart.
This is called non-probability sampling. The practice of non-probability sampling is
most often associated with qualitative research methodology and design. With non-
probability sampling, a sample of participants does not need to be representative
of the population or random, but a clear rationale is needed for the inclusion of
some individuals rather than others. Non-probability sampling means one cannot
generalize beyond the sample. The practice of non-probability sampling allows for
selection bias to occur based on the type of person that would opt in to complete a
survey online (Lamm & Lamm, 2019).
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Table 16.1 Probability sampling research designs
Sampling Design Characteristics Pros Cons
Simple random Each person in the population has an The process is easy to follow and A complete and up-to-date list is needed
sampling equal chance of being selected. viewed as fair, as each person can for all persons in the population. This
be selected. information is often not available.
Systematic Selection is based on a systematic Easier to conduct than simple random The selection process can miss an important
sampling algorithm such as every 5th or 10th sampling and tends to select more characteristic of the population based on
person. evenly across the population. the use of the systematic algorithm.
Stratified random Sampling involves dividing the A stratified sample should be more Stratified sampling is not useful when the
sampling population into smaller groups representative of the population, population cannot be exhaustively divided
called strata, which are formed as it considers shared and/or into shared or unique characteristics.
based on shared and/or unique unique characteristics during Another problem exists when the strata
characteristics. selection. This approach should cannot be divided into appropriate
increase the external validity and proportional sizes.
generalizability of the study.

Cluster sampling Naturally occurring groups are Cluster sampling is highly If the naturally occurring group selected as
selected as sampling clusters. For economical and feasible when a cluster has a bias, then the population
example, specific schools in a dealing with large populations. In might be assumed to also have that bias.
district may be selected rather than addition, cluster sampling usually Use of selection rather than random
all schools in the district. avoids reduced variation. probabilities can increase error.
Multistage A complex form of cluster sampling It is cost prohibitive. Multi-stage It is not as robust as true random sampling
sampling in which two or more levels of units sampling is a cheaper alternative but probably helps to resolve the
are embedded one in the other. It to random sampling. It is limitations inherent in random sampling.
involves the repetition of two basic extremely useful, as it involves Multi-stage sampling is used frequently
steps, e.g., listing and sampling. multiple stages of randomization. when a complete list of all the members
Typically, at each stage the cluster The costs are thereby reduced as of the population does not exist and/or is
gets smaller in size, and in the end compared to traditional cluster inappropriate. Also, multi-stage sampling
subject sampling is done. sampling (Acharya et al., 2013; does not cover all survey participants, and
Taherdoost, 2016). study outcomes cannot be 100% accurate
(Rahman et al., 2022).
Source: Berndt, 2020; Gill, 2020; Acharya et al., 2013; Scheaffer et al., 2006; Taherdoost, 2016; Rahman et al., 2022.
One of the interesting aspects of non-probability sampling is that there are

no principles embraced by all non-probability sampling methods. Each method
embraces different principles and fulfils different criteria, depending on the object-
ives and aims of the research. Therefore, it is not surprising that the term non-
probability sampling covers a broad range of sampling methods that considerably
vary in their qualities and features (Yang & Banamah, 2014). Quantitative sam-
pling techniques, therefore, are designed to accommodate these goals of minim-
izing bias and maximizing generalizability. On the other hand, qualitative sampling
focuses on minimizing bias, but maximizing generalizability is not a primary goal
of qualitative research. Nevertheless, rather than aiming to generalize about
large populations, the purpose of qualitative studies is to offer a “window-like”
or “mirror-like” view on the specific situation or phenomenon in the investigation
(Koerber & McMichael, 2008).
Researchers must remember that quantitative methods are used to describe
the investigated phenomena and expand on a macro-level and to guide qualita-
tive sampling. On the other hand, qualitative research provides the information
necessary for fully fledged explanatory arguments, which can be further examined
by subsequent quantitative research. The purpose of qualitative research is to gain
a deeper understanding of a phenomenon rather than to generalizing the findings
(Kelle, 2008; Naderifar et al., 2017). With regards to the qualitative research meth-
odology, non-probability sampling tends to focus on small samples and is intended
to examine a real-life phenomenon. However, it is not intended to make statistical
inferences in relation to the wider population (Yin, 2003; Acharya et al., 2013;
Taherdoost, 2016). Non-probability samples are those in which the probability that
a subject is selected is unknown and results in selection bias in the study. They
include the most commonly used types of sampling, including convenience sam-
pling, purposive sampling, quota sampling, snowball sampling and so on.
Qualitative Sampling Methodology
In the practice of qualitative research, the primary goal of qualitative sampling is

to comprehend, i.e., aspire to reconstruct the personal perspectives, experiences
and understandings of the individual actors. Qualitative studies aim to provide
illumination and understanding of complex psychosocial issues and are most useful
for answering humanistic “why?” and “how?” questions. Qualitative research has
always been the preferred method to explore new theories and provide support to
different phenomena (Altmann, 1974; Gelo et al., 2008; Shaheen et al., 2019).
In qualitative research, the intent of sampling is to focus in depth on small
samples, even a single sampling unit (n =1), selected purposefully for the study.
A qualitative sampling technique is one in which each unit in a population does not
have a specifiable probability of being selected. In other words, in the practice of
non-probability sampling, the researcher does not select their units from the popu-
lation in a random way. Consequently, because non-probability sampling takes a
nonrandom approach, it typically produces samples that are not representative of
the population. This means the ability to generalize from the population is highly
limited (Altmann, 1974; Marshall, 1996; Alvi, 2016; Gelo et al., 2008; Shaheen
et al., 2019).
Qualitative inquiry has no stringent rules regarding the sample size. It depends
on the purpose of the research, research question(s), research method and what
is the line of research that can be undertaken within the timeframe and use the
resources at hand. So, an appropriate sample size for a qualitative study is one that
adequately answers the research question. Furthermore, with the practice of quali-
tative research, it is considered meaningful if the sample selected is information-
rich and the analytical capabilities of the researcher are high (Marshall, 1996;
Shaheen et al., 2019). Relying on recommendations by qualitative researchers and
best practices (in terms of the sample sized used to attain rich data and/or arrive at
saturation in a study that uses a particular research method) would help in getting
an estimate of an adequate sample size for one’s qualitative study.
Qualitative approaches make use almost exclusively of purposive sampling strat-
egies. Shaheen et al. (2019) argues that these allow “information-rich cases to be
studied in depth” (p. 154). These sampling strategies include, among others: con-
venience sampling, homogeneous case sampling (i.e., picking elements from a sub-
group to study in depth), snowball sampling (e.g., using informants to identify cases
that would be useful to include in the study), extreme/deviant and typical case
sampling (which involve seeking out, respectively, the most outstanding cases in
order to learn as much as possible about the outliers –or the most average cases
from a subpopulation) (Shaheen et al., 2019; Marshall, 1996). The credibility and
transferability of the findings of qualitative research rely heavily on the information
provided by the participants of the sample. In terms of data collection in qualitative
research, data has to be collected in order to allow an in-depth understanding of
the participants’ perspective (Shaheen et al., 2019).
Qualitative Sampling Designs for Research
Convenience Sampling
Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling technique that attempts to obtain

a sample of convenient elements. The selection of sampling units is primarily left to
the discretion of the interviewer. Convenience sampling (also known as haphazard sam-
pling or accidental sampling) is also a type of non-probability or nonrandom sampling,
where members of the target population that meet certain practical criteria, such as
easy accessibility, geographical proximity, availability at a given time or the willing-
ness to participate, are included for the purpose of the study (Malhotra et al., 2013;
Etikan et al., 2016). The main objective of convenience sampling is to collect infor-
mation from participants who are easily accessible to the researcher, such as recruiting
providers attending a staff meeting for study participation (Etikan et al., 2016). So, the
convenience sampling method includes members of the population who are avail-
able to the researcher at the time of the research. For example, a researcher asking
questions from passers-by on the street is another example of this method of sam-
pling. This method is also called accidental sampling (Naderifar et al., 2017).
This is the most commonly used sampling method. The sample is chosen
on the basis of the convenience of the investigator. Often the respondents are
selected because they are in the right place at the right time. Convenience sam-
pling is most commonly used in clinical research, where patients who meet the
inclusion criteria are recruited in the study. The advantages are that they are most
commonly used, less expensive and there is no need for a list of all the popu-
lation elements. However, they are not without limitations, the foremost being
that variability and bias cannot be measured or controlled. Secondly, results from
the data cannot be generalized beyond the sample (Acharya et al., 2013). It is
not a mutually exclusive category of the sampling technique; rather, many other
non-probability techniques are purposive in nature. Thus, all the other types of
sampling techniques are described under the heading of purposive sampling. In
purposive sampling the sample is approached with a prior purpose in mind. The
criteria of the elements to be included in the study is predefined (Taherdoost,
2016; Alvi, 2016).
Convenience sampling is selecting participants because they are often readily
and easily available. Typically, convenience sampling tends to be a favored sam-
pling technique among students as it is inexpensive and an easy option compared to
other sampling techniques (Ackoff, 1953; Taherdoost 2016). However, convenience
sampling has some serious limitations. It has the potential to be prone to selection
bias. Convenience sampling is also not representative of a population. This type
of sampling is not appropriate for research involving population inferences. Lastly,
convenience sampling is not appropriate for descriptive research or causal research.
However, it can be used for pre-test studies or pilot studies (Malhotra et al., 2013).
Convenience sampling often helps to overcome many of the limitations associated
with research.
Convenience sampling has the reputation of being the least rigorous technique
and involving the selection of the most accessible subjects. Conversely, it is the least
costly to the researcher in terms of time, effort and money. There is an element of
convenience sampling in many qualitative studies, but a more thoughtful approach
to the selection of a sample is usually justified. The obvious disadvantage of con-
venience sampling is that it is likely to be biased. It is advised that researchers must
understand convenience sampling should not be taken to be representative of the
population (Marshall, 1996; Szolnoki & Hoffmann, 2013; Wilson, 2014; Etikan
et al., 2016).
Purposive Sampling
Purposive sampling is the most common non-probability sampling technique. This
is a sampling strategy in which particular settings, persons or events are selected
deliberately in order to provide important information that cannot be obtained
from other choices (Maxwell, 1996; Taherdoost, 2016). The purposive sampling
technique is the deliberate choice of a participant due to the qualities the partici-
pant possesses. It is a nonrandom technique that does not need underlying the-
ories or a set number of participants. It is where the researcher includes cases or
participants in the sample because they believe that they warrant inclusion and
would help in generating rich data.
The main objective of purposive sampling is to focus on characteristics of a
population that are of interest and that will best enable you to answer your research
questions. The sample being studied is not representative of the population, but
for researchers pursuing qualitative or mixed methods research designs this is not
considered to be a weakness (Rai &Thapa, 2015). The goal of purposive sampling
is to produce a sample that can be considered “representative” of the population.
The selection of a purposive sample is often accomplished by using expert know-
ledge of the population to select, in a nonrandom manner, a sample of elements
that represents a cross-section of the population (Etikan et al., 2016). An example
of purposive sampling is the selection of a sample of jails from which prisoner
participants will be sampled. This is referred to as two-stage sampling, but the first-
stage units are not selected using probability sampling techniques (Desai & Potter,
2006; “Non-probability Sampling,” n.d.).
Judgment Sampling
Judgment sampling is one type of purposeful sampling. “Judgement sampling is

a form of non-probability sampling which the population elements are selected
based on the judgement of the researcher” (Marshall, 1996, p. 277). Furthermore,
with this sampling approach, the researcher makes a decision on who to recruit
based on, but not limited to, the knowledge they have about the phenomenon
of study, their opinion of who will be the great source of information they are
looking for, and knowledge gained from gatekeepers about the potential research
site. The advantages of judgmental sampling are that it is inexpensive, convenient
and quick, but it cannot be used as a representative of the population (Marshall,
1996; Malhotra, et al., 2013). This sampling technique is similar to convenience
sampling. The main difference is that, with the practice of convenience sampling,
the researcher actively selects the most accessible and available sample to answer
the research question.
If potential participants are known to the researcher, they may be stratified
according to known public attitudes or beliefs. Judgmental sampling may be advan-
tageous when studying a broad range of subjects (maximum variation sample),
outliers (deviant sample), subjects who have specific experiences (critical case
sample) or subjects with special expertise (key informant sample) (Marshall, 1996;
Yang & Banamah, 2014; Naderifar et al., 2017; Sarstedt et al., 2017). This sam-
pling technique is useful when using a phenomenological approach influenced by
transcendental phenomenology. With this research approach, the researcher needs
to apply imaginative variation, which starts with recruiting participants with a diver-
sity of specified characteristics so that variance of the experience is well captured
during the data collection stage (see Larsen & Adu, 2021). For instance, by utilizing
judgmental sampling, you could sample participants across gender, specified age
groups, departments (if you are recruiting from an organization) and/or levels of
organizational leadership.
Quota Sampling
Quota sampling is another type of purposeful sampling. This is a non-probability sam-

pling technique where the sample of individuals obtained matches the proportions
of individuals for the entire population of interest (Moser & Stuart, 1953). This
is so that the total sample will have the same distribution of characteristics as the
wider population (Davis, 2005; Taherdoost, 2016). Furthermore, quota sampling is
especially important if you have a very specific, targeted group of individuals for
your research study and do not necessarily know their demographic breakdown in
advance (Lamm & Lamm, 2019). It is the sampling procedure that ensures that a
certain characteristic of a population sample will be represented to the exact extent
that the investigator desires. Stratified sampling and quota sampling are similar in
that, in both, population is divided into categories/strata and subjects are selected
from each category. The purpose is to select a representative sample and/or to
allow subgroup analyses (Acharya et al., 2013).
However, there are certain differences between stratification and quota sampling.
In the former, the selection of subjects is by simple random sampling once the
categories have been created. The basic idea of quota sampling is to set a target
number of completed interviews with specific subgroups of the population of
interest. Ideally, the target size of the subgroups is based on known information
about the target population (such as census data). “A sampling frame is required for
stratified sampling but not for quota sampling. More importantly, stratified sam-
pling” (Daniel, 2012, p. 141) uses probability sampling, thus permitting an estima-
tion of sampling error, which is not possible with quota samples (Acharya et al.,
2013; “Non-probability Sampling,” n.d.).
Often, quota sampling is comparable to stratified sampling. The fundamental
difference between quota sampling and probability sampling lies in the last stage. If
the participants in quota sampling are assigned equal probability of being included
in the sample, then quota sampling will be equivalent to stratified sampling, which
is a probability sampling method, and the results of both methods should be the
same or very close (Yang & Banamah, 2014). Nevertheless, because the method
for choosing the participants in quota sampling is left to the discretion of the
interviewers, the samples drawn with the two methods agree only in the quota
controls and may vary in other characteristics. In the practice of quota sampling,
the entire population is divided into relevant strata, such as gender, age, class, etc.
These strata are called “quota controls,” and they are chosen according to their
relevancy to the topic of interest. One of the “well-known users of quota sampling
including many well-established polling agencies such as Gallop in the USA and
Mori in the UK would argue that these characteristics –and therefore the potential
biases –are irrelevant to the topic of concern and that the efficiency and low cost
of quota sampling will outweigh the potential bias” (Yang & Banamah, 2014, p. 6).
Snowball Sampling
In this sampling procedure, the initial respondents are chosen by probability or

non-probability methods, then additional respondents are obtained by information
provided by the initial respondents (Acharya et al., 2013). Snowball sampling is a

variation of the convenience sampling method. The snowball sampling method,
which is also known as the “chain method,” is an efficient and cost effective way of
accessing people who would otherwise be very difficult to find. Snowball sampling is
a nonrandom sampling method that uses a few cases to help encourage other cases
to take part in the study, thereby increasing sample size (Naderifar et al., 2017).
This approach is most applicable in small populations that are difficult to
access due to their closed nature, e.g., secret societies and inaccessible professions
(Breweton & Millward, 2001; Taherdoost, 2016). One clear advantage of snowball
sampling is that the method is applied when it is difficult to access subjects with the
target characteristics. In this non-probability method, the existing study subjects
recruit future subjects among their acquaintances. Sampling continues until data
saturation. Also in this method, the researcher asks the first few samples, who are
usually selected via convenience sampling, if they know anyone with similar views
or situations to take part in the research (Naderifar et al., 2017). The snowball
method not only takes little time but also provides the researcher with the oppor-
tunity to communicate better with the participants, as they are acquaintances of
the first participant or group of participants, and the first sample is linked to the
researcher. One of the greatest advantages of the snowball method is that this type
of networking is particularly useful for finding people who are unwilling to reveal
their identities (e.g., people who are addicted to illegal substances) (Naderifar et al.,
2017). A summary of non-probability sampling designs is illustrated in Table 16.2.
Theoretical Sampling
Theoretical sampling is defined as a sampling strategy “that involves the purposive

sampling of further data while a theoretical framework is still under construction.”
Furthermore, “to gain a deeper understanding of the constructs involved, the
researcher samples new research sites, cases, incidents, time periods, or data sources
to compare with those that have already been studied. In this way, they seek to build
a theory from the emerging data while continuing to select new samples to examine
and elaborate on the theory” (American Psychological Association, n.d.). Another
definition of theoretical sampling is analysis-driven purposeful sampling or analysis-
governed purposeful sampling. In some situations, the practice of purposeful sampling
could be confused with theoretical sampling. These two sampling techniques cer-
tainly resemble each other insofar as both involve a more clearly defined purpose
than that involved in selecting a convenience sample. In purposeful sampling, how-
ever, the sampling criteria are developed in advance of the study, and the sample
does not change throughout the study (Koerber & McMichael, 2008).
In the practice of theoretical sampling, by contrast, the criteria for sampling
emerge along with the study itself. Furthermore, theoretical sampling differs from
purposeful sampling in that theoretical sampling is a basic tenet of grounded theory
and thus should always be understood in that context (Koerber & McMichael, 2008;
Robbins, 2017). An important note about the pitfall of theoretical sampling would
be a researcher using this technique without having an adequate understanding of
Table 16.2 Non-probability sampling research designs
258
Sampling Design Characteristics Pros Cons
Understanding Populations and Sampling

Convenience This is the most commonly used sampling It is the most commonly used, less The foremost con is that variability and
sampling method. The sample is chosen on expensive, and there is no need bias cannot be measured or controlled.
the basis of the convenience of the for a list of all the population Secondly, results from the data cannot
investigator. Often the respondents are elements. be generalized beyond the sample.
selected because they are in the right
place at the right time. Convenience
sampling is most commonly used in
clinical research, where patients who
meet the inclusion criteria are recruited
in the study.
Purposive sampling Uses sampling techniques that rely on Purposive sampling can help Purposive sampling can be prone
the researcher’s judgment for selecting researchers justify selections to researcher bias, particularly if
persons. These techniques include based on analytical, logical or rules or criteria for judgment are
maximum variation sampling, expert theoretical grounds. Purposive poorly documented or explained.
sampling and typical case sampling. sampling can be useful in In addition, purposive sampling
There are two types of purposive qualitative research that has can make it difficult to defend the
sampling: (a) judgment sampling; and multiple phases and/or aims. representativeness of the population.
(b) quota sampling.
Quota sampling Based on identifying strata with shared or Quota sampling is quicker and As random sampling is not used,
unique characteristics of the population easier to conduct than stratified sampling error cannot be calculated.
and selecting persons proportionate to sampling because random Further, sampling bias is a possibility.
the population. sampling is not used. Quota Finally, it can be difficult to draw
sampling makes it easier to conclusions about the population.
explore distinctions in subgroups.
Snowball sampling Strategy in which existing participants Very useful strategy when persons As random selection is not used,
recruit future participants from others in the population are difficult to sampling error cannot be calculated
they know. Strategy is often used for identify and hard to recruit. and the degree of confidence in the
hard-to-recruit populations. interpretation cannot be determined.
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Theoretical The researcher samples to generate theory. The first advantage is the The first disadvantage is that the
sampling Developed by Glaser and Strauss and the possibility to strengthen the application of the theoretical sampling
foundation of grounded theory (GT). rigor of the study if the study method may require more resources
attempts to generate a theory in such as time and money compared
the research area. The second to many other sampling methods.
is that the application of the The second is that there are no clear
theoretical sampling method can processes or guidance related to the
provide a certain structure to application of theoretical sampling
data collection and data analysis in practice. Lastly, the method
processes. Lastly, the advantage of theoretical sampling is more
is that this type of sampling complicated than other sampling
usually integrates both inductive methods (Rahman et al., 2022).
and deductive characteristics,
thus increasing the depth of
studies (Dudovskiy, 2008).

Source: Berndt, 2020; Gill, 2020; Acharya et al., 2013; Dudovskiy, 2008.
grounded theory or failing to document the sampling strategy as it unfolds (Koerber

& McMichael, 2008; Somekh & Lewin, 2005).
Determining Sampling Size in Non-probability Research

The task of determining the sample size in a study has been a paradox to novice
researchers. In many situations, novice researchers mix the sampling requirements
for both probability sampling and non-probability sampling. The primary objective
of qualitative sampling is to recruit enough participants and/or observations to
provide enough rich, in- depth data to understand the phenomenon studied.
Qualitative researchers could pre-determine the sample size for their study to sat-
isfy human objects’ review of communities. Generalizability is not important or the
goal in qualitative research. Therefore, sample sizes are much smaller than those
needed in quantitative designs.
Quantitative researchers typically use large samples, determined by a power
analysis, while qualitative samples are smaller in order to examine a phenomenon
in depth. Sample size in qualitative research may refer to the number of persons
but also to the number of interviews and observations conducted, the number of
events sampled or the number of artifacts gathered. Furthermore, sample size must
be sufficient to generate quality data that provides a rich understanding of the
experience. Concerning the issue of data saturation, it is linked to sampling strat-
egies and sample size. In the realm of non-probability research, sufficient samples
are necessary for quality data. Data saturation occurs when no new information is
obtained from interviews and/or observations (Gill, 2020).
An appropriate sample size for a qualitative study is one that adequately answers
the research question. For simple questions or very detailed studies, this might be
in single figures; for complex questions, large samples and a variety of sampling
techniques might be necessary Furthermore, even if everyone could agree on a
magically correct sample size in qualitative research, researchers might not be able
to actually achieve that sample size; time and funding constraints, as well as consid-
erations such as study attrition, affect the sample size in quantitative research just as
they do in qualitative research (Alvi, 2016; Koerber & McMichael, 2008; Yang &
Banamah, 2014; Naderifar et al., 2017).
Summary
Researchers must understand the process of sampling. Sampling is an art form
in the realm of research in the social sciences. The craft of sampling has many
aspects. With sampling in both quantitative and qualitative research, there are
vast differences between the two research methods. It is vital that the researcher
understands the differences behind the rationale and foundation concerning
different types of sampling methods. This chapter attempts to explain and address
this practice of sampling and determining sample size.
First, this chapter discussed population, sampling and definitions. Second, the
chapter also discussed the reasons for sampling. Third, the chapter discussed the
sampling process. Fourth, the chapter discussed the different types of sampling.
Fifth, the chapter discussed probability sampling and non-probability sampling.
Sixth, the chapter discussed different sampling designs and how to determine
sampling size. And lastly, the chapter discussed sampling methods in quantitative
research and sampling methods in qualitative research. This chapter primarily
discussed the characteristics of sampling for a research study.
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17 Planning and Implementing
the Data Analysis Process
Objectives
1. Determine the appropriate data analysis strategy
2. Analyze data
3. Write data analysis process
Introduction
Data analysis can be a challenging task of many proportions. To take collected data
and analyze it can be a daunting process. There are many steps in the process of
measuring and analyzing data. The practice of data analysis involves the prepar-
ation of the data, its analysis, the reporting of the results, and a discussion of the
findings.
The first step is to prepare the data for analysis. This involves determining the
optimal data analysis technique that aligns with the research methodology and the
research design. The second step begins the actual data analysis. The third step is
to report the results of the data analysis, which is expressed using tables, figures
and other graphics. The fourth step is reviewing the key results. The researcher
attempts to interpret the results from the key results and discuss the findings. This
step consists of summarizing the findings, comparing the findings with past litera-
ture and theories and advancing the limitations of the study. Then the research
ends with some suggestions for future research.
By the end of this chapter, the reader should be able to: (a) understand
and identify the steps in the process of analyzing and interpreting data;
(b) understand and describe the process of preparing their data for data analysis;
(c) understand and identify the process and procedures involved in analyzing data;
(d) understand and learn how to describe and report the results of the data analysis;
and, lastly, (e) understand and learn how to interpret the results and write up the
findings from the data analysis.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003268154-17
266 Planning and Implementing the Data Analysis Process
Quantitative Data Analysis

The use of quantitative data to conduct research is usually the primary choice
among researchers. When researchers use quantitative research, the major focus is
to understand a problem and use a measurement with numbers to further under-
stand it. The focus of quantitative research is to make sense of a problem through
measurement and numbers. To the quantitative researcher, the numbers represent
some hint of what the problem is. In the realm of social science research, the quan-
titative researcher takes social data and converts it to numerical form for statistical
analyses. When using this approach, the researcher can interpret and summarize
these numbers by utilizing statistical analyses to measure the phenomena. When
analyzing quantitative data, there are a number of variations of data types for
options with statistical tests. Each has its own unique focus and use in statistical ana-
lyses. Quantitative analysis may be descriptive or explanatory; it can involve several
variables. Consequently, with quantitative data analyses, the focus is on manipu-
lating data to attain conclusions.
Determining an Appropriate Data Analysis Technique in

Quantitative Research
The task of choosing the appropriate data analysis technique should not be a
challenge for the quantitative researcher. Often, determining the statistical test
is based on the research methodology and research design. This is where the
researcher wants to start first. It would be quite helpful if the reader is well versed
in statistics and familiar with various statistical tests. This would be very advisable
because if the reader is not, then there will be repercussions and questions about
the validity and reliability of their statistical test results (see Figure 17.1).
Once the researcher goes through this process, they can determine the appro-
priate data analysis for the study. This allows the researcher to think logically about
how to conduct the data analysis. Given that there are so many statistical tests and
techniques, this is quite helpful. Each statistical test is suitable for a different pur-
pose and can answer different questions based on a particular set of data.
Once the researcher has determined the appropriate data analysis process, they
must go through the data preparation process. After the data has been collected
Figure 17.1 Determining the appropriate data analysis process.

Planning and Implementing the Data Analysis Process 267
Figure 17.2 Flow diagram of the data preparation process.
from the surveys or questionnaires, it needs to be cleaned up. When editing the
data, there will be incomplete surveys with blank responses. The researcher must
decide whether to discard the incomplete surveys or recode the blank responses
with selected code. The next step with the data is to put the data file into a statistical
software program. After this, the researcher will analyze the data with the
software program. Figure 17.2 illustrates the stages of data preparation, which are
discussed below.
Cleaning the Data
First, the data must be cleaned. This is especially the case when the data includes
surveys or questionnaires with missing responses. Participants sometimes skip
questions or just quit completing questions on surveys. The research must be either
discarded or coded with a variable, which we will discuss further. Failure to do this
will result in bad data and will also later result in bad statistical analysis of the data.
It is recommended that such data cleaning should be done preferably on the same
day the data is collected in case any further information is needed.
When the researcher detects missing values in the data, there are two rem-
edies: (a) delete the missing values; or (b) substitute a missing value.
Treatment of Missing Responses
Most importantly, the missing responses in a survey instrument represent values of a

variable that are unknown either because respondents provided ambiguous answers
or they skipped or refused to answer the questions. Missing responses cause numerous
problems in the data analysis, so the researcher can delete the responses and keep
the data clean. Missing responses pose problems with the data and particularly if the
proportion of missing responses is more than 10% (Malhotra & Birks, 2007).
Substitute a Neutral Value
Another option when the researcher detects missing values in the data is to sub-
stitute a neutral value. The researcher will code the missing values as a neutral
value. A neutral value, typically the mean response to the variable, is substituted
for the missing responses. If the variable response is a five-point Likert scale, then
the researcher will code it a “3,” a middle variable, or a “4” with a seven-point
Likert scale. This causes the mean of the variable to remain unchanged, and other
statistics such as correlations are not affected much. The logic of substituting a
mean value (say 4) for respondents who, if they had answered, might have used
either high ratings (6 or 7) or low ratings (1 or 2) is questionable.
Coding and Categorizing the Data
The next step is to code the data from the survey responses. When coding the
data, the researcher should use a codebook. A codebook is defined as a book that
contains instructions and the necessary information about the questions and poten-
tial answers in an instrument or survey. The researcher codes each question and
the variable responses. The purpose of the codebook is to guide the coders in their
work and help the researcher identify and align the questions in the instrument
properly. A codebook contains the following information: (1) column number;
(2) record number; (3) variable number; (4) variable name; (5) question number;
and (6) instructions for coding (Malhotra & Birks, 2007; Malhotra, 2015).
Coding can be done using the instrument that was used for collecting the data for
the study. Many times, the instrument has different categories, which help manage
the coding for the variables in the data. This will be easier for input into statistical
software. It is recommended that the researcher use individual coding sheets for
each of the categories in the instrument. It is advisable to use a coding sheet first to
transcribe the data from the questionnaire and then key in the data.
When having to code a Likert scale, the researcher should code the response prop-
erly. With a 7-point Likert scale, the highest response in the scale (“Highly Likely”)
should be coded a 7, denoting the highest agreement. The lowest response on the
scale ( “Highly Unlikely”) should be coded a 1, denoting the lowest agreement.
An advantage of coding the data in this way is that it also makes it possible to cal-
culate cumulative scores in the instrument. There are many other advantages of
coding the data responses using this method (Sekaran, 2006; Malhotra & Birks,
2007; Malhotra, 2015).
Transcribing the Data and Creating a Data File
Next in the process is to transcribe the data and create a data file. Transcribing
is defined as keying the coded data from the collected questionnaires into
computer software or from coding sheets onto disks or directly into computers
by keypunching and developing a data file. However, if the data was collected
through the Internet, CATI or CAPI, then this step is unnecessary because the
data are entered directly into the computer as they are collected (Malhotra &
Birks, 2007; Malhotra, 2015).
Developing a Transcribed Data File

After transcribing the data, the researcher then inputs the data into a statistics soft-
ware program. My preference for statistics software is SPSS. So, we will use the
SPSS software to illustrate and discuss data transcription. However, there are other
compatible statistical software packages. The questionnaire data can be directly
entered into the computer as a data file; the raw data will have to be manually
keyed into the SPSS software on the computer. For example, the SPSS Data Editor,
which looks like a spreadsheet, can be used to enter, edit and view the contents of
the data file. The raw data will be entered through the SPSS software program.
For example, each column represents a variable, and each row represents a partici-
pant case.
The researcher will want to use Microsoft Excel and SPSS to manage the data
set. Transcribed data can be entered into a spreadsheet program such as Excel.
Many of the statistics analysis programs will allow the researcher to import data
from a spreadsheet. As illustrated in Figure 17.3, the data for each respondent for
each field is a cell. Now, each row of the spreadsheet contains the data of one
respondent or case (Malhotra & Birks, 2007; Malhotra, 2015).
As illustrated in Figure 17.3, “Variable View” shows 47 items from the survey
instruments for the study. The columns contain the variables, with one column
for each variable or response. This table gives the data from a pre-test sample of
20 respondents on their preferences for department stores. Each respondent was
asked to rate their preference when answering the survey instrument questions
(1 =Strongly Disagree, 7 =Strongly Agree).
In SPSS, the researcher has the ability to add, change or delete values easily
after the data have been entered. It is also easy to compute the new variables that
have been categorized earlier using the “Compute” dialog box, which opens when
the “Transform” icon is chosen. In SPSS, the researcher should start in “Variable
View” to input and code the data in the file. Lastly, the researcher should go to
“Data View” to see the variables in the dataset (see Figure 17.3). Once the missing
values, the recodes and the coding of the new variables are addressed, the data is
ready for analysis (Malhotra & Birks, 2007; Malhotra, 2015).
After this, the researcher wants to make sure the data is okay and aligned with
the survey instrument. This is really important. The researcher wants to view the
data as a way to come up with an idea for the selection of a data analysis strategy.
This will allow the researcher to get an idea of which approach to take with the
data analysis. The preliminary plan for the preparation of data analysis is to con-
duct a rigorous analysis. As part of the research design, the data analysis should be
used as a foundation for the analysis. The next step is to create the data file.
Figure 17.3 SPSS variable view of the data file.
Using the Software to Analyze the Data File
The next step in the process is to conduct the statistical tests, choosing the soft-
ware for analyzing the data or the data file. Logically, the research design will
favor certain statistical techniques. For example, a correlational research design is
well suited to analyzing relationships with variables, which favors using a Pearson
correlation statistical test. The task of conducting the data analysis from the data
preparation is an important step in the research process. This can be valuable
for selecting the appropriate statistical design. The purpose of data analysis is to
produce information that will address the research problem, and the plan of data
analysis is to properly extract information from the data to tell the story of the data
(see Figure 17.4).
Figure 17.4 Selecting the statistical data analysis strategy process.
Choosing a Data Analytic Approach
The next step is to select a data analytic approach and strategy. The data ana-
lysis strategy is based on the establishment of the research design. As presented
in Chapter 12, choosing an analytic approach is based on the five quantitative
research designs: (a) descriptive design; (b) correlational design; (c) causal-comparative design;
(d) experimental design; and (e) quasi-experimental design. The types of analytic approach
can be properly performed depending on the research design chosen for the study.
Consequently, it is imperative that the techniques of analysis be selected prior to
data collection (Smith & Albaum, 2010).
Descriptive Design
This research design is defined as research that encompasses a variety of method-

ologies that are best suited to examining and trying to make sense of a situation.
The objective of descriptive design research is to describe the characteristics of the
domain or state of affairs as it exists at present. A quantitative descriptive study
involves measuring one or more variables in some way. For a statistical test, a fre-
quency and crosstab analysis of the variables with the variables in the data are pri-
marily used (Saunders et al., 2012; McNiff & Whitehead, 2010; Leedy et al., 2019).
Correlational Design
This research design is defined as a statistical investigation of the relationship
between two or more variables. The objective of correlational research is to seek
and determine relationships between two or more variables without necessarily
inferring causality. For a statistical test, a Pearson’s correlation is primarily used for
the data analysis (Kothari, 2004; Swanson & Holton, 2005; Jackson, 2009).
Causal-Comparative Design
This research design is defined as a statistical investigation that attempts to deter-

mine a cause-and-effect relationship between variables. The objective of causal-
comparative design research is to determine a predictive relationship between
variables inferring causality. This, in essence, means the influence of the inde-
pendent variable on the dependent variable. For a statistical test, a linear or logis-
tical regression with the data is primarily used (Kothari, 2004; Swanson & Holton,
2005; Miles & Scott, 2017; Leedy et al., 2019).
Experimental Design
This research design is defined as a statistical investigation in which participants are

randomly assigned to groups that undergo various researcher-imposed treatments
or interventions, followed by systematic assessments of the treatments’ effects. The
objective of experimental design research is to investigate causal links and whether
a change in one independent variable produces a change in another dependent
variable. For a statistical test, a t-test, an ANOVA or a time series analysis is pri-
marily used with the data (Kothari, 2004; Saunders et al, 2012; Leedy et al., 2019;
Swanson & Holton, 2005).
Quasi-Experimental Design
This research design is defined as a statistical investigation in which an inde-

pendent variable is manipulated in order to determine its possible effect on another
(dependent) variable, but without total control of additional variables that might
have an impact on the dependent variable. The objective of the quasi-experimental
design is to conduct the study without the restrictions of using randomness. This is
to minimize the restrictions of randomness of the experimental design. The focus is
on the selection of group members in a multiple-group study or the presentation of
various treatments in a single-group study. For a statistical test, a t-test or ANOVA
is primarily used with the data (Saunders et al., 2012; Jackson, 2009; Swanson &
Holton, 2005).
Choose Your Statistical Analyses Design
The next step in the process is to choose your statistical analyses design strategy.
The data analysis strategy is based on the establishment of the research design.
There are generally two statistical analysis designs used: (a) descriptive analysis; and
(b) inferential analysis. These types of statistical analysis can be properly performed
and are based on the research design chosen for the study (Burns & Bush, 2003)
(see Figure 17.5).
Statistics have two principal functions: (a) descriptive; and (b) inferential. First,
the purpose of descriptive statistics is to describe what the data look like, where
their center or midpoint is, how broadly they are spread, how closely two or more
Figure 17.5 T he statistical analysis design plan.
variables within the data are intercorrelated and the like. Second, the function of
inferential statistics is to draw inferences about large populations by collecting data
on relatively small samples. Correspondingly, inferential statistics involve using one
or more small samples and then estimating the characteristics of the population
(Leedy & Ormrod, 2001).
Descriptive Statistics
This statistical analysis design is used to describe the variables (question responses)
in the data. Certain measures, such as the central tendency of the mean, mode,
standard deviation and range, are forms of descriptive analysis. It is used to describe
the sample data in such a way as to portray the “typical’ respondent and reveal
a general pattern of responses. Descriptive statistics utilizes parametric statistical
tests such as percentages, mode, percentile and median. A frequency analysis and
crosstab analysis are typically used with a statistical descriptive analysis (Burns &
Bush, 2003).
Measures of Central Tendency
With descriptive statistics, there are three components of central tendency: the
mode, the median and the mean. A point of central tendency is a point around which
the data revolve, a middle number around which the data regarding a particular
variable seem to hover. Statistics related to central tendency and variability help us
summarize our data (Leedy & Ormand, 2001; Swanson & Holton, 2005).
The mode is the single number or score that occurs most frequently. As a measure
of central tendency, the mode is of limited value, in part because it doesn’t always
appear near the middle of the distribution and in part because it isn’t very stable
from sample to sample (Burns & Bush, 2003). The median is the numerical center
of a set of data; it is the measure of central tendency based on the exact midpoint
of a distribution of data points related to a particular variable. The median is the

number in the very middle of the scores, with exactly as many scores above it as
below it (Swanson & Holton, 2005). Lastly, the mean is the arithmetic average of the
scores within the data set. To find it, you must calculate the sum of all the scores
(adding each score every time it occurs) and then divide by the total number of
scores (Burns & Bush, 2003; Swanson & Holton, 2005).
Measures of Variability
The measures of variability are defined as an indication of the dispersion of a

distribution. With descriptive statistics, there are four components of the measure
of variability: interval or ratio data, range, variance and standard deviation
(Byrne, 2002). The range measures the spread of the data, as it is simply the diffe-
rence between the largest and smallest values in the sample. The variance is the
mean squared deviation from the mean –that is, the average of the square of the
deviations from the mean for all the values. The standard deviation is the square root
of the variance. Thus, the standard deviation is expressed in the same units as the
data, whereas the variance is expressed in squared units (Byrne, 2002; Kerlinger &
Lee, 2007).
Primary Scales of Measurement
The primary scales of measurement are defined in the same way as variables are
defined and categorized. With descriptive statistics, there are four components
of the primary scales of measurement: (a) The nominal scale is a figurative label-
ling scheme in which the numbers serve only as labels or tags for identifying and
classifying objects; (b) the ordinal scale is a ranking scale in which numbers are
assigned to objects to indicate the relative extent to which the objects possess
some characteristic; (c) the interval scale has numerically equal distances that
represent equal values in the characteristic being measured; an interval scale
contains all the information of an ordinal scale, but it also allows you to compare
the differences between objects; and (d) the ratio scale, which allows the researcher
to identify or classify objects, rank and order the objects and compare intervals
or differences; it possesses all the properties of the nominal, ordinal and interval
scales and, in addition, an absolute zero point (Burns & Bush, 2003; Kerlinger
& Lee, 2007).
Inferential Statistics
Inferential statistics is a statistical analysis design that is used to generate conclusions

about the population’s characteristics based on the sample data. More particularly,
inferential statistics have two main functions: (a) to estimate a population parameter
from a random sample; and (b) to test statistically based hypotheses (Byrne, 2002).
You could say that inferential statistics measure things that cannot be measured
by descriptive statistics. This is a statistical procedure that is used by researchers to
generalize the results of the sample to the population that it represents. Inferential
statistics includes hypothesis testing and estimating the true population (Leedy &
Ormrod, 2001; Kerlinger & Lee, 2007).
Many inferential statistical tests, especially those that allow a researcher to make
comparisons among two or more groups; are based on the assumption that group
membership is randomly determined and any pre-treatment differences between
the groups result from chance alone (Malhotra, 2015). Inferential statistics utilizes
parametric statistical tests such as the t-test, ANOVA, regression and factor analysis.
Inferential statistics also provide a way of helping us make reasonable guesses about
a large, unknown population by examining a small sample that is known (Kerlinger
& Lee, 2007; Malhotra, 2015).
Selecting the Appropriate Statistical Test
There are two main things that statistical tests do: (1) investigate differences
between groups; and (2) explore relationships between variables (known as an asso-
ciation or a correlation). There is also the issue of whether the same subjects are
being measured several times or whether different subjects are being measured.
Nevertheless, there are two main kinds of test, known as parametric and non-
parametric (Shah & Peters, 2022) (see Figure 17.6).
Parametric Test
The parametric statistical test is based on hypothesis testing procedures that assume
that the variables of interest are measured on at least an interval scale. Parametric
tests typically provide inferences for making statements about the means of parent
populations. Parametric tests use a mean compared to nonparametric tests that use
an average in calculating the properties of the data.
Parametric analysis is the process of making inferences from the sample to
the population’s parameters. For example, for normally distributed variables,
Figure 17.6 T he statistical analysis design model.

the researcher assumes the normality and homogeneity of variances in the data.
When a variable to be analyzed conforms to the assumptions of a given distribu-
tion, the distribution of the variable can be expressed in terms of its parameters
(µ and ı). There are many parametric tests for both univariate and multivariate
statistics. For univariate statistics, these include one group (t-test, z-test); two
groups: (t-test; z-test); and paired samples (paired t-test) (Sheskin, 2000; Malhotra
& Birks, 2007; Smith & Albaum, 2010; Corder & Foreman, 2014; Malhotra,
2015; Malhotra et al., 2017).
Concerning the issue of normality with parametric testing, the normality of
variables is assessed by either statistical or graphical methods. There are two
components of normality: skewness and kurtosis. Skewness has to do with the sym-
metry of the distribution; a skewed variable is a variable whose mean is not in the
center of the distribution, while kurtosis has to do with the peakedness of a distribu-
tion. Furthermore, a distribution is either too peaked (with short, thick tails) or too
flat (with long, thin tails) (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007) (see Figure 17.7)
Nonparametric Test
Nonparametric tests are a distribution-free method in which inferences are based

on a test statistic whose sampling distribution does not depend upon the specific
distribution of the population from which the sample is drawn (Smith & Albaum,
2010). The variables are measured on a nominal or ordinal scale. Nonparametric
tests use an average compared to parametric tests that use a mean in calculating the
properties of the data. As a general rule, nonparametric tests are not as powerful
as their parametric counterparts (Sheskin, 2000). However, parametric methods
make inferences about the parameters of the population (µ and s), while non-
parametric methods may be used to compare entire distributions that are based on
nominal data.
There are other nonparametric methods that use an ordinal measurement
scale test for the ordering of observations in the data set (Malhotra & Birks, 2007).
Nonparametric tests based on observations are drawn from one sample. Some
nonparametric tests include: one sample (Chi-square; K-S, Runs, Binomial); inde-
pendent samples (Chi-square, Mann–Whitney, Median, K-S); and paired samples (Sign,
Wilcoxon, McNemar, Chi-square) (Sheskin, 2000). For example, the Kruskal–Wallis
one-way analysis of variance is the nonparametric test used when the dependent
variable is on an ordinal scale and the independent variable is on a nominal scale.
Three regularly used tests are the Wilcoxon Rank Sum (T), the Mann-Whitney U
and the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test (Smith & Albaum, 2010). Notably, when the
population distribution is normal, the asymptotic relative efficiency of most non-
parametric tests will be less than 1. However, when the underlying population is not
normal, it is not uncommon for a nonparametric test to have an asymptotic relative
efficiency greater than one (Sheskin, 2000).
Nonparametric tests are also available for evaluating hypotheses relating to more
than two samples. Many researchers use nonparametric tests with large samples,
but this is not advisable. The result of this will be a false coefficient based on the
Figure 17.7 Normal, skewness and kurtosis distributions.

Source: Adapted from Tabachnick and Fidell (2007) and created using ChatGPT (OpenAI,
2023).
analysis of the data. Nonparametric tests should be used for small samples and
to determine the normal distribution of the data. Parametric tests are far more
appropriate for larger data sets (Malhotra & Birks, 2007; Smith & Albaum, 2010;
Malhotra, 2015; Malhotra et al., 2017) (see Figure 17.7).
When do you use nonparametric statistics? The researcher must use non-
parametric statistics when many of the parametric tests in traditional, introduc-
tory statistics do not follow certain assumptions. Furthermore, a nonparametric
test does not depend on the assumption of normality of the population in
the data. It depends on assumptions as to the form of the sample population
parameters (Kerlinger & Lee, 2007). And notably, the parametric test does not
violate the following assumptions: (a) the samples are randomly drawn from a nor-
mally distributed population; (b) the samples consist of independent observations,
except for paired values; (c) the samples consist of values on an interval or ratio
measurement scale; (d) the samples have respective populations of approxi-
mately equal variances; (e) the samples are adequately large; and (f) the samples
approximately resemble a normal distribution (Corder & Foreman, 2014) (see
Figure 17.7).
Conducting the Data Analysis
In order to conduct the data analysis, the researcher must use statistical software
such as Excel or SPSS, which is often used to run statistical tests. The output from
these tests requires interpretation. For example, the output from SPSS for a Chi-
squared test shows whether there is an association between a cause of rioting and
the police force using violence. The number to interpret is the asymptotic signifi-
cance (2-sided) of the Pearson Chi-Square row (0.172). However, the Exact Sig.
(2-sided) of the Fisher’s exact test (0.214) can also be interpreted. As both these
values are above the 0.05 threshold, we would conclude that there is insufficient
evidence of an association (Shah & Peters, 2022).
Classification of Statistical Techniques
Univariate Statistical Techniques
The next step in the process is to choose your statistical techniques. There are
two types, which can be classified as univariate or multivariate. Univariate techniques
are appropriate when there is a single measurement of each element in the
sample or when there are several measurements of each element, but each variable
is analyzed in isolation (Malhotra & Birks, 2007; Smith & Albaum, 2010).
Multivariate techniques are a statistical technique that is appropriate for analyzing
data when there are two or more measurements on each element and the variables
are analyzed simultaneously. Multivariate techniques are concerned with the simul-
taneous relationships among two or more phenomena (Anderson, 2003; Malhotra
& Birks, 2007). For the purposes of this discussion, I will not use any nonparametric
techniques; I will only discuss parametric statistical techniques. There are five basic
Figure 17.8 Univariate statistical techniques model.
statistical techniques: (a) t-test; (b) z-test; (c) two-sample t-test; (d) one-way ANOVA; and
(e) paired t-test (see Figure 17.8).
T-TEST
A comparison of groups within the data. For example, if a sample of students takes
a 10-point quiz and we wish to see whether women or men scored higher on the
quiz, a t-test would be appropriate (Miles, 2013c).
Z-TEST
A z-test is a statistical test used to determine whether two population means are
different when the variances are known and the sample size is large. The z-test is
best used for greater-than-30 samples because, under the central limit theorem, as
the number of samples gets larger, the samples are considered to be approximately
normally distributed (Chen, 2021).
TWO-SAMPLE T-TEST
The two-sample t-test (also known as the independent samples t-test) is a method
used to test whether the unknown population means of two groups are equal or
not. It is used when your data values are independent and randomly sampled from
two normal populations and the two independent groups have equal variances
(Two-Sample t-Test, n.d.).
ONE-WAY ANOVA
The one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) is used to determine whether there are
any statistically significant differences between the means of three or more inde-
pendent (unrelated) groups (Laerd Statistics, 2018).
PAIRED T-TEST
A paired t-test determines whether the mean change for these pairs is signifi-
cantly different from zero. This test is an inferential statistics procedure because
it uses samples to draw conclusions about populations. Common applications of
the paired sample t-test include case-control studies or repeated-measures designs.
An example of a common use of the paired t-test is a comparison of before and
after situations. This would be like before and after a test or completing a training
program (Frost, 2021b).
Bivariate Statistical Techniques
Bivariate analysis is defined as aiming to understand the relationship between two

variables: x and y. Think of bivariate statistics as measures of relationship. When the
two variables are measured on the same object, x is usually identified as the inde-
pendent variable, whereas y is the dependent variable. Bivariate statistics is appro-
priate if the researcher wants to understand the relationship between two variables
in the data to one another.
Conversely, if both variables were generated in an experiment, the variable
manipulated by the experimenter is described as the independent variable. With
bivariate analysis, the methods of statistics help describe the strength of the rela-
tionship between the two variables, either by a single parameter such as Pearson’s
correlation coefficient for linear relationships or by an equation obtained by regres-
sion analysis (Trauth, 2007). For every measurement of a variable, X, we have a
corresponding value of a second variable, Y, and the resulting pairs of values are
called a bivariate population. Also, we may have a corresponding value of the third
variable, Z, or the fourth variable, W, and so on, and the resulting pairs of values are
called a multivariate population (Kothari, 2004). There are three basic parametric stat-
istical techniques: (a) Pearson Correlation; (b) Simple Linear Regression, and (c) Scatterplot
Diagram (see Figure 17.9).
PEARSON CORRELATION
The most widely used statistic for determining correlation is the Pearson product
moment correlation, which is sometimes called the Pearson r. This statistic, which
is the square of the Pearson r, tells us how much of the variance is accounted for
by the correlation. The Pearson correlation is a bivariate statistical test that is a
measure of the strength of the linear relationship between two variables. Pearson’s
r ranges between –1 and +1, and the further away it is from 0, the stronger the
relationship between the two variables. SPSS uses asterisks to show the strength of
the relationship. Statistically significant relationships are marked with two asterisks.
The researcher must keep in mind, however, that an independent variable’s
accuracy in predicting a correlated dependent variable does not necessarily indi-
cate a cause-and-effect relationship. Thus, correlation does not mean causation
(Leedy & Ormrod, 2001; Miles, 2013b).
Figure 17.9 Bivariate statistical techniques model.
SIMPLE LINEAR REGRESSION
A simple linear regression is a bivariate statistical test that involves measuring the
influence of a single independent (predictor) variable on the single dependent
(criterion) variable. A simple linear regression generates an equation in which a
single independent variable yields predictions for the dependent variable. A simple
linear regression is used to predict the influence of the independent variable on
the dependent variable. A simple linear regression approach is often chosen when
the researcher wishes to control for the influence of other independent variables.
It is especially useful when a relation between an observed dependent variable
and a given observed independent variable is of interest (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001;
Swanson & Holton, 2005; Trauth, 2007).
Regression analysis can perform simple, polynomial and multiple analysis. The
output includes a linear regression equation, a table of coefficients, R2, R2 adjusted,
an analysis of variance table and a table of fits and residuals that provide unusual
observations (Smith & Albaum, 2010). In terms of the linearity test, when we do
a linear regression, we assume that the relationship between the response variable
and the predictors is linear. This is the assumption of linearity. If this assumption is
violated, the linear regression will try to fit a straight line to data that does not follow
a straight line. In SPSS, the regression output shows the model summary, which
provides the value of R (Multiple Correlation), R2 (Coefficient of Determination)
and Adjusted R2 (R2 adjusted with Degrees of Freedom) (Sreejesh et al., 2014).
SCATTERPLOT
A scatterplot is used to explore the relationship between two quantitative (interval

or ratio) variables. The horizontal axis (X) represents the values of one variable and
the vertical axis (Y) represents the values of the other variable. This is simply a plot
of the points (Xi, Yi) in the plane. A key feature of the scatterplot is the association,
or trend, between X and Y (Miles, 2013b). The researcher uses scatterplots to show
relationships between pairs of continuous variables. These graphs display symbols
at the X, Y coordinates of the data points for the paired variables. Scatterplots
are also known as scattergrams and scatter charts. The pattern of dots on a scatterplot
allows the researcher to determine whether a relationship or correlation exists
between two continuous variables. If a relationship exists, the scatterplot indicates
its direction and whether it is a linear or curved relationship (Frost, 2021a).
Multivariate Statistical Techniques
Now, we will briefly describe the different types of multivariate techniques and
the most commonly used for dissertation studies, such as the multivariate analysis
of variance (MANOVA), discriminant analysis and canonical correlations. We will
also describe, in brief, some of the other multivariate techniques, such as factor
analysis, cluster analysis and structural equation modeling. Again, for the purposes
of this discussion, I will not discuss any nonparametric techniques. I will only dis-
cuss parametric statistical techniques.
Multivariate statistics is defined as methods that examine the simultaneous effect
of multiple variables. Based on the traditional classification of multivariate statistical
methods, it is based on the concept of dependency between variables (Marinković,
2008; Samuels, 2020). An interesting aspect about the multivariate analysis of vari-
ance is that it is an extension of the bivariate analysis of variance. Conversely, multi-
variate analysis is focused on variables to which the ratio of among-groups variance
to within-groups variance is calculated on a set of variables instead of a single
variable (Kothari, 2004). There are nine basic multivariate statistical techniques: (a)
multiple linear regression; (b) logistic regression; (c) MANOVA; (d) MANCOVA; (e) discriminant
analysis; (f) conjoint analysis; (g) cluster analysis; (h) factor analysis; and (i) structural equation
modeling (SEM) (see Figure 17.10).
Multiple Linear Regression
Multiple linear regression identifies the best combinations of predictors (inde-

pendent variables) of the dependent variable. It is used when there are several
independent quantitative variables and one dependent quantitative variable. To
produce the best combination of predictors of the dependent variable, a sequential
multiple regression selects independent variables, one at a time, by their ability to
account for the most variance in the dependent variable (Miles, 2013b).
Logistic Regression
Logistic regression is used to predict a categorical (usually dichotomous) variable

from a set of predictor variables. Logistic regression is often chosen if the predictor
variables are a mix of continuous and categorical variables and/or if they are not
Figure 17.10 Multivariate statistical techniques model.
nicely distributed (logistic regression makes no assumptions about the distributions

of the predictor variables) (Miles, 2013c).
Multiple Analysis of Variance (MANOVA)
The MANOVA tests the significance of group differences between two or more
means, as it analyzes variation between and within each group. The MANOVA
is an extension of the univariate analysis of variance (ANOVA). The MANOVA
is a technique that determines the effects of independent categorical variables on
multiple continuous dependent variables. It is typically used to compare several
groups with respect to multiple continuous variables (Multiple Analysis of Variance
(MANOVA), n.d.; Miles, 2013b; Miles, 2013c).
Multiple Analysis of Covariance (MANCOVA)
MANCOVA is an extension of the ANCOVA. The MANCOVA investigates group

differences among several dependent variables while also controlling for covariate(s)
that may influence the dependent variables. For example, a research question would
look like this, “Does ethnicity (independent variable) significantly affect reading
achievement, math achievement, and overall achievement (dependent variable)
among 6th grade students after adjusting for family income (covariate)?” (Miles,
2013b).
Discriminant Analysis
Discriminant analysis is used when you wish to predict group membership from
a set of two or more continuous variables. The analysis creates a set of discrim-
inant functions (weighted combinations of the predictors) that will enable you to
predict into which group a case falls, based on scores on the predictor variables
(usually continuous, but could include dichotomous variables and dummy coded
categorical predictors). One might also determine how well a function separates
each group from all the rest to help label the function (Miles, 2013b).
Conjoint Analysis
Conjoint analysis is a form of statistical analysis that firms use in market research
to understand how customers value different components or features of a product
or service. It’s based on the principle that any product can be broken down into a
set of attributes that ultimately impact users’ perceived value of an item or service.
Conjoint analysis is typically used with a specialized survey that asks consumers to
rank the importance of the specific features in question (Stobierski, 2020; Miles,
2013b).
Cluster Analysis
Cluster analysis or clustering is the task of grouping a set of objects in such a way
that objects in the same group (called a cluster) are more similar (in some sense or
another) to each other than to those in other groups (clusters) (Miles, 2013b; Miles,
2013c).
Factor Analysis
Factor analysis allows the researcher to explore underlying structures of an

instrument or data set and is often used to develop and test theory. Principal
component analysis is generally used to reduce the number of independent
variables, which is advantageous when conducting multivariate techniques in
which the independent variables are highly correlated (Miles, 2013b; Miles,
2013c). A principal component analysis (PCA) (aka exploratory factor analysis) is used
when the research purpose is data reduction (parsimony) or exploration. PCA
is a variance-focused approach. Variance within the factor PCA is not used in
causal modeling (e.g., not used with structural equation modeling). Factor ana-
lysis is primarily used for exploratory research and data reduction (Miles, 2013b;
Miles, 2013c). A principal axis factoring (PAF) (aka common factor analysis) is used
when the research purpose is theory confirmation and causal modeling. PAF is a
correlation-focused approach and tends to be a shared variance. A type of PAF
is built into structural equation modeling programs (e.g., AMOS and LISREL)
(Miles, 2013b; Miles, 2013c).
Structural Equation Modeling (SEM)
This is a special form of hierarchical multiple regression analysis in which the

researcher specifies a particular causal model in which each variable affects one
or more of the other variables both directly and through its effects upon inter-
vening variables. SEM can include latent variables (factors), constructs that are
not directly measured but rather are inferred from measured variables (indicators).
Confirmatory factor analysis can be considered a special case of SEM. In con-
firmatory factor analysis the focus is on testing an a priori model of the factor
structure of a group of measured variables. It is used with special software such as
AMOS (SPSS), LISREL, SmartPLS, OpenMx, Mplus and others (Miles, 2013b).
Types of Quantitative Data Analysis Used in Dissertation Research
There are different types of data analyses used for different dissertation research.
Again, the data analysis strategy is based on the establishment of the research
design. There are five statistical analysis designs: (a) descriptive analysis; (b) inferential
analysis; (c) differences analysis; (d) associative analysis; and (e) predictive analysis. The types
of statistical analysis can be properly performed and are based on the research
design chosen for the study (Burns & Bush, 2003) (see Figure 17.11).
Descriptive Analysis
This statistical analysis design is used to describe the variable (question responses)
in the data. Certain measures, such as the central tendency of the mean, mode,
standard deviation and range, are forms of descriptive analysis. This is used to
describe the sample data in such a way as to portray the “typical” respondent and
reveal the general pattern of responses. A frequency analysis and crosstab analysis
are typically used with the statistical descriptive analysis (Burns & Bush, 2003).
Figure 17.11 T he statistical analysis design model.

Inferential Analysis
This statistical analysis design is used to generate conclusions about the population’s
characteristics based on the sample data. This is a statistical procedure that is used
by researchers to generalize the results of the sample to the population that it
represents. Inferential analysis includes hypothesis testing and estimating the true
population (Burns & Bush, 2003).
Differences Analysis
This statistical analysis design is used to compare the mean of the responses of
one group to that of another group. This is a statistical procedure that is used by
researchers to determine whether two groups are different. The researcher statistic-
ally compares groups and uses differences analysis to determine the degree to which
real and generalizable differences exist in the population. Statistical differences
analysis includes the independent sample t-test and analysis of variance (ANOVA)
(Burns & Bush, 2003).
Associative Analysis
This statistical analysis design is used to determine the strength and direction of
relationships between two or more variables. This is a statistical procedure that is
used by researchers to look for statistical relationships among variables. This tech-
nique examines if and how two variables are related. This statistical method is also
used by researchers interested in determining complex patterns of association. It is
a test of associations between two dependent variables. A Pearson correlation stat-
istical test is typically used in this analysis (Burns & Bush, 2003).
Predictive Analysis
This statistical analysis design is used to make forecasts about future behavior or
events. It is used by researchers to generalize the results of a sample to the popu-
lation that it represents. A regression analysis or time series analysis is typically
used by researchers to predict behavior in the data. This includes linear regression,
logistic regression and time series analysis (Burns & Bush, 2003).
Reliability in Quantitative Data Analysis
Reliability is defined as the extent to which a measurement reproduces consistent

results if the process of measurement were to be repeated. Approaches to assessing
reliability include test–retest reliability, alternative-forms reliability and internal
consistency reliability. Systematic sources of error do not have an adverse impact
on reliability, because they affect the measurement in a constant way and do not
lead to inconsistency. In contrast, random errors produce inconsistency, leading to
lower reliability. Reliability can be defined as the extent to which measures are free
from random error (Malhotra & Birks, 2007; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007; Malhotra,
2015; Leedy & Ormrod, 2021). To measure reliability with an instrument or scale, a
coefficient alpha, or Cronbach’s alpha, is the average of all possible split-half coefficients
resulting from different ways of measuring the reliability of the scale items. This
coefficient varies from 0 to 1, and a value of 0.6 or less generally indicates unsat-
isfactory internal consistency reliability (Saunders et al., 2012; Malhotra, 2015).
Validity in Quantitative Data Analysis
Validity is defined as the extent to which a measurement represents characteristics

that exist in the phenomenon under investigation. Validity can be assessed by
examining three general types: (a) content validity (sometimes called face validity) is a
subjective but systematic evaluation of how well the content of a scale represents
the measurement task at hand; (b) criterion validity is a type of validity that examines
whether the measurement scale performs as expected in relation to other selected
variables as meaningful criteria; and (c) construct validity is a type of validity that
addresses the question of what construct or characteristic the scale is measuring;
it is an attempt to answer theoretical questions of why a scale works and what
deductions can be made concerning the theory underlying the scale (Burns & Bush,
2003; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007; Saunders et al., 2012; Malhotra, 2015).
Review the Results of the Data Analysis
Results need to be reported on after they are interpreted. This requires quoting
relevant probability values, comparing them with the significance threshold in
order to make a decision about a null hypothesis and referring this decision back
to your research question. It is usually not appropriate to copy and paste software
output into your findings, but this can be provided in an appendix. You may also
need to compare your findings with other people’s findings in the literature and dis-
cuss any differences or implications (Shah & Peters, 2022).
Qualitative Data Analysis

Qualitative analysis is about reviewing words, phrases and statements in a qualita-
tive way and extracting descriptions and/or meanings to help address the research
questions you have. Qualitative analysis can be seen as a systematic process of
summarizing data, reducing it to concepts called codes and themes that can then
be transformed into a model or theory when needed. It is an art, and it takes time
and practice to perfect this art. The researcher analyzing qualitative data is viewed
as an instrument subjectively transforming the data into meaningful outcomes
to meet the purpose of the study. Due to the subjective nature of the data ana-
lysis process, the core strategy for ensuring the credibility of your findings is to
be methodical in the data analysis process and transparent, making known the
actions and decisions you make. Besides being systematic and transparent when
analyzing data, you also engage in bracketing by reflecting on your beliefs, experi-
ence and preconceptions, suspending your judgment and thinking, deciding and
acting based on your role as a qualitative researcher (Larsen & Adu, 2021).
Data Analysis Process
There are many ways of analyzing qualitative data. Before we discuss the most
common types of qualitative analysis, let’s look at a generic way of analyzing quali-
tative data. The point of showing these commonly followed steps is to give you a
foundational knowledge of how qualitative data are generally analyzed. To learn
more about the steps below, see A Step-By-Step Guide to Qualitative Data Coding by
Philip Adu (2019).
• Step 1: Review the transcripts. The first step in conducting qualitative data
is to review the content of the data you will be coding to familiarize yourself
with it. As you go through the data, you will get a general understanding of what
the participants were saying. It is also a great opportunity to write down or docu-
ment what you see in the data and what you think. The former could be helpful
when generating codes/themes, while the latter could assist in making sense of
the codes, themes or findings.
• Step 2: Label the research questions. One of the main reasons why you are
analyzing your data is to address the research questions. To make sure that the
to-be-developed codes and themes adequately address the research questions,
it is important to label the research questions and group the codes and themes
generated under their respective labels.
• Step 3: Determine an appropriate coding strategy. A coding strategy
is a technique used to extract relevant information from the data and trans-
form them into codes and/or themes. There are many coding strategies you can
choose from (see Saldaña, 2021). The two coding strategies that are mostly used
are description-focused and interpretation-focused coding (Adu, 2019). You
use description-focused coding if you plan to generate codes and/or themes
that depict relevant information extracted from the data. In other words, with
description-focused coding, you are telling us what the relevant information are
in the form of phrases, which are then connected to codes or themes. However,
with interpretation-focused coding, you first need to make sense of the rele-
vant information extracted from the data before developing codes or themes.
We normally use this type of coding strategy when the information needed to
address the research questions is hidden in the data (Adu, 2019). To develop
interpretation-focused codes, you first select the relevant information from the
data, understand the excerpt, determine what it means considering the context,
such as participant’s demographics and background, and generate a code or
theme. Nevertheless, description-focused coding is useful when what you are
looking for in the data to address your research questions is explicit, meaning
you can extract relevant information from the data and summarize them in the
form of codes and themes (Adu, 2019). Ultimately, the goal of utilizing a spe-
cific coding strategy is to develop codes that address the research questions and
descriptively or interpretatively represent the extracts from the data.
• Step 4: Code the data. After determining the right coding strategy, your next
step is to generate codes. Codes are generated based on the significant informa-
tion selected from the data (Saldaña, 2021). Coding is the process of identifying
relevant words, phrases, sentences or paragraphs in the data and generating
labels (which are called codes) to represent the relevant excerpts (Adu, 2019).
A code should be developed in such a way that it addresses its associated research
question. Make sure you generate codes not to address the interview questions
but to address your research questions.
• Step 5: Categorize the codes. At this stage, you may have a lot of codes
under their respective research questions. The next step is to group them into
clusters, transforming the codes into themes for each research question. The cat-
egorization process involves examining the characteristics of each code in terms
of what they mean and any relevant information connected to them, exploring
the relationships between the codes and grouping them based on their similar-
ities (Adu, 2019). By the end, you may have come up with four to six groups
of codes. You then label each group to reflect the codes under it. The labels
become the themes that address the research question.
• Step 6: Determine any relationships between the themes. This final
step is needed if your individual themes cannot independently address your
research question(s) or if you plan to develop a model or theory that is supported
by the data and address the research question(s). You determine if there are
relationships between the themes by examining their features in terms of what
they mean and represent. If relationships exist, you could explore the sequence
of the relationship, finding out if they have a concurrent relationship (i.e., both
happen at the same time) or a chronological relationship (i.e., one happens before
the other). You could determine whether one theme can be embedded in a dom-
inant theme or whether one theme affects another theme. Casagrande and Hale
(1967) discuss types of relationship such as attributive (“X is defined with respect
to one or more distinctive or characteristic attributes Y”), contingency (“X is
defined with relation to a usual or necessary antecedent or concomitant Y”),
synonymy (“X is defined as being equivalent to Y”) and class inclusion (“X is
defined with respect to its membership is a hierarchical class Y”) (Casagrande
& Hale, 1967, p. 168). Make sure the connections discovered are supported by
your data (see Adu, 2019).
Types of Qualitative Analysis
There are many types of qualitative analysis, including variations under some of
the types. The ones that are commonly used in dissertations focusing on qualita-
tive research are thematic analysis, content analysis, grounded theory analysis and
narrative analysis.
Thematic Analysis
Thematic analysis involves reviewing data, extracting relevant information based

on the research question, assigning codes to them and examining the codes to help
develop themes. This process is similar to the six steps provided above. Thematic
analysis is appropriate if you want what you find in the data to dictate the develop-
ment of your codes and themes.
• Resources
• Adu, 2019; Braun & Clarke, 2006; Maguire & Delahunt, 2017; Strauss, 1989
Content Analysis
Content analysis involves generating codes and/or themes based on literature

reviewed, theoretical or conceptual frameworks developed and/or initial data
reviewed and using them to analyze the data. This group of codes and/or themes
is called a coding frame. During data analysis, relevant information identified are
connected to codes or themes belonging to the coding frame. Think of this process
as going to a good market or grocery store with bags you plan to put your purchased
food items into. When you go to the market, you buy cauliflower, leeks, kale and
cabbage and put them into the “vegetable bag”; barley, millet, brown rice and oats,
which go into the “grain bag”; and apples, pears, oranges and watermelons, which
go into the “fruit bag.” These bags represent codes or themes, and the food items
bought represent the relevant information selected from the data. Lastly, all the
food items in the grocery store are considered data. Normally, content analysis is
appropriate if you want to use the concepts captured in your theoretical or con-
ceptual framework or identified in the literature to directly inform the data coding
process.
• Resources
• Erlingsson & Brysiewicz, 2017; Schreier, 2012; Zhang & Wildemuth, 2009
Grounded Theory Analysis
Grounded theory analysis is the process of generating codes and themes based
on evidence (i.e., significant portions of the data) and connecting these themes,
leading to the development of a model or theory reflecting the data collected and
addressing a research question. The main coding strategies you could use when
conducting a grounded theory analysis are initial (open) coding, focused (axial)
coding and theoretical coding (Charmaz, 2014). The data analysis process starts
with conducting initial coding. This type of coding involves going through the data,
extracting information that are relevant and assigning codes to them. An initial
code is a phrase that usually starts with a gerund (e.g., “engaging in self-reflection”)
and is recommended to be between two and five words (Adu, 2019). The next step
is to use focused coding to group codes, leading to the generation of themes. Next,
relationships between the themes are examined and a potential model or theory is
developed considering the evidence in the data. To refine and solidify the potential
model or theory, you conduct a constant comparative analysis. This type of analysis
focuses on comparing the initial theory developed to (usually) a new set of data. To
get access to a new set of data, you sample participants who can provide rich data
for further analysis. This kind of sampling technique is known as theoretical sam-
pling, the process of constantly comparing the model or theory to a new set of data
until saturation is reached. You reach saturation when the introduction of a new set
of data does not lead to an adjustment of the theory. A theory contains concepts
(i.e., themes) and their relationship. It also explains a process, an experience, an
event and a situation.
• Resources
• Charmaz, 2014; Sbaraini et al., 2011
Narrative Analysis
Narrative analysis involves extracting relevant information from data related to

components of a story and using them to create a story that best represents the
participants’ stories. A good story should have the following components: orien-
tation, abstract, complicating action and resolution (Richmond, 2002). Based on
Richmond’s (2002) description of these four story components, there are questions
you could address when conducting a narrative analysis.
• Orientation:
• What was the setting?
• Who was/were the character(s)?
• What were their roles?
• Abstract:
• What were the incidences?
• What was happening?
• Complicating action:
• What was the conflict in the story?
• What were the actions and reactions of the character(s)?
• What were the thoughts and intensions of the character(s)?
• Resolution:
• What were the consequences of the conflict?
• What lessons can be learned from the story?
One of the ways of analyzing participant stories using a narrative analysis

is to first familiarize yourself with the data. This helps you to get a big picture
of participants’ stories and think about how they will help you to address your
research question. Secondly, with the research question in mind, you go through
the data and extract codes addressing the question. In addition, you extract all
the relevant components of their stories and generate phrases (codes) to represent
the features captured. Thirdly, you then categorize the codes to develop themes
that will be used to address the research question. Similarly, you also examine the
codes generated under each of their story components and group them to generate
concepts/themes. Fourthly, you connect these concepts (which depict the features
of participants’ stories) to the themes for the research questions. Fifthly, you write
a story that has all the ingredients you have discovered in your analysis and best
represents participants’ stories.
• Resources
• Mishler, 1999; Richmond, 2002; Saldaña, 2021; Stephens & Breheny, 2013
How to Determine the Right Type of Qualitative Analysis

When deciding on the right qualitative analysis technique for your study, you first
need to consider the best practices by asking yourself, “What data analysis tech-
nique do researchers normally use when utilizing your research approach?” For
instance, if you are planning to conduct a phenomenological study and want to
describe participants’ experience, leading to an attainment of the true nature of
their experience, researchers are more likely to use a data analysis strategy informed
by transcendental phenomenology (see Larsen & Adu, 2021).
Moreover, you can select the right data analysis strategy by looking for a tech-
nique that has been customized for your research approach. For example, narrative
analysis is the right technique for a narrative approach, while grounded theory ana-
lysis is an appropriate data analysis strategy for a grounded theory approach (see
Richmond, 2002; Saldaña, 2021).
Alternatively, you could use one of the generic qualitative data analysis
techniques, such as thematic or content analysis. Considering your research pur-
pose, questions and method, if you plan to extract relevant aspects of the data
and generate codes and themes based on these extracts, then thematic analysis will
help. However, if you want to use codes and/or themes generated from your con-
ceptual/theoretical framework or literature to code relevant information from the
data, then content analysis is the right data analysis strategy.
Ensuring the Credibility of Your Qualitative Findings

The credibility of findings is about the believability of what you have found. In
other words, your findings are credible if people, including the research commu-
nity, trust the results of your study. Because, in a qualitative study, researchers are
instruments working with assumptions related to the acceptance of subjectivity and
the acknowledgement of multiple realities, they must be transparent to ensure cred-
ibility. Being transparent at the data analysis stage involves making known your
relevant history, which includes your experience related to the phenomenon of
study, preconceptions and beliefs (Adu, 2019). All these background factors can
influence how you make sense of what you are analyzing, but you could reduce
their influence by setting them aside (i.e., by practicing bracketing) (Larsen & Adu,
2021; Tufford & Newman, 2012). To ensure credibility, you are expected to share
how you engaged in bracketing or any related act of reflecting on your background,
including expectations and judgment, and how you prevented them from influen-
cing the data analysis process.
Another way of ensuring the credibility of your findings is to engage in member
checking. One aspect of practicing member checking is to give participants their
transcripts for them to review and provide feedback in terms of whether the data
reflect what they shared (Birt et al., 2016; Candela, 2019). As part of member
checking, you could also seek their feedback on how you made sense of their data.
Another form of member checking is to ask another researcher to review your data
analysis-related actions and outcomes and provide feedback.
You could also increase the credibility of your findings by giving a detailed
description of your data analysis process. Adequately describing the data analysis
process depends on your extensive documentation of the process. Therefore, it is
important to always document how you selected relevant information from the
data, generated codes and examined the codes to develop themes.
Lastly, presenting the findings in a way that makes sense to your audience
increases the credibility of your findings (Adu, 2019). The common pattern of
presenting qualitative results is to state and describe each theme, presenting what it
means and represents, evidence in support of the theme and a statement showing
how it addresses the research question.
Summary
The practice of data analysis is one of the most important aspects of research.
There are several advantages and disadvantages of both quantitative and quali-
tative methods of data analysis. With data analysis, it is important to conduct the
analysis with precision and reliability. The quantitative method of data analysis
focuses on the measurement of variables and tendency that occur in the data, while
the qualitative method of data analysis focuses on phenomena that occur in natural
settings, and the data are typically analyzed from that approach.
In this chapter, we discussed six things: how to determine an appropriate data
analysis technique for the study; how to develop data analysis for the study; the
different types of quantitative data analysis used in dissertation research; reliability
and credibility in the process of data analysis; validity in the process of data ana-
lysis; and, lastly, the distinct differences between the data analysis processes in quan-
titative and qualitative research. By the end of this chapter, the reader should be
knowledgeable about these six core areas of data analysis.
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18 Ensuring Quality in the Study
Objectives
1. Write about validity and reliability in a quantitative study
2. Write about validity and reliability in a qualitative study
3. Write about validity and reliability in a mixed methods study
Introduction
In the process of conducting research, there is the aspect of measurement. More
specifically, reliability and validity. It is very important that the instruments we use
to conduct the research are reliable and possess the characteristics of validity.
Inevitably, the task of research provides the much-needed information for their
audience. Researchers will be interested in the problem identified as the basis for
the line of inquiry, but it will also inspire them to be more interested in successfully
dealing with problems. The concept of reliability and validity is integral to the
practice of problem solving as a line of inquiry for research. Reliability and validity
in the area of measurement is also the basis of sound research. Understanding the
different characteristics of data, such as quantitative data and qualitative data, will
really help in understanding the concept of reliability and validity.
Again, under the concept of measurement, data can be quantitative or qualita-
tive. Each of the characteristics of scientific data can be explained in the context
of research. We must consider the aspect of investigation having a foundation in
measurement in terms of reliability and validity. We must examine the hallmarks
of science and how it applies to this investigation and aligns with reliability and val-
idity. Therefore, this chapter focuses on the importance of understanding reliability
and validity.
Reliability and Validity in a Quantitative Study

In a quantitative study, the concept of reliability and validity is very crucial. That
the task of measuring reliability is extremely complex is an understatement to
say the least. The concept of reliability in relation to a research instrument has a
DOI: 10.4324/9781003268154-18
similar meaning. The research measurement tool for collecting data has to have
some consistency. If a research tool is consistent and stable, therefore predictable
and accurate, it is also said to be reliable. When measuring reliability, the mantra is
that the greater the degree of consistency and stability in an instrument, the greater
its reliability. Under the umbrella of reliability, a scale must be reliable. Therefore,
“a scale or test is reliable to the extent that repeat measurements made by it under
constant conditions will give the same result” (Kumar, 2011). In the area of quan-
titative methodology, the prevailing issues of validity and reliability are extremely
important for quantitative data analysis.
The issue that afflicts the quantitative researchers’ endeavor is showing their
chosen methods and research design. This is so they can also show that their chosen
methods succeed in measuring what they intend to measure. The researcher wants
to make sure their instruments show a foundation of reliability and validity. They
want to make sure that their measurements are stable and consistent and that there
are no errors or bias present, either from the respondents or from the researcher
(Dawson, 2002; Alasuutari et al., 2008).
Developing Reliability in a Quantitative Study
The task of developing reliability in a quantitative study is primarily based on

measurement types. Reliability is defined as a statistical measure of how repro-
ducible the survey instrument’s data are. Reliability refers to the consistency with
which the results are produced under the same conditions with the same or com-
parable populations (Litwin, 1995; Singh, 2020; Singh, 2007; Sreejesh et al., 2014).
The practice of reliability inherently depends on three primary elements. The
first is stability, which entails asking whether a measure is stable over time so that
researchers can be confident that results relating to the measure for a sample of
respondents will not fluctuate. The second issue is that of interna reliability, which
seeks to assess whether the indicators that make up the scale are consistent. The last
issue is inter-observer consistency, which may arise due to the involvement of more than
one observer in activities such as the recording of observation or the translation of
data into categories (Sreejesh et al., 2014).
In contrast, random error produces inconsistency, leading to lower reliability.
Reliability can be defined as the extent to which measures are free from random
error (Malhotra & Birks, 2007; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007; Babbie, 2008; Bell &
Waters, 2010; Malhotra, 2015; Leedy & Ormrod, 2021). To measure reliability
with an instrument or scale, a coefficient alpha, or Cronbach’s alpha, is used. There
are minimal standards for the coefficient alpha. For example, a coefficient of
0.6 or more generally indicates a moderate satisfactory internal consistency reli-
ability (Saunders et al., 2012; Leedy & Ormrod, 2021). The reliability coefficient is
calculated to determine the extent of agreement between the two halves. As a gen-
eral rule of thumb, the scale should have at least 16 to 20 items so that the halves
have 8 to 10 items. The procedure also adjusts for the number of items in the scale,
as a longer scale, in this case the full scale, is more reliable than a shorter one (Craig
& Douglas, 2005).
Ensuring Quality in the Study 299
Types of Reliability
When dealing with the task of reliability in quantitative research, the strategies
designed to assess an instrument’s reliability are based on four approaches. Again,
the primary definition of reliability is the extent to which it is consistent and
hence ensures consistent measurement across time and across the various items
in the instrument. Nevertheless, the practice of reliability of a measure is an
indication of the stability and consistency with which the instrument measures
the concept and helps to assess the “goodness” of a measure (Zikmund & Babin,
2010). There are four good methods of measuring reliability in an instrument
(see Figure 18.1).
TEST-RETEST TECHNIQUE
Test-retest is a technique generally used to administer the same research instru-

ment/test/survey or measure to the same group of people twice under the same
conditions but at different points in time. Reliability estimates are expressed in the
form of a correlation coefficient, which is a measure of the correlation between two
scores in the same group.
MULTIPLE FORMS
Multiple forms test the reliability of the research instrument by mixing up the
questions in the research instrument and giving it to the same respondents again to
assess whether it results in any different responses.
Figure 18.1 Testing goodness of measures: Forms of reliability model.

Source: Adapted from Sekaran (2003).
INTER-RATER RELIABILITY
Inter-rater reliability is used to assess the reliability of research tool instruments/

tests when more than one rater/interviewer is involved in interviewing or content
analysis. It is calculated by reporting the percentage of agreement on the same sub-
ject between different raters or interviewers.
SPLIT-HALF RELIABILITY
In the case of the split-half reliability method, the results of this analysis are
compared with the overall analysis to assess the reliability of the indicators, tests
or instruments. Currently, many researchers use a Cronbach’s alpha to test internal
reliability, and it correlates performance on each item with an overall score.
These techniques can be easily calculated by using statistical packages such as the
Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) (Babbie, 2008; Singh, 2006; Singh,
2007; Singh, 2020; Little, 2014; Price et al., 2019; Mooi et al., 2018; Research
Methods in Psychology, 2019).
INTERNAL RELIABILITY
This kind of reliability indicates how consistently all of the items in a scale measure
the concept in question. If a scale is internally reliable, any set of items from the
scale could be selected, and they will provide a measure that is more or less the same
as any other group of items taken from that scale (Howitt & Cramer, 2011).
Three Principles of Reliability
There are three principles of reliability: (a) stability –in this form, reliability is a
measure of consistency over time and over similar samples; a reliable instrument
for a piece of research will yield similar data from similar respondents over time;
(b) equivalence –in this form, reliability is achieved first through using equivalent
forms of a test or data-gathering instrument; if an equivalent form of the test or
instrument is devised and yields similar results, then the instrument can be said
to demonstrate some form of reliability; and (c) internal consistency –in this form
of reliability, the test/retest method and the equivalent-forms method require the
tests or instruments to be done twice; demonstrating internal consistency demands
that the instrument or tests be run once only through the split-half method (Cohen
et al., 2007).
Internal Consistency of Measures of Reliability
There are some different approaches to measuring internal consistency and reli-
ability. The goal of the internal consistency of measures is to show the homogen-
eity of the items in the measure. This can be done by examining if the items and
the subsets of items in the measuring instrument are correlated or related in some
way. Consistency can be examined through the inter-item consistency reliability
and split-half reliability tests. To conduct the internal consistency of measuring

reliability, the researcher has three strategies they can use: (a) inter-item consistency
reliability; (b) split-half reliability; and (c) coefficient alpha reliability.
Inter-item Consistency Reliability
This is a test of the consistency of respondents’ answers to all the items in a measure.
To the degree that items are independent measures of the same concept, they will
be correlated with one another (Price et al., 2019).
Split-Half Reliability
Split-half reliability, also called split-half correlation, reflects the correlations between
two halves of an instrument. The estimates would vary depending on how the
items in the measure are split into two halves. Split-half reliabilities could be higher
than Cronbach’s alpha only in the circumstance of there being more than one
underlying response dimension tapped by the measure and when certain other
conditions are met as well (Sekaran, 2003; Price et al., 2019; Research Methods in
Psychology, 2019).
Coefficient alpha Reliability
The coefficient alpha reliability is a measure of internal consistency reliability that

is the average of all possible split-half coefficients resulting from different splittings
of the scale items. A coefficient of between 0 and 0.4 generally indicates an unsat-
isfactory internal consistency reliability. However, a value of 0.6 or more generally
indicates a satisfactory internal consistency reliability. An interesting note is that
a property of coefficient alpha is that its value tends to increase with an increase
in the number of scale items. However, the coefficient alpha may be artificially,
and inappropriately, inflated by including several redundant scale items. Another
coefficient that can be employed in conjunction with the coefficient alpha is the
coefficient beta. The coefficient beta assists in determining whether the averaging
process used in calculating the coefficient alpha is masking any inconsistent items
(Malhotra et al., 2017).
Other Measurements of Reliability
The use of measuring internal consistency and reliability has some different
approaches. The goal of internal consistency of measures is used to show the indica-
tive of the homogeneity of the items in the measure. This can be done by examining
if the items and the subsets of items in the measuring instrument are correlated or
related in some way. Consistency can be examined through the inter-item consist-
ency reliability and split-half reliability tests. To conduct the internal consistency of
measuring reliability, the researcher has about three strategies. They are; (a) inter-item
consistency reliability; (b) split-half reliability; and (c) coefficient alpha reliability.
Inter-observer Reliability
Inter-observer reliability measures the degree to which two or more independent

observers are in agreement. When observers disagree, we become uncertain about
what is being measured and the behaviors and events that actually occurred. Low
inter-observer reliability is likely to result when the event to be recorded is not
clearly defined (Shaughnessy et al., 2012).
Item analysis
An item analysis is done to see if the items in the instrument belong there or not.
Each item is examined for its ability to discriminate between those subjects whose
total scores are high and those whose total scores are low. In an item analysis, the
means between the high-score group and the low-score group are tested to detect
significant differences through the t-values (Singh, 2006; Singh, 2007; Singh, 2020).
Alternative-forms Reliability
Alternative-forms reliability is an approach for assessing reliability that requires

two equivalent forms of the scale to be constructed and then the same participants
to be measured at two different times. In alternative-forms reliability, two equiva-
lent forms of the scale are constructed. The same participants are measured at
two different times, usually two to four weeks apart, with a different scale form
being administered each time. The scores from the administrations of the alter-
native scale forms are correlated to assess reliability. The two forms should be
equivalent with respect to content, i.e., each scale item should attempt to measure
the same items. There are two major problems with this approach. First, it is
time-consuming and expensive to construct an equivalent form of the scale.
Second, it is difficult to construct two equivalent forms of a scale. In a strict
sense, it is required that the alternative sets of scale items should have the same
means, variances and intercorrelations. Even if these conditions are satisfied,
the two forms may not be equivalent in content. Thus, a low correlation may
reflect either an unreliable scale or non-equivalent forms (Malhotra et al., 2017;
Jackson, 2009).
Measurement and Calculating Reliability
Reliability can be calculated statistically. Reliability may be calculated in a

number of ways, but the most commonly accepted measure in field studies is
internal consistency reliability using a Cronbach’s alpha statistical test (Swanson
& Holton, 2005). A Cronbach’s alpha is a commonly used test of internal reli-
ability. It calculates the average of all possible split-half reliability coefficients,
and a computed alpha coefficient varies between 1, denoting perfect internal
reliability, and 0, denoting no internal reliability. The basics of reliability in a
marketing context are most commonly used in research (Peter, 1979; Finn, 2005;
Smith & Albaum, 2010).
The practice of measuring reliability with an instrument or scale primarily uses

a coefficient alpha, or Cronbach’s alpha, which is the average of all possible split-half
coefficients resulting from different ways of splitting the scale items. This coeffi-
cient varies from 0 to 1.00. A value of 0.6 or above generally indicates satisfactory
internal consistency reliability, while a value of less than .05 generally indicates
unsatisfactory internal consistency reliability (Saunders et al., 2012; Smith &
Albaum, 2010).
Going further, the internal consistency reliabilities for each of the new scales
is calculated. A large coefficient alpha (.70 for exploratory measures) provides an
indication of strong item covariance and suggests that the sampling domain has
adequately been captured (Swanson & Holton, 2005; Saunders et al., 2012). In
general, a measurement of the reliability of a scale may be measured by one of
three methods: test-retest, alternative forms or internal consistency. The figure
of .75 or more is usually treated as a rule of thumb to denote an accepted level
of reliability (Singh, 2020; Pedhazur & Pedhazur Schmelkin, 2006; Saunders
et al., 2012).
Criteria for Good Measurement
It is critical that measurement has some sort of standard to evaluate reliability.

When trying to attain good measurement, there are five approaches. The five major
criteria for establishing good measurement are (a) reliability, which is assessed by the
scale’s stability (test-retest reliability) and internal consistency reliability (coefficient
alpha); (b) validity, which means that we are measuring what we believe we are
measuring, and the data must be unbiased and relevant to the characteristic being
measured; (c) sensitivity –sensitivity or responsiveness to the treatment variable, or
sensitivity in detecting small differences, because the larger the sample, the more
sensitive the test is to detecting differences; (d) generalizability, which is the extent to
which a study’s findings can be applied to outside of its area, other people, situ-
ations or contexts; and (e) relevance, which is the extent to which all information
collected addresses a research question that will help the decision maker address
the current marketing problem (Zumbo & Rupp, 2004; Kaplan, 2004; Pedhazur &
Pedhazur Schmelkin, 2006; Smith & Albaum, 2010).
Again, a good multi-item scale instrument is both reliable and valid. Reliability is
assessed by the scale’s stability (test-retest reliability) and internal consistency reli-
ability (coefficient alpha). The achievement of scale reliability is highly dependent
on how consistent the characteristic being measured is from individual to individual
(homogeneity over individuals) and how stable the characteristic remains over time
(Pedhazur & Pedhazur Schmelkin, 2006).
Measurement and Scaling
Measurement is defined as the assignment of scores to individuals so that the scores

represent some characteristic of the individuals. This general definition is consistent
with many kinds of measurement that everyone is familiar with, such as weight,
temperature and others. The result of this procedure is a score that represents the
object’s potential energy (Price et al., 2019).
Scaling
The craft of scaling is considered an extension of measurement. The practice of

scaling involves creating a continuum upon which measured objects are located.
For example, each respondent is assigned a number indicating an unfavorable atti-
tude (measured as 1), a neutral attitude (measured as 2) or a favorable attitude
(measured as 3). However, measurement is the actual assignment of 1, 2 or 3 to each
respondent. Scaling is the process of placing the respondents on a continuum with
respect to their attitude. In this example, scaling is the process by which respondents
would be classified as having an unfavorable, neutral or positive attitude (Malhotra
& Birks, 2007).
Scaling has also been defined as a “procedure for the assignment of numbers (or
other symbols) to a property of objects in order to impart some of the characteristics
of numbers to the properties in question” (Malhotra & Birks, 2007). The researcher,
having knowledge of the different scales and scaling techniques, helps people in
business to administer short surveys by designing questions that use ranking or
rating scales, as appropriate (Sekaran, 2003).
Scaling has the advantage of describing the procedure of assigning numbers
to various degrees of opinion, attitude and other concepts. This can be done in
two: (a) by making a judgment about some characteristic of an individual and
then placing that individual directly on a scale that has been defined in terms
of that characteristic; and (b) by constructing questionnaires in such a way that
the score of an individual’s responses assigns that individual a place on a scale
(Sekaran, 2003).
In the practice of scaling, it must be remembered that a scale is a continuum,
consisting of the highest point (in terms of some characteristic, e.g., preference,
favorableness, etc.) and the lowest point, along with several intermediate points
between these two extreme points. Numbers for measuring the distinctions of
degree in the attitudes/opinions are, thus, assigned to individuals corresponding
to their scale positions. Therefore, the term “scaling” is applied to the procedures
for attempting to determine quantitative measures of subjective abstract concepts
(Sekaran, 2003; Pedhazur & Pedhazur Schmelkin, 2006; Malhotra & Birks, 2007;
Zikmund & Babin, 2010).
Rules of Measurement
Measurement is the foundation of reliability in research. Zikmund (2003) asserts

that a rule is a guide that tells someone what to do. Consider this example of a
measurement rule: “Assign the numerals, 1 through 7 to individuals, according to
how brand loyal they are. The rule of measurement here is that values assigned in
the measuring process can be manipulated according to mathematical rules. Under
the rules of measurement, researchers to add, subtract, and multiply answers”

(Zikmund, 2003).
The process of standardizing instruments also provides data on reliability and
sometimes on the availability of the instrument. The availability of these three
kinds of data norms, estimate of reliability and estimate of validity makes standardized
instruments attractive to researchers, particularly to students doing research. The
point here is that these attractions are quite real; using an instrument with norms
and established reliability does have great advantages when these data have been
obtained from samples from the same population, as we plan to study (Singh, 2006).
Scaling: Primary Scales of Measurement
The practice of measurement can be a complex endeavor. One of the prevailing

issues that researchers face is the wide variety of measuring concepts at their disposal.
Researchers can argue that the affective, cognitive and behavioral components of
an attitude can be measured by different means. The measurement responses can
be recorded using physiological measures to quantify affect. The design of a meas-
urement scale is highly dependent on the objective of the research study and the
mathematical or statistical calculations that a researcher expects to perform on the
data collected using the scales (Pedhazur & Pedhazur Schmelkin, 2006; Saunders
et al., 2012; Sreejesh et al., 2014; Leedy & Ormrod, 2015).
The objective of the research study may be as simple as classifying the popu-
lation into various categories or as complex as ranking the units under study and
comparing them to predict some trends. Most interestingly, all measures can be
classified based on the way they represent scale differences between observations of
the variable under examination. The level of scale measurement is seen as important
for the reason that it determines the mathematical comparisons that are allowable.
The four levels or types of scale measurement are nominal, ordinal, interval and
ratio. The advantage of using four scale levels is that it offers the researcher more
power in analyzing and testing the validity of a scale. The four different types of
measurement scales can be seen in Figure 18.2.
Scales of Measurement
Scales of measurement are response options to questions that measure (or observe)
variables in categorical or continuous units. Most importantly, scales of measure-
ment need to be understood in order to assess the quality of an instrument and to
determine the appropriate statistics to use in data analysis (Creswell, 2012). One of
the easiest ways to understand the different scales of measurement is to remember
that there are two basic types: (a) categorical and (b) continuous. Categorical scales
have two types, nominal and ordinal scales, and continuous scales (often called
scale scores in computer data analysis programs) also have two types, interval/
quasi-interval and ratio scales. These types of scales are shown in Figure 18.3
(Creswell, 2012).
Figure 18.2 Descriptive statistics techniques model.
Figure 18.3 Scales of measurement model.
Nominal Scale
A nominal scale is a figurative labeling scale in which the numbers serve only as labels
or tags for identifying and classifying objects. The numbers assigned to respondents
in a study constitute a nominal scale. When a nominal scale is used for the purpose
of identification, there is a strict one-to-one correspondence between the numbers
and the objects. Each number is assigned to only one object, and each object has
only one number assigned to it. Some common examples of nominal scales are
social security numbers, the numbering of football players, brand numbers, store
types and sex classification (Malhotra, 2015; Pedhazur & Pedhazur Schmelkin,
2006; Leedy & Ormrod, 2021).
Ordinal Scale
An ordinal scale is a ranking scale in which numbers are assigned to objects to indi-
cate the relative extent to which the objects possess some characteristic. An ordinal
scale allows you to determine whether an object has more or less of a characteristic
than another object, but not how much more or less. Some common examples of
ordinal scales are quality rankings, rankings of teams in a tournament, preference
rankings, market position and social class (Malhotra, 2015; Pedhazur & Pedhazur
Schmelkin, 2006; Leedy & Ormrod, 2021).
Interval Scale
In an interval scale, numerically equal distances on the scale represent equal

values in the characteristic being measured. An interval scale contains all the
information of an ordinal scale, but it also allows you to compare the differences
between objects. The difference between any two adjacent scale values is iden-
tical to the difference between any other two adjacent values of an interval scale.
Some common examples of interval scales are temperature (Fahrenheit/Celsius),
attitudes, opinions and index numbers (Pedhazur & Pedhazur Schmelkin, 2006;
Malhotra, 2015).
Ratio Scale
A ratio scale possesses all the properties of the nominal, ordinal and interval scales,
plus an absolute 0 point. Thus, the ratio scale represents the highest level of meas-
urement conveying the most information. In ratio scales, we can identify or classify
objects, rank the objects and compare intervals or differences. Unlike the nominal,
ordinal and interval scales, it is also meaningful to compute ratios of scale values.
Some common examples are temperature, length, weight, age, income, costs, sales
and market shares (Leedy & Ormrod, 2021; Malhotra, 2015).
Other Scaling Types and Rating Scales
There are many types of scales. However, we will only discuss a few of the most
commonly used ones for studies: (a) dichotomous scale; (b) itemized rating scale; (c) Likert
scale; (d) numerical scale; (e) semantic differential scale; and (f) Stapel scale.
Dichotomous Scale
This type of scale typically uses a two-item response. The dichotomous scale is used
to elicit a “Yes” or “No” answer. This could also be used to describe gender: male
or female. This is a nominal scale type of response (Sekaran, 2003; Malhotra &
Birks, 2007).
Itemized Rating Scale
This type of scale typically uses a five-point or seven-point scale with anchors. This
is provided for each item, and the respondent states the appropriate number on the
side of each item or circles the relevant number against each item. The responses
to the items are then summated using an interval scale (Sekaran, 2003; Zikmund,
2003; Zikmund & Babin, 2010).
Likert Scale
This popular scale is named after its creator, Rensis Likert. The Likert scale is
one of the most widely used rating scales. It requires the respondents to indicate a
degree of agreement or disagreement with each of a series of statements about the
stimulus objects. Typically, each scale item has five to nine response categories, ran-
ging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree” (Pedhazur & Pedhazur Schmelkin,
2006; Malhotra & Birks, 2007).
Numerical Scales
The numerical scales have numbers, rather than semantic space or verbal
descriptions, as response options to identify categories. This scale is similar to the
semantic differential scale, except that it uses numbers. This numerical scale uses
bipolar adjectives in the same manner as the semantic differential scale (Kothari,
2004; Pedhazur & Pedhazur Schmelkin, 2006; Zikmund, 2003).
Semantic Differential Scale
The semantic differential scale is a seven-point rating scale with end points
associated with bipolar labels that have semantic meaning. In a standard appli-
cation, respondents rate objects on a number of itemized, seven-point rating
scales bounded at each end by one of two bipolar adjectives (Zikmund &
Babin, 2010).‌
Stapel Scale
The Stapel scale, named after its developer, Jan Stapel, is a unipolar rating scale
with ten categories numbered from –5 to +5 and no neutral point (zero). This scale
is usually presented vertically. Respondents are asked to indicate, by selecting an
appropriate numerical response category, how accurately or inaccurately each term
describes the object (Zikmund, 2003; Zikmund & Babin, 2010).
Threats to Reliability
Despite the many ways to establish reliability, there are also threats to reliability.
Again, reliability is an indicator of a measure’s internal consistency. The primary
goal of reliability is consistency. Typically, different measures of reliability are
used by different approaches. The threats to reliability need to be observed by the
researcher and must be addressed. There are four key types of threats to reliability.
Participant Error
This refers to any factor that adversely alters the way in which a participant
performs. For example, asking a participant to complete a questionnaire just before
a lunch break may affect the way they respond compared to choosing a less sensi-
tive time.
Participant Bias
This refers to any factor that induces a false response. For example, conducting an
interview in an open space where participants fear they are being overheard rather
than retaining their anonymity may lead them to provide falsely positive answers.
Researcher Error
This refers to any factor that alters the researcher’s interpretation. For example, a
researcher may be tired or not sufficiently prepared and misunderstand some of the
more subtle meanings of his or her interviewees.
Researcher Bias
This refers to any factor that induces bias in the researchers’ recording of responses.
For example, a researcher may allow their own subjective view or disposition to get
in the way of fairly recording and interpreting participants’ responses (Saunders
et al., 2012).
Developing Validity in a Quantitative Study
There is a history of how to properly define validity, which has been an issue with
the research community for years. The major difficulty with defining validity is
ascertaining what constitutes an appropriate definition, because you cannot
measure validity, unlike its counterpart, reliability. Validity tends to be defined by
the eye of the beholder. Whatever classification one chooses to adopt, it is important
to bear in mind that validity is a “unitary concept.” For organization purposes, it
does not imply a set of mutually exclusive and exhaustive categories (Gorard, 2003;
Pedhazur & Pedhazur Schmelkin, 2006; Corder & Foreman, 2014).
Currently, validity is defined as the extent to which a measurement represents

characteristics that exist in the phenomenon under investigation. Validity can be
assessed by examining three general types: (a) content validity (sometimes called face
validity), which is a subjective but systematic evaluation of how well the content of
a scale represents the measurement task at hand; (b) criterion validity, which is a type
of validity that examines whether the measurement scale performs as expected in
relation to other selected variables as meaningful criteria; and (c) construct validity,
which is a type of validity that addresses the question of what construct or char-
acteristic the scale is measuring; it is an attempt to answer theoretical questions of
why a scale works and what deductions can be made concerning the theory under-
lying the scale (Sekaran, 2003; Pedhazur & Pedhazur Schmelkin, 2006; Malhotra
& Birks, 2007; Zikmund, 2003; Saunders et al., 2012).
Unlike reliability coefficients, however, there is no established criterion for the
strength of the validity coefficient. For example, coefficients as low as .20 or .30
may establish the validity of a measure. However, concerning validity coefficients,
the important thing is that they are statistically significant at the .05 or .01 level.
However, there is still the issue of how to properly measure validity (Kolb, 2008;
Jackson, 2009). Furthermore, a behavioral measure is said to be valid if it measures
what it is designed to measure. A measure of burnout should truly measure the
phenomenon of burnout (Goodwin & Goodwin, 2013).
Validity vs. Reliability
The systematic and random error concepts are important because they relate to a
measure’s validity and reliability. Again, validity is harder to measure and tends to
be what the researcher perceives it to be. Validity refers to whether we are measuring
what we want to measure and, therefore, to a situation where the systematic error
ES is small. Conversely, reliability is the degree to which what we measure is free from
random error and therefore relates to a situation where the error rate is zero (Mooi
et al., 2018). Because there is no objective way of verifying what we are measuring,
several forms of validity have been developed, which include face, content, pre-
dictive, criterion, discriminant and nomological validity (Mooi et al., 2018).
Types of Validity
As with reliability, there are different types of validity. In the context of experi-
mental designs, there are two general types of validity: internal and external. With
validity, we are concerned about the issue of the authenticity of the cause-and-effect
relationships (internal validity) and their generalizability to the external environment
(external validity).
The first thought that comes to mind is that researchers need to be aware of
issues (e.g., develop a measuring instrument), with the hope that they are tapping
the concept. The other thought is that researchers need to be certain that they are
measuring the concept they set out to do and nothing else. This is why researchers
need validity tests. Certain tests are determined by applying certain validity tests.
Figure 18.4 Testing goodness of measures: Forms of validity model.

Source: Adapted from Sekaran (2003).
Several types of validity tests are used to test the goodness of measures, and
different writers use different terms to denote them. In order not to make the con-
cept of validity too complicated, they are grouped together. Generally, validity tests
fall under three broad headings: content validity, criterion-related validity and con-
struct validity (Sekaran, 2003) (see Figure 18.4).
The practice of participant observation has a high ecological validity because it
involves studying social actors and social phenomena (i.e., informants and their
activities) in their natural settings. This is referred to as the observer effect. The impli-
cation of this effect is that informants will work harder or act more ethically when
they know they are being observed (Saunders et al., 2012; Mooi et al., 2018).
Testing the Goodness of Measures
We want to call attention to the concept of internal and external validity as the
goodness of measures. Campbell and Stanley (1963) describe two types of val-
idity: internal and external. Their discussion describes internal validity as “the sine
qua non,” the essential validity, the essence of the experiment. Internal validity
is examined when the researcher examines the research question. In contrast to
internal validity, which is specific to the experiment, external validity asks the
question of generalizability, or to what extent can the findings of an experiment be
applied to different groups, settings or subjects, and under what conditions can this
experiment be generalized (Miller & Yang, 2008).
Assessing Validity
Assessing validity can be a challenge, since it is not statistically measured like reli-
ability. The question of assessing internal validity provides some strategies for the
researcher. Again, internal validity in relation to questionnaires refers to the ability

of your questionnaire to measure what you intend it to measure. It is sometimes
termed measurement validity, as it refers to concerns that what you find with your
questionnaire actually represents the reality of what you are measuring (Saunders
et al., 2012; Mertens et al., 2017).
Researchers get around this problem by looking for other relevant evidence that
supports the answers found using the questionnaire, the relevance being determined
by the nature of their research question and their own judgment (Saunders et al.,
2012; Mertens et al., 2017). Often, when addressing the validity of a questionnaire,
researchers refer to three general types of content validity, criterion-related validity and
construct validity to assess the internal validity.
Content Validity
This type of validity refers to the extent to which the measurement device, in
our case the measurement questions in the questionnaire, provides adequate
coverage of the investigative questions. Judgment of what is “adequate
coverage” can be made in a number of ways. One is through a careful def-
inition of the research, the literature reviewed and, where appropriate, prior
discussion with others.
Criterion-related Validity
This type of validity, which is sometimes known as predictive validity, is concerned

with the ability of the measures (questions) to make accurate predictions. This
means that if you are using the measurement questions within your questionnaire
to predict customers’ future buying behaviors, then a test of these measurement
questions’ criterion-related validity will be the extent to which they actually predict
these customers’ buying behaviors.
Construct Validity
This type of validity refers to the extent to which your measurement questions
actually measure the presence of those constructs you intended them to
measure. This term is normally used when referring to constructs such as atti-
tude scales, aptitude and personality tests. These are discussed in more detail in
a range of texts (Blaxter et al., 2010; Saunders et al., 2012; Mertens et al., 2017;
Sekaran, 2003).
Nomological Validity
This is a type of validity that assesses the relationship between theoretical constructs.
It seeks to confirm significant correlations between the constructs as predicted by a
theory (Malhotra et al., 2017).
Face Validity
Face validity is defined as the extent to which a measurement method appears

“on its face” to measure the construct of interest. This can be esoteric to many
people trying to understand what its purpose is. When the instrument or survey
looks adequate, this would be said to have good face validity. Although face validity
can be assessed quantitatively, by having a large sample of people rate a measure in
terms of whether it appears to measure what it is intended to, it is usually assessed
informally. Furthermore, face validity is really, at best, a very weak kind of evidence
that a measurement method is measuring what it is supposed to. One reason is
that it is based on people’s intuitions about human behavior, which are frequently
wrong. However, it is also the case that many established measures in psychology
work quite well despite lacking face validity (Babbie, 2008; McNiff & Whitehead,
2010; Saunders et al., 2012; Price et al., 2019).
Threats to Validity
There are at least six possible threats to validity in terms of research: (a) selection
biases; (b) mortality; (c) history; (d) maturation; (e) instrumentation; and (f) testing.
Selection Biases
This threat is when two groups are not matched or randomly assigned could con-
taminate the results. Also, the differential recruitment of the persons making up
the two groups would confound the cause-and-effect relationship (Sekaran, 2003).
Mortality
This threat is when the dropout of individuals from groups can also confound the
results and thus pose a threat to the internal validity (Sekaran, 2003).
History
This threat is when an unrelated event influences the outcomes. The participants are
stressed on the date of the post-test, and performance may suffer (Bhandari, 2020).
Maturation
The outcomes of the study vary as a natural result of time. Most participants are
new to the job at the time of the pre-test (Bhandari, 2020).
Instrumentation
Different measures are used in the pre-test and post-test phases. For example, in the
pre-test, productivity was measured for 15 minutes, while the post-test was over 30
minutes long (Bhandari, 2020).
Testing
The pre-test influences the outcomes of the post-test. For example, due to famil-
iarity or awareness of the study’s purpose, many participants achieved high results
(Babbie, 2008; Saunders et al., 2012).
Ensuring Trustworthiness in a Qualitative Study

Because qualitative research is informed by philosophical assumptions that are
different from qualitative research, the process of ensuring research quality is also
distinct. To recap, qualitative researchers believe that there are multiple realities due
to our distinct view of the world and how our background and preconceptions influ-
ence the way we make sense of the world. Also, in qualitative studies, researchers
embrace subjectivity, including getting closer to relevant data sources to extract
rich data and make meaning of them. Consequently, qualitative researchers are
more likely to influence the research inquiry process, making both the qualitative
research process and the findings unique. “[They] strive for the less explicit goal of
trustworthiness, which means that when readers interpret the written work, they
will have a sense of confidence in what the researcher has reported” (Stahl & King,
2020, p. 26). How do you ensure the quality of the study? How do you make sure
that your audience/readers trust the findings? We will address these questions by
discussing four kinds of trustworthiness in a qualitative study: credibility, transfer-
ability, conformability and dependability.
Credibility
Credibility is about the level of trust we have in the data collected and the level of
consistency between the data and the findings (Stahl & King, 2020). Credibility is
related to the decisions and actions taken, making sure your audience believe that
the data collected is a true reflection of what was gathered from the data source
and the findings are a true representation of the data. There are a lot of strategies
that researchers can implement to promote credibility, including promoting trans-
parency, member checking and triangulation (Adu, 2019; Candela, 2019; Fereday
& Muir-Cochrane, 2006; Stahl & King, 2020).
Transparency
Transparency involves being open about the decisions and actions taken in the
study. As part of being transparent, you are expected to disclose your background,
biases and beliefs relevant to your study and share how you plan to bracket them,
which means preventing them from influencing the research process (Tufford &
Newman, 2012). Further, if you are using a theorical lens, you need to provide
details of the theory and its related assumptions and how you plan to use it in the
study. Similarly, it is also important to clearly explain the role that your theoretical
or conceptual framework will be playing in your study (Maxwell, 2013; Sinclair,
2007; Greckhamer & Cilesiz, 2014). Lastly, you need to be transparent by sharing
how you collected and analyzed your data.
Member Checking
This process involves verifying the data gathered and/or its interpretation with
participants. In this case, you send participants their transcripts for review and veri-
fication. Alternatively, you could have a session with each participant to review
their transcript and seek clarifications by asking follow-up questions. However,
Candela (2019) cautions utilizing member checking, especially when working with
participants who have passed through a traumatic situation. She states, “Member
checking could cause harm during research studies looking at experiences of
marginalized populations or participants who have experienced trauma” (Candela,
2019, p. 620).
When feasible and appropriate, you can present the findings to participants and
ask for their thoughts. Furthermore, if you collected data from a closed community,
it is important that you share the research report with them before you publish it
(Stahl & King, 2020). Another aspect of member checking is to give your documen-
tation of the data analysis process and outcome to another researcher to review and
provide feedback. The point of implementing any of the member checking strat-
egies is to help improve the credibility of the findings.
Triangulation
This concept operates within the assumption that studying a phenomenon from a
single perspective, and by one researcher utilizing a single research method with
a data collection and analysis strategy, may not yield rich and credible research
outcomes. Comparatively, when a study is conducted by multiple researchers who
explore the phenomenon of study from multiple perspectives and use more than
one research method, credibility is more likely to improve (Carter et al., 2014).
Irrespective of the triangulation-related strategy you choose, your goal is to show
the similarities of outcomes across multiple methods, perspectives, data sources,
and data collection and analysis strategies. By doing so, your audience will trust
what you found.
Transferability
Transferability is the ability to apply the findings of your study to similar contexts
in terms of research location, participants’ demographics and the situation
participants find themselves in (Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Smith & McGannon, 2018;
Stahl & King, 2020). So, how do you ensure that your findings are transferable? It
is all about collecting information on the context of your research and providing a
detailed description of the place where data was collected and the participants you
collected the data from. According to Smith (2018):
The question then is … “to what extent are these results transferable to other
settings?” For example, a physical educator, sport community leader, or health
policy-maker reading a qualitative report on how to promote active lifestyles
might want to know: “Is this something I can apply to my physical education
class, local community group, or country to encourage active lifestyles?” When
readers feel as though this can be the case –when they believe that research
overlaps with their own situation and/or they can intuitively transfer the findings
to their own action –then the research can be said to generalise through
transferability.
[Smith, 2018, pp. 140–141]
Another strategy for promoting transferability is to provide an extensive interpret-

ation of your findings (Smith, 2018).
Confirmability
Confirmability is about whether the research outcomes can be achieved utilizing a

research method different from what was initially used in the study, collecting data
from other data sources or analyzing data by another researcher. Think about your
findings when considering strategies to implement to ensure the confirmability of
your results. Ask the question, “What can I do in the study to help confirm the
results?” For instance, you can use a narrative method to confirm the findings of
your phenomenological study. Also, you could ask another researcher to review
your data analysis process to see whether it truly led to the results of the study.
Dependability
Dependability is the degree to which following a research procedure leads to similar

results. The question is, can researchers follow your actions and decisions and arrive
at findings similar to what you found in your study? To promote dependability, you
first need to be systematic in carrying out your study, documenting every step you
make. Another dependability-enhancing strategy is to provide detailed information
(about the steps you took in your study) when writing a report about your study. In
a dissertation, you are expected to share how you collected and analyzed the data,
thus increasing the dependability of your findings.
Ensuring Quality in a Mixed Methods Study

As discussed earlier in this book, mixed methods research entails using quantitative
and qualitative research methodology in a single study. This implies that, in gen-
eral, you need to adhere to the research quality assurance principles under both
quantitative and qualitative research. Because each of the research methods have
distinctive phenomenological paradigms and/or assumptions, ensuring quality and
rigor can be a challenge (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2003). In response, Onwuegbuzie
et al. (2011) suggested some criteria that researchers could use to assess the quality
of a mixed methods study. They divided them into four domains: “philosophical
assumptions and stances,” “inquiry logics,” “guidelines for research practice” and
“sociopolitical commitments” (Onwuegbuzie et al., 2011, p. 1257). If you plan to
do a mixed methods study, we suggest you review Onwuegbuzie et al.’s (2011) art-
icle, “Assessing Legitimation in Mixed Methods Research: A New Framework.”
There is other literature on promoting rigor in mixed methods research that you
could read to take note of the best practices (see NIH Office of Behavioral and
Social Sciences, 2018; Onwuegbuzie & Johnson, 2006).
To simplify the process of ensuring quality, you should implement validity-,
reliability-, credibility-, confirmability-, dependability- and transferability-related
strategies to improve the rigor of your research when conducting a mixed methods
study. Besides this, you are expected to describe:
• The type of mixed methods design used in your study, including detailing the
sequence of the methods’ implementation
• The role each of the methods will be playing in your study, including whether
they are playing an equal or unequal role
• Where and how you plan to integrate the two methodologies in the study
To learn more about mixed methods research best practices, see Table 18.1.
Summary
Researchers should be very familiar with the concept of reliability and validity. The
core foundation of measurement in studies is based on reliability and validity. The
task of dealing with reliability and validity will be a challenge for the researcher
who does not understand it.
There are many types of reliability in the arena of quantitative research as well
as qualitative research. There are many strategies for validity in both methodolo-
gies. This chapter discussed the different characteristics of quantitative reliability
Table 18.1 List of mixed methods research-related resources
Authors Article/Book Title
Creswell & Clark (2017) Designing and Conducting Mixed Methods Research
Creswell (2021) A Concise Introduction to Mixed Methods Research
Hanson et al. (2005) “Mixed Methods Research Designs in Counseling
Psychology”
Castro et al. (2010) “A Methodology for Conducting Integrative Mixed Methods
Research and Data Analyses”
Dowding (2013) “Best Practices for Mixed Methods Research in the Health
Sciences”
Johnson & Onwuegbuzie “Mixed Methods Research: A Research Paradigm Whose
(2004) Time Has Come”
and validity and qualitative reliability and validity. It provided different conceptual
models for understanding reliability and validity.
The purpose of this chapter was to provide some insight into reliability and val-
idity in the study. It provided some valuable knowledge, including the importance
of developing reliability and validity in the study. Thus, this chapter provided the
researcher with guidance, understanding and strategies in this area. This chapter
provided some practical strategies for researchers in terms of reliability and validity
in the social sciences. We discussed three things: writing about reliability and val-
idity in a quantitative study; writing about reliability and validity in a qualitative
study; and, lastly, writing about reliability and validity in a mixed methods study. By
the end of this chapter, the reader should be knowledgeable about these three core
research methodologies and areas.
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19 Writing Your Dissertation
The Standard Format –Chapter 1
(Introduction)
Objective
1. Write the introductory chapter of their dissertation
Introduction and Background of the Problem

The difficult endeavor that is writing the dissertation cannot be understated. With
this chapter, we want to provide a clear roadmap on how to write each section of
chapter one. There are some alternate versions of this chapter, so we want to pro-
vide a template to guide novice researchers and doctoral students. This chapter
provides some practical strategies for researchers who are writing these core sections
within the dissertation format. The chapter will start with the overview and the
basics of how to write it.
When developing the background of the study, there are some items that need to
be included. Many doctoral students have trouble writing this section. The problem
they usually have is that they still do not really understand the basics of their study.
When students begin to write this part, they are still confused about how they will
start the beginning of the study. There is a solution to this problem. First, think of
the background of the problem as the elevator pitch for the study. Second, think of
someone who has never heard of your study. The researcher needs to think about
how they will tell their story. Lastly, the researcher needs to state how and why the
study is significant or of any interest to anyone.
This section can be defined as a brief sketch giving the background infor-
mation necessary for readers’ understanding of the proposal. The writing of
this is most effective when it is (a) focused only on the background of the
problem to be presented; (b) succinct and brief; and (c) supporting the section
with enough documentation that justifies the need for the proposed study
(Webster, 1998a).
DOI: 10.4324/9781003268154-19
Writing Your Dissertation: Chapter 1 (Introduction) 323
Main Points and Directions
These are the main key points that doctoral researchers should consider when
developing the “Introduction and Background of the Problem” section of
chapter one:
• Provide a brief history of the problem

• Provide a summary of results from the prior empirical research on the topic
• Identify three to five research studies (primarily from the last three years) and
identify the stated need or possible research “gap”
• Identify the need for the study or the defined gap that will lead to the research
problem statement
• Build a justification for the current study by using a logical set of arguments
supported by citations
• Discuss how the problem is applicable beyond the local setting and contributes
to societal and/or professional needs
• Lastly, provide an overview of what will be discussed in the chapter
• Writing length: Minimum two to three paragraphs or approximately one page
(Miles, 2022)
By following these key points, the researcher can fully develop the “Introduction
and Background of the Problem” section of the chapter (see Example 19.1).
Example 19.1 Introduction and Background of the Problem
Field workers have a unique work environment that is different. The field workers
in the agricultural industry face a set of different trials stemming from issues in
the field. These issues with job stress for field workers is an unexplored topic
(Miles et al., 2020; Miles et al., 2014; Adu et al., 2014; Adu, 2013). There is a
need to address job stress levels in the agriculture industry and research institu-
tional practices to better respond to job satisfaction (Miles, 2019; Miles et al.,
2017). Adopting, integrating and successfully using job behavioral issues in the
industry presents a challenge. Job satisfaction adds a difficulty for some field
workers to manage and incorporate behavior modification practices successfully
(Miles, 2015; Miles & Adu, 2017). As such, pursuing this study may involve dif-
ficulty experienced and may stimulate feelings of uncertainty and skepticism,
which lead to job stress (Miles, 2017).
Job related stress is a term describing the anxiety, uncertainty and insecurity
engendered by the utilization tasks of the job. This category of stress hinders
individual field workers and productivity because it can result in resistance to
performing job functions (Miles, 1982). At the job environment, the time it takes
to learn new skills can perpetuate delays in job satisfaction. The field workers’ job
dissatisfaction continues piling up, prompting feelings of being unsatisfied with
324 Writing Your Dissertation: Chapter 1 (Introduction)
the organization (Miles, 1982; Miles et al., 2018). Job attrition rates can increase,
while the job functions can be arduous, there is a steep learning curve and there is
insecurity about job performance (Miles, 1982). Researchers have estimated that
US agricultural organizations lose approximately $500 billion each year because
of job stress and job dissatisfaction (Miles, 2018).
Prior researchers have explored the effects of job stress and job dissatisfaction
on field workers and made connections between job stress and job outcomes such
as job satisfaction and job performance (Miles, 2016; Adu & Robinson, 2019;
Miles et al., 2019). Some studies, however, have focused on the forerunners of job
stress, such as how personality types, demographic factors and job environment
(e.g., length of time of employment) can affect technostress (Miles et al., 2017;
Miles et al., 2016). Fewer studies have examined the effects of job stress within the
context of the job satisfaction demographic phenomenon in the US agricultural
industry (Miles et al., 2016). These researchers called for further examination of
job stress and field workers in more diverse populations (Miles & Adu, 2014). The
examination of job stress within the population of the US agricultural industry
remains an untapped opportunity to be researched (Miles et al., 2017; Miles et
al., 2016).
Overview of Chapter
This chapter will discuss the background of the study and the problem statement
sections of the study. The chapter will also discuss the purpose of the study, the
research questions and hypotheses sections, and it will introduce the research
methodology, design, target population and four research questions for examining
job stress in the US agricultural industry with field worker employees. Lastly, the
chapter will discuss the study’s significance, methodology rationale and research
design, introduce study-specific terms and highlight the assumptions, limitations
and delimitations of the study.
The Research Problem and the Problem Statement

After the background and introduction of the study has been written, now the
problem statement must be developed. There is a certain template when writing
up the problem statement. This section can be defined as a specific statement of
what the research will accomplish (Webster, 1998a). The research problem should
be broken down into sub-issues as discussed in Chapter 6 by using the Statement Grid
(Miles & Scott, 2017).
• Directions: First, write the overall problem statement. Second, divide the
problem to be investigated into two or three parts (or subproblems) that are
compelling. Please note, use the word issue when writing about the subproblem
so that it is not misinterpreted as three to four separate problem statements.
After using the Statement Grid to develop the problem statement, the researcher
should put it in paragraph form and add more content. These are the main key
points that the doctoral researcher should consider when developing the “Problem
Statement” section of chapter one:
• State the specific problem proposed for the research with a clear declarative
statement (“The central problem to be researched by the proposed study is …”)
• Break down the central problem into subproblems (issues) (use the Statement Grid)
• Discuss the problem statement in relation to the gap or need in the world if
possible.
• Describe the general population affected by the problem. The general popula-
tion refers to all individuals that could be affected by the study problem
• Describe the unit of analysis, which is the phenomenon, individuals, group or
organization under study
• Discuss the importance, scope or opportunity for the problem and the import-
ance of addressing the problem
• Writing length: Minimum of three to four paragraphs or approximately one
page (Miles, 2022)
By following these key points, the researcher can fully develop a cogent “Problem
Statement” section (see Table 19.1).
Example 19.2 Problem Statement
The central problem to be researched by the proposed study is the lack of lit-
eracy skills and content knowledge of 6th-grade students in middle school. As
a basis for this study, the researcher identified the problem to be threefold. First,
the prevailing issue is that many adolescent students entering middle school lack
the literacy skills that are foundational for reading comprehension (Miles, 2013;
Adu et al., 2018). According to Miles et al. (2015), secondary students demon-
strate insufficient “comprehension skills to be successful learners in the classroom
(p. 258).”
Secondly, the prevailing issue is that CCSS have increased the need for
students to interact with expository non-fiction text (Miles & Adu, 2015; Adu
et al., 2013). Social studies as a field is an area of interest due to the challenges
that social studies texts impose on students and the increased demands of literacy
instruction in secondary content-area classes (Adu & Miles, 2012; Miles, 2014).
Many times, social studies textbooks are often written with high complexity, which
impacts students’ text comprehension (Miles et al., 2014). Because of this, social
studies teachers must employ instructional strategies that will increase students’
ability to comprehend content.
Lastly, the prevailing issue is that 6th-grade adolescents in a large urban school
district in the southeast are under-represented in previous social studies research
(Adu et al., 2012; Miles, 2012). Much of the prior research has shown that students
transitioning to 6th-grade often experience gaps in learning that often perpetuates
once they enter middle school (Miles et al., 2015). Standardized assessments have
shown that there is a decline in 6th-grade students’ test scores (Miles, 2015).
The Purpose Statement

The purpose statement is defined as a declarative statement that defines the goal
and objective of the study. The purpose statement is a type of go-between for
the problem statement and the research statement with research questions. The
Problem Statement:

First, the prevailing issue Second, the prevailing Last, the prevailing issue is
is that the education issue in the United that the current nursing
of new nurses is the States is that 75% of the faculty express low job
responsibility of nursing faculty will reach satisfaction (Bittner &
institutions of higher retirement age in 2017 O’Connor, 2012) due
education, but there (Brett et al., 2014). This to complexities of the
is a national shortage is alongside the existing nursing educator role
of nursing faculty problem that 6.9% of making the retention
(McSherry et al., 2012; nursing faculty positions and recruitment of
Rosseter, 2015) , which is remain unfilled due to a qualified faculty difficult
limiting the enrollment, lack of qualified nursing (Byme & Martine, 2014).
education and educators (Rosseter, The current problems
graduation of new 2015). include a shortage of
nurses from institutions qualified nursing faculty
of higher learning. to educate new nurses,
the complexity of nursing
education and current
faculty complaints of
poor job satisfaction
(Cook, 2017).
Note: In-text citations included for illustrative purposes only.

research purpose statement should be stated objectively or in a way that does not
reflect particular biases or values of the researcher (Long et al., 1985; Calabrese,
2006; Jacobs, 2011; Terrell, 2015; Abbas, 2020).
Again, the purpose statement should be broken down into subobjectives as
discussed in Chapter 7 by using the Statement Grid (Miles & Scott, 2017), and they
should align with the sub-issues in the problem statement (see Chapter 9 on research
alignment).
• Directions: First, write the overall purpose statement. Second, divide the
purpose to be investigated into two or three objectives (or subpurposes) that
align with the issues (subproblems) of the problem statement (see Table 19.2).
Please note, use the word objective when writing about the subpurpose so that it is
not misinterpreted as four separate purpose statements.
Main Key Points and Directions
After using the Statement Grid to develop the purpose statement, the researcher
should put it in paragraph form and add more content. These are the main key
points that the doctoral researcher should consider when developing the “Purpose
Statement” section of chapter one:
• Present a declarative statement: (“The purpose of this study is to …”)

• Break down the purpose statement from the central problem into subpurposes
(objectives) (use the Statement Grid)
• Write and align the purpose statement (and objectives) with the problem
statement (and sub-issues)
• Describe the target population and geographic location
• Quantitative studies: Define the variables and the relationship of the variables
• Qualitative studies: Describe the nature of the phenomena to be explored
• ALIGNMENT: Make sure the purpose statement (and objectives) aligns with
the problem statement (and sub-issues)
• Writing length: Minimum of two to three paragraphs (Miles, 2022)
By following these key points, the researcher can fully develop the “Purpose
Statement” section of the study (see Table 19.2).
Example 19.3 Purpose Statement
The purpose of this study is to investigate the lived experiences of parental

involvement and how it contributes to the lives of their deaf children in their
classrooms and education in a Title 1 school in Houston, Texas. This is a quali-
tative research study using a descriptive approach that will utilize structured
interviews with open-ended questions to investigate the lived experiences of
participants on parental involvement in the lives of their deaf students.
The sample is derived from a population of parents of deaf children studying

in Title 1 schools that offer education programs in Houston, Texas. The study
employs a sample size of 25 parents who are committed or involved with the
educational activities of their deaf children. The participants share their lived
experiences through interviews that will focus on questions centered specifically
on the six categories outlined by Monica Weinstein.
Thus, the purpose of this study is to illustrate how the lived experiences of
parental involvement contribute to the academic achievement of deaf children in
classrooms in Houston, Texas. As a basis for the study, the researchers identified
two primary objectives of the study. The first objective is to examine the parents’
lived experiences with deaf children in classrooms. Based on this objective, the
researchers seek to know how the parents’ experiences influence the academic
performance of their deaf children. Moreover, the objective is derived from cat-
egories of the Epstein Parental Involvement Model, whereby various involvement
approaches are proposed and proven to influence the academic achievement of
deaf children (Weinstein, 1989).
Last, the second objective is to investigate the experiences of parental involve-
ment and its importance for the development of the deaf child. The development
of deaf children is determined by parental care and overall parental involvement
in every other aspect of the child’s life. This objective seeks to know how using
the six categories of the Weinstein Parental Involvement Model impacts on the
overall development of deaf children (Weinstein, 1987; Weinstein, 1989).
Research Statement and Research Questions

The research statement is a somewhat new concept with dissertations. It is just
a statement in which the researcher describes the research and aligns it with the
problem statement and purpose statement. It does not have to be anything long and

The purpose of this study is to investigate the issues affecting job satisfaction by nursing faculty members
in metropolitan New York. Interviewing and questioning nursing faculty living in metropolitan

First, the objective of this Second, the objective of this Lastly, the objective of
study is to examine the study is to investigate the this study is to examine
issue of job satisfaction impact of low wages on the complexities of the
among nursing faculty. the nursing faculty, nursing faculty role (Cook,
2017).
elaborate. The research statement is the statement before the research questions.
This is an example of a research statement: “The central problem to be researched
is the shortage in the nursing field. There are three research questions that will
guide this research (Cook, 2017).” This research statement aligns with the problem
statement and purpose statement.
Research Questions
Again, the research question is usually the first step in any research project. The
research question is the primary interrogation point of your research, and it sets the
pace of your work. The research question focuses on the research, determines the
methodology and hypothesis and guides all stages of inquiry, analysis and reporting.
The research question is defined as the questions asked to address the problem raised
in the problem statement (Calabrese, 2009; ). Furthermore, the research question
orients everything the researcher does with the study. The research question (a) is
precise, (b) covers exactly the issue you wish to address, and (c) indicates how you
will create your answer (Bryant, 2004).
The research questions should align with the problem statement (sub-issues)
and the purpose statement (subobjectives) (see Chapter 9 on research alignment).
Developing the research questions is one of the hardest parts of starting the disser-
tation for doctoral students. It is important to make sure your research questions
address these characteristics: (a) they must be precise; (b) they must cover the
problem you want to address; and (c) they must indicate how you will create the
answer (Creswell, 2009; Rudestam & Newton, 2007; Creswell, 2013; Singh, 2020).
• Directions: First, write the research statement. Second, divide the research
questions to be investigated into two or three questions that align with the issues
(subproblems) of the problem statement and the purpose statement objectives
(see Table 19.3).

The central problem to be researched involves how principals manage job stress. There are three research
questions that will guide this research.

RQ1: How do K–12 RQ2: How do K–12 pri RQ3: How do K–12
principals and ncipals and administrators principals and
administrators describe describe their experiences administrators describe
their experiences of of using coping skills for their experiences of
job stress in an urban job stress in an urban coping with work-life
Central Texas school Central Texas school balance and job stress
district environment? district environment? in an urban Central
Texas school district
environment (Beltran,
2020)?
Again, when developing the research questions, we will use the Statement Grid. The
Statement Grid is a helpful tool that aids students visually with the research statement.
See Table 19.3 for an example of the development of the research statement and
research questions using the Statement Grid.

After using the Statement Grid to develop the research statement and research
questions, the researcher should put it in paragraph form and add more content.
These are the main key points that the doctoral researcher should consider when
developing the “Research Questions” section of chapter one:
• Prepare a declarative statement: (“The central problem to be researched

involves …”)
• Develop the research questions
• Write and align the research questions with the purpose statement (and object-
ives) and with the problem statement (and sub-issues)
• For qualitative studies: State the research question(s) the study will answer and
describe the phenomenon to be studied. Note: The research questions provide
guidance for the data that will be collected to answer the research questions; they
do not identify the instruments
• For quantitative studies: State the research questions the study will answer, iden-
tify and describe the variables and state the hypotheses (predictive statements)
using the appropriate format for the specific design and statistical analysis
• This section includes a discussion of the research questions, relating them to the
problem statement. If quantitative, the research questions need to be connected
to the theory(s) or model(s) from the theoretical foundation section as well
• ALIGNMENT: Make sure the purpose statement (and objectives) aligns with
the problem statement (and sub-issues)
• Writing length: Minimum of two to three paragraphs or one page (Miles, 2022)
By following these key points, the researcher can fully develop the “Research
Statement and Research Questions” section of the study. Again, by making sure to
follow these main points, the researcher will be able to fully develop the research
questions to address the problem statement.
Example 19.4 Research Questions
The central problem to be researched involves how principals manage job stress.
There are three research questions that will guide this research. This qualitative,
descriptive study examines how principals experience job satisfaction. There is a
need for research examining the job satisfaction of principals (Adu, 2015; Miles
& Adu, 2015; Miles, 2017). It is critical to learn what factors affect the job satis-
faction of principals in metropolitan Colorado. Factors affecting job satisfaction
potentially provide positive or negative personal experiences related to work and

the workplace environment. Listed below are the guiding research questions for
this research study.
Research Questions:
• RQ1: How do the principals in K–12 schools describe their experience of

job satisfaction working in a college or university?
factors that cause positive job satisfaction?
factors that cause negative job satisfaction?
This study uses a qualitative methodology and a descriptive research design. This
study asks principals in K–12 schools to describe their experience of job satis-
faction. The literature review presents multiple theories and causations for poor
job satisfaction and methodologies for improving job satisfaction. The problem
statement reflects that it is not known how principals working in Colorado experi-
ence job satisfaction. The guiding research questions for this study ask principals
to describe their experience of job satisfaction.
Furthermore, the research questions probe nursing faculty members to clarify
factors causing positive or negative job satisfaction. Weinberg’s Motivation-
Hygiene Theory describes hygiene factors affecting job satisfaction (Weinberg,
1985). Using Weinberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory as the organizing theor-
etical framework for this study, the research questions are narrowed to examine
factors that enhance job satisfaction or cause job dissatisfaction for principals in
K–12 schools.
Theoretical/Conceptual Framework
The theoretical/conceptual framework is defined as the practice of describing the
theory used by the researcher to guide the study. The researcher’s choice of a well-
developed theoretical perspective is grounded in the researcher’s theory of the focus
of inquiry. In describing the theoretical frameworks, the researcher attempts to
provide the theoretical and empirical antecedents to some theoretical perspectives
(Calabrese, 2009).
The theoretical framework is also called a theoretical base. However, not all disser-
tation committees require a separate section on theoretical frameworks in chapter
one. Every school is different, and every school has a different policy regarding this
first chapter. The theoretical framework provides the foundation for the study based
on theory and the prior research (Long et al., 1985; Bryant, 2004; Calabrese, 2009)
(see Example 19.5).
developing the “Theoretical Foundations” section of chapter one:
• Find a theory or theoretical model as a basis for the study

• Cite the appropriate pivotal sources for each theory or conceptual model
• Discuss the basic framework of the theory or concept
• Justify the theoretical foundation and framework as relevant to the study
• Connect the study directly to the theory and provide a narrative of the connection
• Describe how the study will add or extend the theory or model
• For quantitative studies: Have one theory for each variable. For example, use the
model the survey is based on or use the theory or model upon which the instru-
ment is based
• Distinguish between the model or theories being used for the research questions
and data collection vs. the background models and theories generically relevant
to the study
• Build a logical argument for how the research questions are developed based on
the theoretical foundation for the study
• Writing length: Minimum of two to three pages (Miles, 2022)
Again, by following these key points, the researcher can fully develop this section
of the study (see Example 19.5).
Example 19.5 Theoretical/Conceptual Framework
The job stress-demographic model (Miles & Adu, 2014) is the theoretical frame-
work for the proposed study. The aim of the proposed study is understanding the
effects of demographic factors on job stress among US agricultural field workers.
The job stress-demographic model provided a framework for this investigation.
Miles and Adu (2014) looked at relationships between demographic factors
(gender, age, tenure, technological awareness and marital status) and job stress
among field workers working in the agriculture industry in Wyoming. Specifically,
the researchers designed the job stress-demographic model for postulating the
existence of relationships between demographic factors such as those included in
Miles and Adu’s (2014) study and those included in the current study. Figure 19.1
provides a graphical representation of the job stress conceptual model used by
Miles and Adu (2015).
Miles and Adu (2014) created and used the job stress-demographic model
when examining job stress in academicians working in universities in India
(N =216). The job stress-demographic model was helpful in determining that
male field workers experienced more job stress than female workers (t = -3.51, p <
0.01). In addition, the job stress-demographic model was helpful in determining
Figure 19.1 Job stress-demographic model.
that faculty members with more job dissatisfaction experienced less job stress
than those with less job stress awareness (t = -3.51, p < 0.01), and field workers
above 35 years of age felt more job stress than field workers below 35 years of
age (t =3.12, p < 0.05).
Finally, the job stress-demographic model was helpful in determining that
marital status did not affect levels of job stress among field workers working in
factories in Wyoming. The proposed study answers the call for future job stress
research to include more diverse samples within the agriculture sector and add-
itional demographic variables (Miles & Adu, 2014). The job stress-demographic
model was useful when examining relationships between demographic factors
and job stress among field workers in factories in Wyoming. The job stress-
demographic model, revised to include the current study’s demographic variables,
will, therefore, provide a suitable framework for examining demographic factors
(job stress awareness, gender and position status) and their effects on job satisfac-
tion in US agricultural field workers.
Assumptions, Limitations and Delimitations

The assumptions, limitations and delimitations section sets the conditions for the
study. For example, the assumptions are what the researcher assumes about the
study, the limitations are the constraints of the study based on the methodology,
and the delimitations are the constraints of the study based on the population
scope. In my experience, novice researchers and doctoral students still have trouble
understanding these three terms and their meanings. Establishing these three terms
will set the standard for the study (Long et al., 1985; Bryant, 2004; Miles & Scott,
2017) (see Example 19.6).
These are the main key points that the doctoral researcher should consider
when developing the “Assumptions, Limitations and Delimitations” section of
chapter one:
• Provide a definition of the terms assumption, limitation and delimitation at the begin-
ning of each section
• State the assumptions being made in the study (methodological, theoretical and
topic-specific)
• Provide a rationale for each assumption
• Identify the limitations of the research method, design sampling strategy, data
collection approach, instruments and data analysis
• Provide a rationale for each limitation
• Discuss any associated consequences for the generalizability and applicability
of the findings
• Identify the delimitations of the research design and any associated consequences
for the generalizability and applicability of the findings
• Provide a rationale for each delimitation
• Writing length: Minimum of two to three paragraphs or one page (Miles, 2022)
Again, by following these key points, the researcher can fully develop
the “Assumptions, Limitations and Delimitations” section of the study (see
Examples 19.6, 19.7 and 19.8).
Limitations
In my many years of work with doctoral students, I have found that there is still a
prevailing confusion between the terms limitation and delimitation. I have seen this to
be the case with both experienced researchers and novice researchers. Limitations
are defined as constraints on the study based on the research methodology and
research design (Miles & Scott, 2017). Limitations are things the researcher cannot
control because they are constraints inherent in the research methodology (see
Table 19.4 and Example 19.6).
Example 19.6 Limitations of the Study
Limitations are comprised of the restrictions implemented by the researcher’s

choice of methodology. These are factors in the study that cannot be controlled
by the researcher. As a basis for the study, the limitations were threefold.
1. The first limitation in this study is the instrumentation. This study used an
instrument that was closed and did not have open-ended questions.
2. The second limitation is the data collection. This study used aggregated data
that was collected from the state in a publicly accessible medium. This is
limited in descriptive statistics.
3. The last limitation was the course. Teen Leadership is one of several different
character education opportunities offered throughout the state. Further
investigation into other programs may offer different insights (Zeig, 2019).
Table 19.4 Examples of limitations
Common Quantitative Limitations Common Qualitative Limitations

• Research methodology • Research methodology
• Research design (type) • Research design (type)
• Use of self-reported data (survey) • Use of self-reported data (interviews)
• Time constraints (time to collect data) • Time constraints (time to interview
• Length of survey instrument subjects)
• Design of survey instrument • Length of study’s interview time with
• Sampling design (random, stratified or participants
clustering, systematic, convenience); • Design of interview questions
probability sampling-based • Sampling design (purposive, quota
• Sampling bias and snowball); non-probability
• Target population constraints sampling-based
• Data collection modality type • Target population constraints
• Survey question types (closed-ended) • Data collection modality type
• Survey bias • Interview question types (open-ended)
• Researcher misinterpretation of • Researcher bias
participant data from surveys • Researcher misinterpretation of
participant data from interviews
Delimitations/Scope of the Study

Delimitations are defined as constraints on your study based on the population scope
(Miles & Scott, 2017). Think of delimitations as the boundaries of your study.
Delimitations are defined as chiefly concerned with the scope of the study. Again,
another recurring problem that doctoral students have is misunderstanding the true
meaning of a delimitation. This is confusing to them because of the generic defin-
ition of a delimitation: The characteristics of a study in which the researcher can
control the delimitations.
When you write about the delimitations, the sentence should always begin as
follows: This study was delimited to …. You have to set the parameters of your study
so that you cannot say your results are generalizable to other areas of the country
or other studies with dissimilar results. You want to start off with four categories,
from the unit of analysis to the state of the data collection (see Table 19.5 and
Example 19.7).
Table 19.5 T he Statement Grid for delimitations
Overall Statement:
This study had some delimitations that restricted the study. The researcher identified four delimitations
concerning the scope of this study. The study was delimited by certain conditions that were identified for
this research inquiry.
Delimitation 1: Delimitation 2: Delimitation 3: Delimitation 4:

First, the study Second, the study Third, the study Lastly, the study
was delimited to was delimited to was delimited to was delimited
domestic violence the metropolitan the surrounding to the state of
victims (DVV). city of Los counties of the California.
(unit of analysis) Angeles. Los Angeles area. (state)
(metropolitan city) (surrounding
counties and
non-city areas)
Example 19.7 Delimitations of the Study
The delimitations of a study are those characteristics that arise from limitations
in the scope of the study (defining boundaries) and by the conscious exclu-
sionary and inclusionary decisions made during the development of the study
plan (Simon & Goes, 2013). The delimitations are those characteristics that limit
the scope and define the boundaries of your study (Miles & Scott, 2017). The
following delimitations will be present at the time this study is conducted:
1. The study is delimited to air transportation organization employees and

will not assess other types of organizations in the geographical location of
Puerto Rico. To mitigate the delimitation of the organizations where the
study will be conducted, the researcher will collect data from the most pos-
sible air transportation companies.
2. The study is delimited to organizations in Puerto Rico. To minimize the
delimitation of the employees, the study will collect data from employees in
all positions within the organization.
3. The study is delimited to floor employees, office employees and managers at
the air transportation organization site. No employees at the high leadership
level (CEO, vice presidents of operations, etc.) will be assessed in this study
(Morales, 2017).
Assumptions
Assumptions can be defined as things that are somewhat out of your control, but
if they disappeared your study would become irrelevant (Hubbard, 1973; Simon,
2011; Simon & Goes, 2013). Another definition of an assumption is an unexamined
belief that the researcher brings to the study and that is accepted as being valid
(Bryant, 2004).
General Types of Assumptions
When considering the assumptions, the researcher should list the major assumptions
underlying the study. Here are some general types of assumptions:
• Behavior is characterized by some degree of consistency

• The behavior of interest is observable and properly measured
• All individuals in a group benefit equally from a group treatment
• Subjects have the ability to report their perceptions accurately
• The time allotted for the treatment is adequate to produce the desired effects
• All the important variables influencing the dependent variable have been con-
trolled or explicitly included in the design
• Student achievement is a function of both in-school and out-of-school factors
(Long et al., 1985) (see Example 19.8)
Example 19.8 Assumptions of the Study
The school district that is the foundation of this study has a variety of races, which
is represented in the teaching pool. Though there are more non-performing arts
teachers than performing arts teachers in the school district, there should be a
good representation as far as the data is concerned. The following assumptions
are present in this study:
1. It is assumed that the participants in this study will answer the survey as
honestly as possible.
2. It is assumed that the participants will be mentally capable of answering and
completing the survey.
3. It is assumed that the participants have the background and experience to
answer and complete the survey.
4. It is assumed that the participants are employed as teachers in the K–12
school system in the area where the study is being conducted (Jefferson, 2021).
Significance of the Study

Significance is an explanation of why the proposed study is important and why
it represents a potential contribution to the field. Its emphasis should be on why
the study is worthwhile (Webster, 1998b). The significance of the study is your
argument as to why the study makes a significant and original contribution to the
profession, the scholarly literature and your discipline. The significance of a study
answers questions related to why the topic is worth studying (Calabrese, 2006).
The significance of a study describes why the study is important. There are three
types of significance of a study: (a) theoretical significance, (b) practical significance, and
(c) research significance. Of the three types of significance, the researcher provides
arguments for the theoretical contributions that should be developed from the lit-
erature (Long et al., 1985; Miles & Scott, 2017).

developing the “Significance of the Study” section of chapter one:
• Describe how the research fits with and will contribute to or advance the current
literature, body of research or body of knowledge
• Describe the significance of the study (theoretical, practical or research)
• Describe the contributions of the study (theoretical/conceptual, empirical or
methodological) (see Chapter 12 for more on this)
• Describe the potential practical applications of the research
• Identify the theory(ies) or model(s) that provide the theoretical foundations or
conceptual frameworks for the study
• Connect the study directly to the theory and describe how the study will add or
extend the theory or model
• Describe how addressing the problem will add value to the population, commu-
nity or society
• Writing length: Minimum of one to two pages (Miles, 2022)
Again, by following these key points, the researcher can fully develop the
“Significance of the Study” section. This will meet the standards of the university’s
dissertation committee (see Example 19.9).
Example 19.9 Significance of the Study
As a basis for this study, the researcher identified two major reasons why this study
is significant. First, this study is important because it provides practical significance.
This study is important because of its application of the study’s results to limited
research on 6th-grade mathematics literacy strategies that improve mathematics
comprehension and increase mathematics content. Not only does this study con-
tribute to the field of K–12 education, but it also provides valuable insight and
perspective to support the literacy needs of rural communities. In a study that
examined the disproportionate use of referrals and out-of-school suspensions by
mathematics teachers, the researchers found a correlation between 6th-grade
students who experienced one or more suspensions and those who experienced
suspensions in 7th grade (Miles & Adu, 2012). Additionally, it was found that
the same 6th-grade students who experienced one or more suspensions scored
below the 50th percentile on a standardized mathematics assessment (Miles &

Adu, 2012). Therefore, insufficient literacy skills can impact student behavior,
absenteeism partially due to referrals and suspensions, disengagement and overall
school success (Adu & Miles, 2015).
Second, this study is important because it provides research significance.
This study is an extension of prior research on the use of Type X assessments
in 6th-grade mathematics classrooms. This study will help rural communities
to improve because of the implementation of instructional practices that meet
the needs of disproportionate youth. When students in rural areas increase
their reading abilities by taking an active role in their learning process, stu-
dent discipline concerns will decrease. Students may be more engaged and less
bored, which will decrease the possibility of them acting out in class. Type X
implemented with content area instruction aids students in active engagement
and increased motivation. This research study will analyze the pre-and post-
assessment results of students who have received mathematics instruction using
a Type X assessment compared to students who have received traditional lec-
ture and note-taking instruction (Miles & Gleason, 2003; Adu et al., 2015; Miles
et al., 2017). The present study extends the study of the impact of Type X
assessments on increasing 6th-grade students’ mathematics content knowledge.
The study will present instructional strategies that will help secondary educators
to understand how the current literacy practices for 6th-grade mathematics
teachers might be improved.
Contributions of the Study

As a basis for this study, the researcher identified a key contribution. This study
offers an empirical contribution. This study offers two key empirical contributions
to the body of knowledge. First, this study makes an empirical contribution
because of its evaluation of the study’s results to limited research on 7th-grade
mathematics literacy strategies. These are strategies that improve mathematics
comprehension and increase mathematics content. Not only does this study con-
tribute to the field of K–12 education, but it also provides valuable insight and
perspective to support the literacy needs of rural communities. In a study that
examined the disproportionate use of referrals and out-of-school suspensions by
mathematics teachers, the researchers found a correlation between 6th-grade
students who experienced one or more suspensions and those who experienced
suspensions in 7th grade (Miles & Adu, 2012). Additionally, it was found that
the same 7th-grade students who experienced one or more suspensions scored
below the 50th percentile on a standardized mathematics assessment (Miles &
Adu, 2012). Therefore, insufficient literacy skills can impact student behavior,
absenteeism partially due to referrals and suspensions, disengagement and overall
school success (Adu & Miles, 2015).
Second, this study makes another empirical contribution because it will help
rural communities to evaluate and improve the implementation of mathematics
instructional practices for the disproportionate youth. When students in rural
areas increase their mathematics abilities by taking an active role in their learning
process, student discipline concerns will decrease. Students may be more engaged
and less bored, which will decrease the possibility of acting out in class. Type X
implemented with content area instruction aids students in active engagement
and increased motivation. This research study will analyze the pre-and post-
assessment results of students who have received mathematics instruction using
a Type X assessment compared to students who have received traditional lecture
and note-taking instruction (Miles & Gleason, 2003; Adu et al., 2015; Miles et al.,
2017). The present study extends the study of the impact of Type X assessments
on increasing 7th-grade students’ mathematics content knowledge. The study will
present instructional strategies that will help secondary educators to understand
how the current literacy practices for 7th-grade mathematics teachers might be
improved.
Summary
This chapter discussed the writing of chapter one of your dissertation. It provided
a conceptual model for developing the sections of the chapter and a conceptual
model and tool to help doctoral students and researchers develop the chapter. To
begin writing a chapter is the first step in the dissertation journey. This is an enor-
mous task. In this chapter we provided a basis for the researcher to develop their
dissertation. This chapter provided researchers with some valuable knowledge on
and insight into the correct dissertation format.
This chapter provided some practical strategies for researchers who are writing
these core sections within the dissertation format. In this chapter, we discussed five
things: first, how to write the introduction and background of the study; second,
how to write the problem statement, purpose statement and research statement of
the study; third, how to write about the significance of the study; fourth, how to
write about the assumptions, limitations and delimitations of the study; and, lastly,
how to write the main points and directions for the sections in the study. By the end
of this chapter, the reader should be knowledgeable about these five core areas of
the dissertation’s first, introductory chapter.
References
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view/the-research-purpose-3-dr-wafa-a-k-abbas-defi nition-6307e5.html
Beltran, V. (2020). A descriptive study of central Texas urban school principals’ experience of influences
contributing to job stress. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses.
Bryant, M. T. (2004). The Portable Dissertation Advisor. Corwin Press, Inc.

Calabrese, R. (2006). The Elements of An Effective Dissertation And Thesis: A Step-By-Step Guide To
Getting It Right The First Time. Rowman & Littlefield Education, Inc.
Calabrese, R. (2009). The Dissertation Desk Reference: The Doctoral Student’s Manual To Writing The
Dissertation. Rowman & Littlefield Education, Inc.
Cook, L. (2017). The Current Issues Affecting Job Satisfaction By Nursing Faculty As A Lived Experience
Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (3rd
ed.). Sage. www.ucg.ac.me/skladiste/blog_609332/objava_105202/fajlovi/Creswell.pdf
Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry and research design choosing among five approaches. Sage.
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Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation.
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Rocco and T. Hatcher (Eds.), The handbook of scholarly writing and publishing (pp. 125–141).
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sertation chair: Dissertation chapter auditing [Virtual workshop for doctoral students].
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mistakes doctoral students make with the dissertation. 5th Annual 2017 Black Doctoral Network
Conference, Atlanta, GA.
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tent and process. Sage Publications Inc.
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Success, LLC.
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Success, LLC.
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Scholarwrite.
Webster, W. G. (1998b). 21 models for developing and writing theses, dissertations, and projects.
(Literature Review)
Objective
1. Write the literature review chapter of their dissertation
Introduction and Overview

In this section, you first remind your readers about the problem and the purpose of
the study. Then, you share what should be expected in this literature review chapter,
highlighting the main sections and/or topics you will be writing about.
developing the “Overview” section of chapter two:
• State the research problem or gap

• State the purpose of the study
• Provide an overview of what you plan to discuss in this chapter
Example 20.1 Overview
Although there have been conservations within the academic community about
the use of ChatGPT (an artificial intelligence chatbot), there was limited empir-
ical evidence in support of how university faculty and graduate students view
the utilization of this Al tool and the concerns they have about it (D’Agostino,
2023). The purpose of the study was to examine how ChatGPT can be used
in the academic world and explore concerns associated with adopting this AI
chatbot. In this chapter, I review relevant literature in relation to the topic of
ChatGPT adaptation, use and concerns within the academic field. I started this
DOI: 10.4324/9781003268154-20
Writing Your Dissertation: Chapter 2 (Literature Review) 343
review by describing where and how the literature was accessed. After describing
the literature search strategies, detailed information about the conceptual frame-
work and concepts related to ChatGPT adoption and utilization literature were
reviewed.
Notes about ChatGPT

ChatGPT is an artificial-intelligence-powered chat system that is capable of responding
to questions you ask or command/prompt you give (Atlas, 2023). This chatbot, developed
by OpenAI (https://openai.com/), has been trained on a huge amount of information
gathered from the Internet. If an appropriate prompt is given, ChatGPT (https://chat.
openai.com/) can provide useful information, dramatically cutting the amount of time
spent in getting similar information from conventional means. As Alshater (2022) puts it,
“It is trained on a large dataset of human-human conversations and can generate appro-
priate responses to questions and prompts given by users. It can also generate complete
conversations on its own, making it a powerful tool for NLP research” (p. 2).
Literature Search and Selection

The literature search strategies section is where you present how and where you
searched for literature related to your topic and selected relevant ones for review.
There are three main reasons why this section is very important. Firstly, as part of
promoting the transparency of the study, you are expected to share the strategies
you used to search for appropriate literature for review. Secondly, it is a way of edu-
cating your readers in the techniques used to search and select the right literature
for your study. Lastly, sharing how you got the literature you reviewed helps future
researchers to replicate what you did if need be.
writing the “Literature Search and Selection” section in chapter two:
• Describe the databases you used to search for literature related to your topic
• State the search terms you used to search for the literature
• Share the criteria you used to selected relevant literature for review
Example 20.2 Literature Search and Selection
At the time that I was searching for literature to review, ChatGPT had been
released for public use for about three months. Due to this there were a few
databases that had literature relevant to my topic. I used the Sage Journal and
344 Writing Your Dissertation: Chapter 2 (Literature Review)
ERIC databases to get access to ChatGPT-related literature. Besides, the Google

Scholar search engine was used to search for literature, including their sources.
The following terms were used to access articles: “ChatGPT impact on educa-
tion,” “ChatGPT and Research” and “ChatGPT and education.” To be selected
as a part of the review, the literature should touch on one of the following areas:
• Role of ChatGPT in promoting academic work

• Functions of ChatGPT
• Meaning of ChatGPT
• Limitations of ChatGPT
• Benefits of ChatGPT
• Ethical issues related to ChatGPT
In addition, I searched for literature that focused on studying or discussing the

diffusion of innovation theory. The diffusion of innovations was the theory
I used to develop the conceptual/theoretical framework for this study. The terms
I used to search for literature related to this theory were “Rogers’ diffusion of
innovations,” “diffusion of innovations and technology” and “diffusion of tech-
nology.” Utilizing these search strategies helped in getting access to relevant lit-
erature to review.
Conceptual/Theoretical Framework
The conceptual/theoretical framework reflects a description of the theory, model
or concepts that inform your study. The framework for your study can be written
in chapter one. However, some institutions or dissertation chairs/supervisors may
ask you to expand what was written in chapter one by sharing and synthesizing
academic authors’ and researchers’ views on the features, components, strengths,
weaknesses and/or assumptions about the theory, model or concepts you have
selected for your study. In addition, you are expected to review how the selected
theory, models or concepts have been used by researchers if studies related to your
framework have been done.
writing the “Conceptual/Theoretical Framework” section in chapter two:
• State the theory, model or concepts used in the development of the framework
• Describe the originator(s) of the theory, model or concepts
• Describe the characteristics of the theory, model or concepts
• Present the components of the theory or model
• Describe the views and assertions of scholars and researchers in relation to the
theory, model or concepts
• Describe the studies done (if any) that utilize the theory, model or concepts
Example 20.3 Conceptual/Theoretical Framework
The theory selected to inform this study was the diffusion of innovations (Dearing
& Cox, 2018). This theory was developed by Rogers (2003). The diffusion of
innovation theory explains how innovations are adopted and used by people
over time. In other words, the theory evolves around how new technologies are
accepted and utilized over time (Sahin, 2006). “Rogers’ diffusion of innovations
theory is the most appropriate for investigating the adoption of technology in
higher education and educational environments” (Sahin, 2006, p. 14). Similarly,
the theory best informed this study because it focused on exploring the diffusion
process of ChatGPT within the academic world, examining the use of this AI
chatbot among the university faculty and graduate students. Diffusion is how the
information about, and utilization of, an innovation moves from the innovators
of a technology to the end users (Wejnert, 2002).
Diffusion
Informed by Rogers’ (2003) diffusion of innovation theory, Dearing and Cox
(2018) asserted that the factors impacting diffusion are characteristics of innov-
ation, characteristics of innovators (or adopters) and environmental context.
According to Rogers (2003), there are five stages of the innovation-decision
process (which is also known as communication or diffusion channels). These
are the knowledge stage (where adopters have information about the innovation),
persuasion stage (where adopters’ affect, feelings or emotions towards the innov-
ation is ignited), decision stage (where adopters make a choice to use or not use the
innovation), implementation stage (where adopters use the innovation) and confirm-
ation stage (where adopters seek support for their decision to utilize the innovation)
(Sahin, 2006).
Innovation
Based on the diffusion of innovations, features of the innovation could impact
the diffusion of new technology such as ChatGPT (Çakıroğlu et al., 2022). Five
main factors related to innovation characteristics that could affect diffusion are
adopters’ perceived “relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability,
and observability” of the innovation (Çakıroğlu et al., 2022, p. 89). These
factors help address questions like: Will the new technology efficiently and
effectively help the adopters accomplish a task better than the old one (i.e.,
relative advantage)? How consistent is the innovation to the adopters’ “values,
culture and needs” (i.e., compatibility)? How much easier can the innovation be
used (i.e., complexity)? Can the innovation be experimented with less or no risk
(i.e., trialability)? Can the outcome of utilizing the innovation be easily noticed
(i.e., observability) (Goh & Sigala, 2020; pp. 5–6). Empirically, the relationship
between the diffusion of innovations and the above-mentioned factors has been
explored in studies. One of these was a study conducted by Lee and Worthy
(2021) to determine whether relative advantage, compatibility, complexity and
trialability are related to the adoption of fad diets. Based on the results, there
was a statistically significant relationship between complexity, trialability and
fad diet adoption, but not between relative advantage, compatibility and fad
diet adoption.
Characteristics of Innovators (or Adopters)

When looking at a community of users of innovations, according to Rogers
(2003), there are five different kinds of adopters. These include innovators, early
adopters, early majority, late majority and laggards (Sahin, 2006). Innovators
are adopters who are ready to explore and use new technologies, while early
adopters adopt innovations and show people how to use them (Çakıroğlu
et al., 2022). The early majority adopt new technologies as they interact with
people utilizing them, while the late majority “wait until most of their peers
adopt the innovation” (Sahin, 2006, p. 20). Finally, the laggers have limited
interactions with the initial users of the innovations, such as the innovators and
early adopters. They normally use new technologies after observing a successful
outcome of the adoption by other members of the society (Sahin, 2006). The
early and late majority form two-thirds of a community of users of innovations
(Rogers, 2003). However, the distribution for the groups of adopters observed
by Rogers (2003) does not apply to all studies. In Çakıroğlu et al.’s (2022) study
about the adoption of online instruction, 40% of academics were considered
part of the early and late majority compared to Rogers’ study, which reported
68% (see Table 20.1).
Table 20.1 Adopter groups and their distribution under Rogers’ (2003) and Çakıroğlu et al.’s
(2022) study
Adopter Group Rogers’ (2003) Study Çakıroğlu et al.’s (2022) Study
Innovators 2.5% 11%

Early adopters 13.5% 23%
Early majority 34% 18%
Late majority 34% 22%
Laggard 16% 26%
Environmental Context
Environmental context is one of the contributing factors in the diffusion of
innovations. To Wejnert (2002), environmental context plays a crucial role in
the innovation diffusion process, since the adopters are living in “geographic
sittings,” within “societal culture” and amidst certain “political conditions”
(p. 310). Moreover, Dearing and Cox (2018) indicated that the context does not
only influence the diffusion of innovations but also how the inventers create
and introduce the new technology to the public. In addition, Dearing and Cox
(2018) highlighted the reciprocal effect of innovation by stating that innovation
can change the society and vice versa. Also, continuous innovations with their
associated sustained diffusion can lead to changes in institutions and communities
(Dearing & Cox, 2018). Similarly, as the inventors are shaping an AI tool such as
ChatGPT, the invention is also changing the society, hence, the need to explore
the views of the potential users of this AI Chatbot.
Review of the Literature

Before writing the “Review of the Literature” section, you should decide on a list
of topics or concepts you want to write about. The topics should be consistent with
what you are studying while at the same time reflecting what you have learned or
observed in the relevant literature you have reviewed. When writing your litera-
ture review, you are expected to report on what you have found in the literature.
However, the report should not just be a summary of the literature but a synthesis
of your commentary on the literature. As a rule of thumb, a synthesized paragraph
should have the following minimum features: two or more intext citations; transi-
tional words such as “in addition,” “moreover,” “on the contrary” and “however”;
and a topic sentence and concluding statement.
writing the ‘Review of the Literature’ section in chapter two:
• State the topics you want to include in your literature review

• Under each topic, write a synthesis of what you have reviewed
• For each paragraph:
• State a topic sentence that will help readers to know what the paragraph is
about
• Present your observations, patterns identified and themes emerged, com-
paring and contrasting researchers’ studies, assertions, views, interpretations
and conclusions
• State a concluding statement(s)
Example 20.4 Review of the Literature
Because ChatGPT was released for public use in November 2022, not a lot of
empirical research has been done (Alshater, 2022). However, there are positional
papers or articles written about the adoption and impact of this AI tool in the
academic world. Some of these articles were reviewed, which included synthe-
sizing scholars’ observations, perspectives, arguments and assertions. The review
was organized under the following topics: roles and functions, benefits, limitations
and adoption of ChatGPT. Equally important, a review on ethical issues related
to ChatGPT was also presented.
Roles and Functions of ChatGPT

Exploring the unique functions of ChatGPT, researchers and scholars are
in agreement that it has a role to play in education and research. Evidently,
Alshater (2022) asserted that the ability for ChatGPT to make sense of lan-
guage and give responses similar to what humans do makes it a great tool for
assisting researchers. Specifically, Alshater (2022) further indicated that the AI
tool could help researchers generate potential research questions for proposed
studies and make sense of the data collected. In addition, Zhai (2022), who was
an aspiring researcher, shared that ChatGPT is seen as a useful research tool
that can assist novice researchers to easily learn about research terms and best
practices. Similarly, when highlighting the characteristics of ChatGPT, Zhang
(2023) emphasized its efficiency, stating that it saves time when using the AI tool
to brainstorm ideas and make sense of concepts. On the whole, ChatGPT can
help promote research, teaching and learning, and it can be a useful tool for
researchers, teachers and students (Kasneci et al., 2023). Although the AI chatbot
has a huge role to play in education, it will not, however, replace the jobs of
educators (Alshater, 2022).
[Paragraph #2]
[Paragraph #3]
Limitations of ChatGPT
Researchers have acknowledged the weaknesses of ChatGPT one of which was
the possibility of obtaining a biased outcome. According to Alshater (2022),
the mechanisms powering ChatGPT are based on natural language processing
models, which were originally built on data generated by humans. Therefore,
because the data used to train the models may have biased elements, the results
that ChatGPT produces could also be biased (Alshater, 2022). As Kasneci et al.
(2023) put it, if trained data is gathered from a society that is biased, it will lead
to a biased outcome. Correspondingly, Atlas (2023) also shared another factor
that may contribute to a biased outcome. He indicated that a user could ask
ChatGPT biased questions or provide prejudiced prompts that could lead to
biased responses. This problem of inputting biased questions could be attributed
to users’ (including researchers, practitioners, educators and students) lack of
skills in developing appropriate prompts as they interact with ChatGPT (Kasneci
et al., 2023).
Another concern raised by researchers was the dependence of researchers,
educators, practitioners and students on ChatGPT (Alshater, 2022). To Alshater
(2022), the continuous use of ChatGPT could lead to users’ over reliance on
it. In the same way, Kasneci et al. (2023) noted that overdependence on the AI
chatbot could adversely affect learners’ critical thinking and creativity. Further,
Zhang (2023) reviewed that ChatGPT, like other AI chatbots, lacks self-awareness
in terms of how limited its expertise is. Therefore, wholly relying on ChatGPT
outcomes without critically reviewing experts (if possible) or cross-checking with
other sources could lead to their misuse or misapplication.
[Paragraph #3]
Benefits of ChatGPT
[Paragraph #1]
[Paragraph #2]
[Paragraph #3]
[Paragraph #4]
Adoption of ChatGPT
[Paragraph #1]
[Paragraph #2]
[Paragraph #3]
Ethical Issues Related to ChatGPT

[Paragraph #1]
[Paragraph #2]
[Paragraph #3]
[Paragraph #4]
Summary
Writing the literature review chapter can be challenging. However, having a clear
understanding of what is expected of you in this chapter will make the pro-
cess less daunting. You start this chapter by providing a chapter overview, giving
a brief description of the problem and purpose of the study. You then share
what readers should expect in this chapter. Also, before you write about what
you found in the literature, you need to show where and how you got access
to and selected relevant literature for the review, hence the need to complete
the “Literature Search and Selection” section. The next section is “Conceptual/
Theoretical Framework,” which contains a description of the theory, model and/
or concepts informing your study. It also includes a review of research done and
researchers’ and scholars’ conversations surrounding aspects of the framework.
Next, you work on the main section, which is “Review of Literature,” focusing
on synthesizing the literature under its respective topics. Lastly, you write a sum-
mary of the chapter, touching on the main points/ideas/topics described in the
chapter. We hope the examples provided will help you to successfully complete
this chapter.
References
Alshater, M. (2022). Exploring the role of artificial intelligence in enhancing academic per-
formance: A case study of ChatGPT. SSRN. https://ssrn.com/abstract=4312358 or
http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4312358
Atlas, S. (2023). ChatGPT for higher education and professional development: A guide to
conversational AI. College of Business Faculty Publications. https://digitalcommons.uri.
edu/cba_facpubs/548
Çakıroğlu, Ü., Saylan, E., Çevik, İ., Mollamehmetoğlu, M. Z., & Timuçin, E. (2022). Faculty
adoption of online teaching during the Covid-19 pandemic: A lens of diffusion of innov-
ation theory. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 38(3), 87–103. https://doi.org/
10.14742/ajet.7307
D’Agostino, S. (2023, January 11). Academic experts offer advice on CHATGPT. Inside Higher Ed.
Retrieved February 14, 2023, from www.insidehighered.com/news/2023/01/12/acade
mic-experts-offer-advice-chatgpt#.Y8GDBx0SMxR.linkedin
Dearing, J. W., & Cox, J. G. (2018). Diffusion of innovations theory, principles, and practice.
Health Affairs (Project Hope), 37(2), 183–190. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2017.1104
Goh, E., & Sigala, M. (2020). Integrating information & communication technologies (ICT)
into classroom instruction: Teaching tips for hospitality educators from a diffusion of
innovation approach. Journal of Teaching in Travel & Tourism, 20(2), 156–165. https://doi.
org/10.1080/15313220.2020.1740636
Kasneci, E., Seßler, K., Küchemann, S., Bannert, M., Dementieva, D., Fischer, F., Gasser,
U., Groh, G., Günnermann, S., Hüllermeier, E., Krusche, S., Kutyniok, G., Michaeli,
T., Nerdel, C., Pfeffer, J., Poquet, O., Sailer, M., Schmidt, A., Seidel, T., … Kasneci, G.
(2023, January 30). ChatGPT for good? On opportunities and challenges of large lan-
guage models for education. https://doi.org/10.35542/osf.io/5er8f
Lee, H., & Worthy, S. (2021). Adoption of fad diets through the lens of the diffusion of
innovations. Family & Consumer Sciences Research Journal, 50(2), 135–149. https://doi.org/
10.1111/fcsr.12419
Rogers, E. M. (2003). Diffusion of innovations (5th ed.). Free Press.
Sahin, I. (2006). Detailed review of Rogers’ diffusion of innovations theory and educational
technology-related studies based on Rogers’ theory. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational
Technology, 5, 14–23.
Wejnert, B. (2002). Integrating models of diffusion of innovations: A conceptual framework.

Review of Sociology, 28, 297–326.
Zhai, X. (2022). ChatGPT user experience: Implications for education. SSRN. https://doi.
org/10.2139/ssrn.4312418
Zhang, B. (2023). Preparing educators and students for ChatGPT and AI technology in
higher education: Benefits, limitations, strategies, and implications of ChatGPT & AI
technologies. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.32105.98404
(Research Methodology)
Objective
1. Write the research methodology chapter of their dissertation

In this chapter of their dissertation, the researcher reintroduces the topic and
reiterates the research problem as the basis for the study. The chapter also provides
another introduction and overview of the research topic. This section mirrors
chapter one, so the content should be exactly the same as the content in chapter
one. There should not be any difference between them. So, the researcher does
not have to reinvent the wheel. This section of the chapter should be easy to
develop.
developing the “Introduction and Overview” section of chapter three:
• Reintroduce the dissertation topic

• Provide an overview of what is contained in the chapter
• Writing length: Minimum of three to four paragraphs or approximately one
page (Miles, 2022)
and Overview” section of the chapter (see Example 21.1).
DOI: 10.4324/9781003268154-21
Writing Your Dissertation: Chapter 3 (Research Methodology) 353
Example 21.1 Introduction and Overview
The purpose of this study is to investigate how field workers in agricultural

industries in a rural area in Wyoming feel about their working conditions. The
participants describe their experiences and reflect on the challenges of field
work, the challenges of professional mentoring and the challenges of access to
agricultural resources for their jobs. Wong & Lee’s (2015) study examined field
workers from 20 companies in Texas. Some of these studies have indicated that
networking for field workers plays a direct role in empowering those within the
network to achieve job success.
Although previous researchers have established a relationship between agri-
cultural work and job satisfaction, this relationship is also noted to improve field-
worker morale (Jermain & Derkowitz, 2014); yet, Docker et al. (2013) explained
that social interaction is a critical factor in a field worker’s needs and job satisfac-
tion. According to Ingol and Marshall (2014), social networking and job satisfac-
tion provide field workers with resources to further their careers and strengthen
themselves professionally. Therefore, a qualitative descriptive design will lead the
researcher to investigate their experiences.
Overview of the Chapter

This chapter presents the problem statement and delineates the research
questions under investigation. This chapter discusses the research methodology,
the research design of the study and the participants. This chapter also presents
details regarding the sample selection and the sources of data for the study. Next,
the chapter outlines how the study will address the trustworthiness of the data
collected, in addition to how the data will be analyzed. Ethical considerations
will then be discussed. These considerations will ensure the protection of the
participants and support the integrity of the research. Lastly, the limitations and
delimitations of the study will be reviewed, followed by a summarization of the
main points of the chapter.
Problem Statement
In this chapter, the researcher reiterates the research problem as the basis for the
study. This section should be exactly the same as the content in chapter one. There
should not be any difference between them. So, the researcher does not have to
reinvent the wheel. This section of the chapter should be easy to develop.
developing this section of chapter three:
354 Writing Your Dissertation: Chapter 3 (Research Methodology)
• Restate the research problem for the convenience of the reader

• Align the problem statement with the related section in chapter three
• Writing length: Minimum of one to two paragraphs (Miles, 2022)
By following these key points, the researcher can fully develop the “Problem
Statement” section of the chapter (see Example 21.2).
Purpose Statement
After the problem statement is done, the purpose statement must be developed.
Again, this section should be exactly the same as the content in chapter one. There
should not be any difference between them. This section of the chapter should be
easy to develop.
developing the purpose statement in this section of chapter three:
• Restate the purpose statement for the convenience of the reader

• Align the purpose statement with the related section in chapter one
• Writing length: Minimum of one to two paragraphs (Miles, 2022)
Research Statement and Research Questions

After the problem statement and purpose statement are done, the research statement
and research questions must be developed. Once again, this section should be
exactly the same as the content in chapter one. There should not be any difference
between them. Again, this section of the chapter should be easy to develop.
developing the “Research Questions” section of chapter three:
• For quantitative studies: Describe the variables at the conceptual, oper-

ational and measurement levels, then restate the research questions from chapter
one and present the matching hypotheses
• For qualitative studies: Restate the research questions and the phenomena
for the study from chapter one
• Describe the nature and sources of the necessary data to answer the research
questions (primary vs. secondary data, specific people, institutional archives,
Internet open sources, etc.)
• For quantitative studies: Describe the data collection method(s), instrument(s)

or data source(s) used to collect the data for each variable
• For qualitative studies: Describe the data collection method(s), instrument(s)
and/or data source(s) used to collect the data to answer each research question
• Restate the purpose statement for the convenience of the reader
• Align the purpose statement with the related section in chapter one
Research Alignment: Definition and Meaning

Alignment is defined as the logical progression of ideas between the structural elem-
ents of your dissertation proposal (Booton, 2014). One of the most important
factors to keep in mind is that alignment between your problem statement, purpose
statement and research questions is critical. The Research Alignment Tool is used
to help align these three items (the problem statement, purpose statement and
research questions) (see Table 21.1).
Table 21.1 Example: The research alignment model
Problem Statement:
Issu e (subproblem) 1: Issue (subproblem) 2: Issue (subproblem) 3:
Purpose Statement:
Research Statement:

Example 21.2 Problem Statement
The central problem to be researched by the proposed study is the shortage in

the basketweaving field. This has a lot to do with the current crop shortage and
the need for more basketweaving in the field. There is a huge problem with this
shortage and the availability of wheat and crops. As a basis for this study, the
researcher identified the problem to be threefold.
First, a prevailing issue is that the education of new agricultural workers is the
responsibility of the corporations in the industry, but there is a national shortage
of field workers (Harris & Miles, 2012; Robbins, 2015), which is limiting the edu-
cation and graduation of field workers from the corporations. There is a need to
incorporate technology into agricultural institutional practices to better respond
to labor pressures, provide flexible learning options for field workers and remain
competitive in the agricultural industry (Abbas, 2019; Rokanta, 2017).
Second, a prevailing issue in the United States is that 75% of field workers
will reach retirement age in 2018 (Morris, 2023; Harris, 2015). This is alongside
the existing problem that 6.9% of field positions remain unfilled due to a lack
of qualified field workers (Roberts, 2005). There is a need to incorporate tech-
nology into agricultural practices to better respond to financial pressures, pro-
vide flexible learning options for workers and remain competitive (Abbas, 2019;
Rokanta, 2017).
Last, a prevailing issue is that the current field workers express low job sat-
isfaction (Michaels, 2012) due to the complexities of the field workers’ role,
making the retention and recruitment of qualified workers difficult (Burns &
Miles, 2014). The current problems include a shortage of qualified field workers
to educate new field workers, the complexity of job education and current faculty
complaints of poor job satisfaction (Donald, 2017).
Example 21.3 Purpose Statement
The purpose of this study is to investigate the issues affecting job satisfaction
among field workers in rural Wyoming. Interviewing and questioning field
workers living in rural Wyoming provides insight into their personal experiences
of job satisfaction while working in the field worker role. The researcher has iden-
tified three primary objectives as a basis for this study.
First, the objective of this study is to examine the issue of job satisfaction
among field workers. There is a need to incorporate technology into agricultural
institutional practices to better respond to labor pressures, provide flexible

learning options for field workers and remain competitive in the agricultural
industry (Abbas, 2019; Rokanta, 2017).
Second, the objective of this study is to investigate the impact of low wages
on field workers. Professionals working in the agricultural industry face a set
of new trials stemming from advances in technology and a new breed of tech-
nically capable field workers. There is a need to incorporate technology into
agricultural practices to better respond to financial pressures, provide flex-
ible learning options for field workers and remain competitive (Abbas, 2019;
Rokanta, 2017).
Lastly, the objective of this study is to examine the complexities of field
work-related stress. Field work-related stress, also known as field stress, is a term
describing the anxiety, uncertainty and insecurity engendered by the utilization
or perceived ease of use of field work. This facet of stress hinders field workers’
and organizational productivity because it can result in a resistance to utilizing
mandated field work and technology (Williams, 2005).
Example 21.4 Research Questions
The central problem to be researched involves how principals manage job stress.
There are three research questions that will guide this research:
• RQ1: How do field workers and managers describe their experience of job
stress in a rural Central Wyoming environment?
• RQ2: How do field workers and managers describe their experience of using
coping skills for job stress in a rural Central Wyoming environment?
• RQ3: How do field workers and managers describe their experiences of
coping with work-life balance and job stress in a rural Central Wyoming
environment (Miles, 2020)?
These three questions guide the direction of this study. Researchers have
explored the effects of field stress and made connections between field stress and
job outcomes such as job satisfaction and job productivity/performance (Darren,
2016; Corbett, 2019; Florkowski, 2019).

Research Methodology
After the research questions are done, the research methodology must be developed.
The research methodology describes the research method undertaken by the study.
This section provides a strong basis for using a particular methodology in the study.
This is really important in chapter three. This section may be challenging because
novice researchers are not familiar with the advantages and capabilities of their
methodology.
developing the “Research Methodology” section of chapter three:
• Provide a rationale for the research methodology used in the study (quantitative,
qualitative or mixed methods) based on research books and articles
• Provide three major reasons why the selected methodology is the optimal choice
for the study (quantitative, qualitative or mixed methods) based on research
methods materials
• Provide a rationale for the selected methodology based on empirical studies on
the topic
• Use an authoritative source(s) to justify the selected methodology
Methodology” section of the chapter (Example 21.5).
Example 21.5 Research Methodology
The researcher made the decision to use a qualitative methodology as a research

approach for the study. The researcher identified three key reasons for choosing
a qualitative approach as the optimal choice for the study. First, a qualitative
methodology is the best for this study because it is needed for a smaller sample
size (20 participants). As the sample size is not large enough for a quantitative
methodology, a quantitative methodology will not be adequate for this study.
Second, according to Ashcroft et al. (2017), a qualitative methodology is the most
appropriate way to understand personal meaning. A qualitative methodology
allows the researcher to draw conclusions based on how we should understand
the nature of the individual’s experience (Firm & Patton, 2011). The researcher
decided on a qualitative approach for the study as the optimal choice because it
allows the researcher to explore and understand individual experiences.
Last, the researcher chose a qualitative methodology as the optimal choice
for the study because it is concerned with an in-depth understanding of how
participants perceive experiences, and it is used to study participants’ lived

experiences (Tucker & Black, 2015). Furthermore, Martinez (2018) proposed
that a qualitative research methodology is the best choice for understanding local
knowledge and individuals’ experiences, meanings, relationships, social processes
and contextual factors that marginalize a group of people.
Research Design
After the research methodology is written, the next step is to develop the research
design. The research methodology describes the specific research technique under-
taken by the study. This section provides a strong basis for using this particular
research design for the study. Again, this section may be challenging because novice
researchers are not familiar with the advantages and capabilities of their research
design, much less the methodology.
developing the “Research Design” section of chapter three:
• Provide a rationale for the research design of the study (quantitative, qualitative
or mixed methods) based on research books and articles
• Provide three major reasons why the selected research design is the optimal
choice for the study (quantitative, qualitative or mixed methods) based on
research methods materials
• Provide a rationale for the selected methodology based on empirical studies on
the topic
• Describe how the specific selected research design will be used to collect the type
of data needed to answer the research questions and the specific instruments or
data sources that will be used to collect this data
• For quantitative studies: Provide the variable structure and state the unit of
analysis and unit of observation. If multiple data sources have different units of
observation, specify the key variable for matching cases
• For quantitative studies: An a priori and/or post hoc G-Power analysis
is required to justify the minimum study sample size based on the anticipated
effect size and selected design. Describe the general population (e.g., students
with disabilities), target population (e.g., gifted students in one specific district/
geographic location) and study sample (student gifted with cognitive abilities in
the district that participated in the study/actual study sample)
• Align the research design with the research methodology in the study
Design” section of the chapter (see Example 21.6).
Example 21.6 Research Design
The optimal choice for the research design is a causal-comparative design. The
researcher will utilize a causal-comparative research design to answer research
questions that determine a causal relationship within the study. It measures
differences in predictive abilities in the quantitative data. The researcher utilized
the causal-comparative design. It is the optimal choice for the study for three
reasons.
First, the researcher chose this design as the study used a random assignment
because conditions that make up the demographic groups under investigation
can be controlled. The advantage of a random assignment is a trait of a true
experimental design, and causal-comparative designs use a random assignment
(Koran, 2013; Schneider, 2004). Researchers commonly use causal-comparative
designs when random assignment is not possible or when naturally occurring
group assignments are most practical (Kirk, 2013; Schenker & Jr, 2004).
Second, the researcher chose a causal-comparative design because it allows
the independent variables under investigation to act as predictor variables, which
are demographic data such as gender and ethnicity, and cannot be manipulated,
as would otherwise occur in an experimental study (Killmonger, 2018).
Examining the extent of the differences germane to linear regression among
such demographical groups is a common characteristic of causal-comparative
research designs (Killmonger et al., 2015; Moncrief, 2008).
Lastly, the researcher chose the causal-comparative research design because
there are predictive advantages of measuring the data. The current study employs
examinations of relationship differences between the independent variable and
the dependent variable. The utilizing of the causal-comparative design allows the
research to measure for mean difference comparisons when there is a manipula-
tion of variables, and, as such, this is the optimal research design for the current
study (Shubert, 2008).
Population, Sample and Sampling Technique

The next section is to develop the population, sample and sampling technique.
After the research methodology and design section is written, the items in the
research population section must be developed. This section describes the popula-
tion, sample and sampling technique, and the areas related to this section.
This section describes the specific research sampling technique undertaken by
the study. It provides a strong basis for the study’s sampling techniques and sampling
design. Again, this section may be a really big challenge if the researcher is not well
versed in their sampling techniques and sampling methods.
when developing the “Population, Sample and Sampling Technique” section of
chapter three:
• Describe the population of interest for the study

• Describe the target population from which the sample is selected
• Describe the unit of analysis
• Describe the process for securing site authorization (if necessary) to access the
target population
• Describe the site authorization process (what needs to be included in the
request), confidentiality measures, study participation requirements and geo-
graphic specifics
• Describe the sampling strategy and process for recruiting individuals to com-
prise the sample
• Describe the study sample size. Provide evidence (based on the empirical
research literature) that the sample size is adequate for the research design and
meets the minimal sample size requirement
• Writing length: Minimum of two to three paragraphs or approximately one
page (Miles, 2022)
By following these key points, the researcher can fully develop the “Population,
Sample and Sampling Technique” section of the chapter (see Example 21.7).
Example 21.7 Population, Sample and Sampling Technique
The population for the proposed study is agricultural field workers. According
to the Wyoming Bureau of Labor Statistics (2015), there is a shortage of field
workers. Studying the field worker population is imperative because these indi-
viduals often utilize noncomplex tasks when performing daily agricultural work-
related functions. In addition, field workers also utilize farm equipment, including
but not limited to farm devices, farm supplies and agricultural services (Shorter,
2019; Marcy, 2013).
Target Population. The target population of the study is field workers in two
plants located in West Wyoming, in the cities of Hotter and Colder. Both farms
are private and not-for-profit entities offering a variety of agricultural products.
Farm workers in the target population working in these agricultural plants are
in job roles that provide training, farm training and support roles. The target
population is comprised of full-time and part-time farm workers yielding approxi-

mately 5,075 farm workers on a variety of job functions. The target population
size was derived by conducting a search using each farm plant’s employee direc-
tories and from an authorized dealer contact at each farm plant.
Site Authorization. The preliminary site authorization for the farm plant was
obtained by contacting the IRBs and authorized personnel of each plant. Each
farm plant received a brief description of the study, noting the population under
question and the need for examining field worker stress and job satisfaction.
Each farm plant granted the researcher site authorization contingent upon the
researcher’s own institution’s IRB approval.
Sample Selection Method. The researcher surveyed the entire population of

field worker employees at the various plants, therefore utilizing a sample repre-
sentative of the population (Warner & Essenes, 2016). The sampling categories
were available when conducting research using probability sampling. Random
sampling, a probability sampling strategy (Miles, 2015), is the chosen sampling
method for this proposed study. Most researchers like probability sampling
because it allows for minimizing bias in the sample due to each respondent having
an equal chance of being selected. However, this strategy is costly and requires
having access to respondents’ contact information (Coatania et al., 2014). The
research posted a link to the survey in an LMS and relied on voluntary partici-
pation from students (N =530). Field workers who saw the link and wanted to
participate in the study clicked on the survey link. The researchers found that util-
izing the random sampling method by posting the survey link in a website portal
was a suitable method for obtaining study respondents.
Sample Size. The minimum sample size needed for the proposed study is
(N =200) respondents. The minimum sample size was calculated using the
G*Power analysis application. Calculating an a priori sample size by using a
medium effect size coefficient of 0.25, an alpha level coefficient of .05 and
a minimum power level coefficient of 0.80 yielded the minimum sample size
calculated. The researcher aims to collect more than 300 data points to ensure
that there will be a sufficient sample remaining if any data collected are invalid
or incomplete. The factor analysis helps evaluate differences in the various
dependent variables based on the groups in the independent variable (Kramer
et al., 2015). The factor analysis is, therefore, helpful for determining group
mean differences in technostress levels based on study variables. Utilizing the
G*Power calculator is a common approach when determining the minimum
sample size needed for conducting a study. Howard (2012) used the G*Power
calculator, which resulted in the sample size (N =650) for performing a multi-
variate analysis, a factor analysis with four groups when examining the effects
of technostress and technology interruptions on an aging workforce. The
researchers utilized a medium effect size, an alpha level of .05 and a min-
imum power level coefficient of 0.50. For the researcher to ensure a sufficient
sample size is reached, the researcher aims to reach the minimum target sample
size (N =200). The researcher will provide incentives for the field workers to
complete the survey. Also, the researcher will provide a link to the survey in
authorized online site locations that the target population can access. The
researcher will keep the survey open until after reaching at least the minimum
number of completed responses needed.
Instrumentation
Instrumentation is defined as the device the researcher uses to collect data for
the study. In this section, the researcher will describe the structure of the data
collection instrument. Furthermore, the researcher will discuss the instrumen-
tation and the appropriate materials for data collection. The researcher needs
to also mention the reliability and validity of the data collection instrument.
The researcher wants to provide a rigorous background and writing of the data
collection instrument. The characteristics of the instrument should be discussed
in the section as well.
developing the “Instrumentation” section of chapter three:
• Provide a detailed discussion of the instrumentation and materials for data

collection, which includes the validity and reliability of the data, collection
instrument or experiment
• Describe the structure of each data collection instrument and data sources
(tests, questionnaires, interviews, observations databases, media, etc.; create
a table)
• Specify the type and level of data collected with each instrument. When using
materials for an experiment, describe the structure of the experiment and the
materials used for it
• Cite the original publications by instrument developers (and subsequent users as
appropriate) or related studies
• Writing length: Minimum of one to three pages (Miles, 2022)
By following these key points, the researcher can fully develop the
“Instrumentation” section of the chapter (see Examples 21.8 and 21.9).
Example 21.8 Instrumentation (Quantitative)
The research will be conducted using a validated instrument. The proposed study
will use a multi-scale instrument called the Field Worker Job Stress Instrument. The
instrument includes validated subscales adopted for measuring attitudes on three
field worker job stress creators (Saradar et al., 2007): (a) Job Stress-Work Overload
Scale (α =0.89); (b) Job Stress-Conflict Scale (α =0.88); and (c) Job Stress-Personality
Type Scale (α =0.90). Permission was obtained for using the Field Worker Job
Stress Instrument as illustrated in Appendix E. The instrument field worker job
stress creators are factors contributing to perceived job stress in the workplace
for the field worker when working in the field environment (Saradar et al., 2015).
The instrument creators identified three sub-dimensions of field worker job stress
creators that include Job Stress-Work Overload Scale, Job Stress-Conflict Scale and Job
Stress-Personality Type Scale (ibid). The job stress creators are measured on a discrete
and continuous scale that requires using a seven-point Likert scale ranging from
1 to 7, where a one indicates the lowest level of agreement and a seven indicates
the highest level of agreement (see Table 21.2).
Subscales in the Instrument

Job Stress-Work Overload Scale. This scale is for measuring perceived job
stress because of field employees’ attitudes towards the required use of work-
related resources and tools on personal time outside of the workplace. These
resources include using job related things like equipment, farming equipment,
animal care, gardening tools and related. Toure and Nasheed (2012) used the Job
Stress-Work Overload Scale for examining the effects of job stress on work-family
conflict among field workers in the US (N =589). Using this scale was useful
for showing a relationship between the job stress caused by overload and work-
family conflict (r =0.89, p < 0.03). The results indicated that techno-invasion
contributed 31% of the variance in work-family conflict.
Job Stress-Conflict Scale. The Job Stress-Conflict Scale is used for measuring
perceived stress caused by conflicts and difficulties in using work equipment
and resources in the workplace. Ferris and Monclaire (2014) used the scale for
investigating the effects of self-inflicted job stress on job satisfaction when using
Table 21.2 Field Worker Job Stress Instrument and subscales
Scale Type Number of Questions
Scale 1: Job Stress-Work Overload Scale 10

Scale 2: Job Stress-Conflict Scale 10
Scale 3: Job Stress-Personality Type Scale 10
workplace equipment among field employees (N =568). Miles et al. (2022) found
that using workplace equipment significantly contributed to overall job stress, and
that overall stress from using workplace equipment was responsible for 65% of
the variance in job dissatisfaction.
Job Stress-Personality Type Scale. The Job Stress-Personality Type Scale

is for measuring perceived stress based on personality type. These fears of job
loss often exist because of having poor technology skills. Wetherhold and Krier
(2012) utilized the scale for examining the effects of personality types and their
influence on job stress (N =501). These researchers divided the sample into two
groups: field workers (n =340) and field managers (n =161). Kryssler et al. used
predictive analytics to find a significant predictive relationship between person-
ality type and field managers who experience significant job stress and who rated
themselves (r =0.50, p <0.01). The findings in the data also revealed similar
sentiments from field workers, indicating that personality type is a good predictor
of job stress in the agricultural environment (r =0.35, p <0.04).
Demographics. Demographic independent variables are not part of the Field

Worker Job Stress Instrument. However, the researcher needed to collect inde-
pendent variables for the robustness of the study. The demographic variables
included as study variables are gender, age, ethnicity, marital status, education level,
work experience/length of time of employment and gross income. The gender
demographic variables will be used for assessing differences in levels of perceived
job stress between men and women working in the US agricultural sector.
Age will be used for evaluating differences in levels of perceived job stress among
age groups of US field worker employees. Length of time of employment will be
used for assessing differences in levels of perceived job stress related to field worker
participants’ years of service in their current occupation. Ethnicity will be used for
determining differences in levels of perceived job stress between field workers of
different ethnic and racial backgrounds. The respondents will be able to choose the
“other ethnicity” category if not appropriate for them (see Table 21.3).
Table 21.3 Demographic variables
Demographic Scale Number of Variables
Gender 2
Age 5
Ethnicity 6
Marital status 6
Education 6
Work experience/Length of time in job 6
Gross income 6

Example 21.9 Instrumentation (Qualitative)
This study will be using two types of data. The first type of data for this study
is an in-depth, open-ended structured interview. This will be the instrumen-
tation for this qualitative study. This qualitative research is best served by util-
izing interviews as opposed to surveys. This approach is more appropriate for
exploring the feelings and descriptions of the experiences of the participants
regarding their job stress, ability to use coping skills and work-life balance. The
second type of data is demographic data or participant profiles. For collecting
this type of day, a closed-ended survey questionnaire based on Likert scale-
type responses will be used. The researcher will build a demographic profile
of each of the participants in the study. The participant profile questionnaires
will provide demographic background information on the participants of
this study.
Interviews. This study will use interviews as an instrument for collecting data.
The interviews will be semi-structured and consist of a series of open-ended
questions based on the topic areas the researcher wants to cover. The respondents
in a semi-structured, in-depth interview will answer structured, open-ended
questions. Structured, in-depth interviews are used extensively as an interviewing
format with an individual or sometimes with a group (Jamison, 2018). Interviews
have five key advantages for collecting data.
First, semi-structured interviews include a sequence of broad questions that
may be followed by some probing questions to assist the interviewee. Second,
the open-ended nature of the questions describes the subject under investi-
gation in more depth and offers opportunities for the interviewer and inter-
viewee to discuss some topics in more detail. Third, semi-structured interviews
allow the researcher to facilitate an intimate discussion with the interviewee.
Fourth, the semi-structured interview gives the researcher the freedom to probe
a subject in more depth with the interviewee and have them elaborate more
on it. Lastly, the use of semi-structured interviews has expanded into various
forms of data to evaluate, approve, authorize, disprove or expand on present
knowledge or generate new knowledge. It is for these five key reasons that the
researcher will use the semi-structured interview format as the data collection
method for this study.
Demographic Profile of Participant and Demographics. The second

type of data is the demographic profile of the participants. This data collection
approach collects demographic data and build a demographic profile of the
participants in the study. The researcher can develop and illustrate descriptive
statistics of the sample of participants for the study. The most common type of
demographic profile data collection technique is the use of a Likert scale. This
Table 21.4 Demographic profile of participant survey questions
Demographic Scale Number of Variables
Gender 2
Age 5
Ethnicity 6
Marital status 6
Education 6
Work experience/Length of time in job 6
Gross income 6
is a closed-ended type question with no open-ended responses. Resendic (2018)

explained that survey questionnaire research uses a variety of data collection
methods, with the most conventional being questionnaires.
The questionnaire data gained from the study describes the participants’
demographics. The survey questionnaire asks the participants the following
closed-ended (scaled) questions: highest level of education, marital status, years
of experience as principal, years in education, how many hours worked in a week
and others. A common rule of thumb was used for this type of data collection.
To build the demographic profile, it is best to ask a maximum of 10 to 12 demo-
graphic, scaled, closed-ended questions. I recommend not using any open-ended
questions when building the participants’ demographic profile. If open-ended
questions need to be asked, then ask them in the semi-structured interview period
(Miles & Adu, 2022).
Again, the demographic profile can be highly useful in assisting with the descrip-
tive statistics on the participants based on the demographic data collected. The
questionnaire information can also help to accurately describe the participants
and their coping skills (Harold et al., 2019). There is a second benefit to building
the demographic profile, which is that the data can be collected with ease, and
it is less time consuming and less cost prohibitive. The demographic profile was
built from 25 participants that were field workers in Southern Wyoming in the
United States rural area. The interviews consisted of closed-ended questions
regarding demographic information such as age, ethnicity, marital status and so
on (see Table 21.4).
Data Collection (Procedure)

Once more, the task of data collection is a very technical process. The key to writing
up the data collection process is to make sure it aligns with every point discussed in
chapter one. Again, problems researched with the use of appropriate methods will
greatly enhance the value of the research. Nevertheless, there are two primary data
collection methods: quantitative and qualitative.
In this section, the researcher will describe the data collection process.
Furthermore, the researcher will discuss the data collection and the materials used
for the data collection. The researcher needs to also mention the protocols and
processes used for the data collection. The researcher wants to provide a thorough
background when writing about the data collection process.
Main Points and Directions for Quantitative Data Collection
discussing the “Quantitative Data Collection” section of chapter three:
• Describe the procedure for the actual data collection. This includes how each
instrument or data type was used and how and where the data were collected
and recorded
• Include a linear sequence of actions or the step-by-step procedure used to
carry out all the major steps of data collection. This could be a workflow and
corresponding timeline presenting a logical, sequential and transparent protocol
for data collection
• Describe how the raw data are prepared for analysis (e.g., downloading from
SPSS and checking for missing data)
• Data management and security will describe how the researcher will secure the
data and information collected
By following these key points, the researcher can fully develop the “Quantitative
Data Collection” section of the chapter (see Example 21.10).
Example 21.10 Data Collection (Quantitative)
The data collection section will describe how the researcher will collect, ana-
lyze and manage the data of the study. The section will also discuss the step-by-
step procedure for using the survey, which consists of the Field Worker Job Stress
Instrument, to collect data, including the processes for obtaining informed consent.
In addition, this section will include the procedure for storing and securing the
data collected for the study.
Data Collection Procedures. The data collection will take place starting with
SurveyMonkey. This will consist of two parts after the informed consent has been
obtained. Also, the researcher will prescreen
the respondents by issuing a qualifying question. Then the data collection will
take place in SurveyMonkey. The data collection will be entirely collected from
SurveyMonkey. The respondents must answer the prescreening question. The
survey will cease for any individuals who do not answer the prescreening question.
Then if the prescreening question is passed, respondents will advance forward to
the rest of the survey. Then the online survey will begin with the Field Worker Job
Stress Instrument (30 questions). This will begin with demographic questions (inde-
pendent variables) such as gender, age, length of time of employment, ethnicity
and so on. Then the researcher will extract the raw data from SurveyMonkey.
Lastly, the responses from the survey will be coded as numbers in SurveyMonkey.
Informed Consent Process. The process for obtaining informed consent is

as follows: (a) respondents will be invited to participate in the study via a link
posted to the chosen institution’s online locations; (b) when individuals click on
the link to the survey, they will be redirected to a brief explanatory statement of
the research and study purpose, eligibility, risks and benefits; (c) the respondents
will be told that the survey responses are confidential and anonymous and that
participation is completely voluntary; (d) the respondents will be given contact
information to use for any questions they may have before, during or after survey
completion; and, lastly, (e) the informed consent form (TBD) will be attached to the
survey starting on page one; the respondents must indicate their agreement to
participating in the study before being allowed to move forward with the survey.
Data Security Protocols. The researcher will take every precaution to secure
the data for this study. Every effort will be taken to secure the data. By using
the online survey approach, the only identifying information is the IP addresses,
which do not have any names or any other identifying information. The online
survey will not capture names or any other personally identifiable information.
Surveys are considered one of the most secure forms of data. The online survey
will capture computer metadata to track, eliminate and reduce duplicate survey
responses. Furthermore, the researcher will be the only person to have access to
the password-secured Excel data file and SPSS data file. The researcher will store
all the data files on the researcher’s password-protected desktop computer. The
researcher will also back up all files on a second portable hard drive in case of a
fire or accident that will cause the data to be destroyed or lost. The final protocol
of data security will be to permanently delete the data files after six years.
Data Management Protocols. Data management protocols will be in place

to maintain the highest management standards with the data. At the close of
the survey data collection period, the respondents who click on the survey link
will receive a message thanking them and letting them know that the survey has
now closed. Next, the online data will be downloaded from SurveyMonkey into
an Excel file for clean-up and coding, then uploaded into SPSS version 23.0 for
data analysis. The preparation for the downloaded data for analysis will include
checking for missing data, accuracy and duplicate entries and removing records
with missing data from skipped questions. If there are missing responses, the
researcher will code the data with a middle variable response (4 =neutral). If
the missing data responses cannot be salvaged, then the data will be deleted. All
scales in the Field Worker Job Stress Instrument use a seven-point Likert scale,
ranging from “7–Strongly agree,” the highest score, to “1–Strongly disagree,” the
lowest score. Specific statistical tests and analyses to be used in the proposed study
will be discussed in the Data Analysis section.
Main Points and Directions for Qualitative Data Collection
developing the “Qualitative Data Collection” section of chapter three:
• Provide a detailed description of the data collection process, including all types
of data (e.g., interviews and demographic profiles) and methods used, such as
interviews, member checking, observations and expert panel review
• Describe how the raw data are prepared for analysis (e.g., transcribing interviews,
conducting member checking)
• Describe the data management procedures adopted (for both paper-based and
electronic data) to maintain data securely. This includes the length of time data
will be kept, where it will be kept and how it will be destroyed
• Describe the procedures for obtaining participants’ informed consent and for
protecting the rights and wellbeing of the study’s sample participants
• Include the site authorization letter(s) and participants’ informed consent in the
appendices
By following these key points, the researcher can fully develop the “Qualitative
Data Collection” section of the chapter (see Example 21.11).
Example 21.11 Data Collection (Qualitative)
The data collection section will discuss the data collection protocols and strategies.
The researcher collected data from interviews with field workers in a farming
corporation. This study will produce a comprehensive investigation and rele-
vant conclusions regarding the field workers’ experiences with job stress, coping
ability and work-life balance. The researcher also collected data from semi-
structured interviews with the participants of the study and demographic profile
questionnaires. With the data collection, the researcher obtained the approval of
the Harvard University’s Institutional Review Board (IRB). Also, the researcher
obtained site authorization using the university’s letterhead.
IRB Approval and Protocols. The researcher filled out and completed all
the required forms for the farming corporation, explaining the study and the
implications of the study’s findings. The chief executive officer and vice presi-
dent of the company’s research review board granted approval and permission
to conduct the research. After the researcher obtained the IRB’s approval, a
recruitment email letter was sent out to the field worker participants. The field
workers who decided to participate were contacted via email or telephone. They
provided their availability for the interviews and demographic profile. As a
friendly reminder, the researcher sent a courtesy email to the participants. The
researcher primarily used the field workers’ company email addresses. They were
notified entirely by email. The researcher arranged an interview appointment
with the participants.
Interviews and Protocols. The interviews with the field worker participants
took place at their employer’s corporate site. With all the interviews, the field
worker participants were asked to read and sign an informed consent form prior
to the start of the interview. Then two interview procedures took place. First, the
participants were asked to complete the demographic profile survey question-
naire. Second, the researcher began the interview with the field workers on their
job site. With the administering of the demographic participant profile and the
semi-structured interviews, each interview lasted roughly 60–90 minutes. This
was the data collection protocol. Each of the interviews was digitally recorded for
accuracy, thoroughness and analysis. The researcher sent the interview questions
prior to the interview so that the participants could give more solid and robust
interviews. The researcher aligned each interview question with the research
questions they used to guide this study. At the end of each demographic pro-
file questionnaire and interview, the researcher thanked each of the participants
for being part of the study. Lastly, the researcher went through the coding and
transcribing process. The researcher transcribed the interviews and paper
questionnaires using NVivo and labelled them with identifiers.
Member Checking. To evaluate the data, the researcher conducted the member
checking procedure with the participants. Next, the researcher transcribed the
interviews of all 25 participants. Member checking is a data validation method
that is primarily used in research to check for accuracy, credibility, validity and
transferability (Harris & Coleman, 2015). Member checking commonly occurs
when researchers collect data from participants and check with participants to
ensure that their interpretation was accurate. The researcher also used member
checking (also called participant or respondent validation) to establish both reli-
ability and validity. The researcher focused on three things: (a) confirmation,
(b) modification, and (c) verification. While the participants answered the inter-
view questions, the researcher asked questions for verification, modification or
confirmation. This was done by restating or summarizing some of the questions
and responses. This was to ensure that the researcher understood while digitally
recording the responses correctly.
University Institutional Review Board. Additionally, along with approval

from the Harvard University Institutional Review Board (IRB), the researcher
received documentation for written site approval from the farming corporation’s
research review board. This gave the researcher the approval to conduct
research on their premises. The IRB application included a request letter and
the university’s Confidentiality Statement and Conflict of Interest documents. In
the written request to the farming corporation, the researcher expressed how the
data and information will be collected and how it will benefit the institution. The
researcher also described the study’s protocols and purpose, how the participants’
informed consent will be collected and how field worker confidentiality will be
guaranteed.
Data Security. For data security, the researcher will engage in activities to
ensure that both the data and the participants are protected. The researcher
composed a written request. The purpose of the written request is to define the
methods of documentation storage. Schenker and Tanareno (2016) explained
that data collection and protection is crucial to any research. This includes storing
downloaded audio recordings and other related confidential materials from
the study. In addition, the data will be stored in a password-protected personal
desktop computer and a secured file cabinet. Concerning the security of the raw
data, this will be kept secured and stored for seven years. After this time, the data
will be destroyed and shredded.
Data Analysis (Quantitative)

In this section, the researcher discusses the data analyses and statistical tests.
The researcher provides the basis for the research problem as the basis for the
data analysis. Furthermore, the researcher will discuss the instrumentation and
the appropriate statistical tests for the data analyses. The researcher needs to
also mention the reliability and validity of the data collection instrument. The
characteristics of the instrument/scale should be discussed in the section as well.
The researcher wants to provide a rigorous background when writing about the
data analyses.
Main Points and Directions for Quantitative Data Analysis Procedures
developing the “Data Analysis” section of chapter three:
• Relist the problem statement or purpose statement along with the research
question(s). Also includes the null and alternative hypotheses for quantitative
studies
• Provide evidence that the quantity and quality of data is sufficient to answer the
research questions
• Provide details on the instrument and scale (and subscales) and the type of data
for each variable of interest
• Describe in detail the data management practice, including how the raw data
were organized and prepared for analysis
• Describe the software packages used for analyzing the data and analyses (Miles,
2022)
Quantitative Analysis Steps
• Describe data file preparation (descriptive statistics used to check completeness

and accuracy)
• Describe descriptive statistics analyses (univariate statistics; demographics, fre-
quencies, and crosstabs)
• Describe inferential statistics analyses (bivariate statistics and multivariate
statistics)
• Provide and describe reliability analysis for all scales and subscales
• Provide and describe validity analysis for all scales and subscales
• Describe and justify all statistical tests needed to generate the information to
answer all research questions
• Discuss the assumptions for each of the statistical tests (if necessary)
• State the level of statistical significance for each statistical test
By following these key points, the researcher can fully develop the “Data Analysis”
section of the chapter (see Example 21.12).
Example 21.12 Data Analysis (Quantitative)
The central problem to be researched in the proposed study is the examination

of the three components of field worker job stress in a farming environment. The
following research questions guide the study:
• RQ1: Is there a statistically significant difference in levels of Job Stress-Work

Overload between demographic factors (genders, age groups, length of time
of employment, etc.) among US field workers as measured by the Field

Worker Job Stress Instrument?
• RQ2: Is there a statistically significant difference in levels of Job Stress-
Conflict between demographic factors (genders, age groups, length of time
of employment, etc.) among US field workers as measured by the Field
Worker Job Stress Instrument?
• RQ3: Is there a statistically significant difference in levels of Job Stress-
Personality Type between demographic factors (genders, age groups, length
of time of employment, etc.) among US field workers as measured by the
Field Worker Job Stress Instrument?
These three questions guide the direction of this study. Researchers have explored
the effects of field worker stress and made connections between field stress and
job outcomes such as job satisfaction and job productivity (Marshall, 2015; Cary,
2016; Flores, 2016).
Dependent Variable Details. The Field Worker Job Stress Instrument is

used for collecting data on field workers’ perception of using new and changing
complex technology for completing work-related tasks, causing anxiety, stress
and strain (Tabott et al., 2009). The Field Worker Job Stress Instrument includes
a four-item scale for measuring Job Stress-Work Overload, a four-item scale
for measuring job stress, a five-item scale for measuring Job Stress-Conflict, a
five-item scale for measuring job stress and a four-item scale for measuring Job
Stress-Personality Type. Job stress is a continuous variable. Calculating a final
mean score for job stress is by measuring each dimension and sub-dimension
of job stress for each participant and dividing the total score by the number of
items. A mean score that is less than the median value of the results indicates
a low level of job stress, and a mean score that is above the median value or
includes the median value indicates a high level of job stress (Miles et al., 2015;
Adu, 2016).
This method of scoring is the method used by the creators of the instru-
ment and other researchers who have utilized the instrument for assessing job
stress in different populations (Khan, 2016; Jarrett & Morgan, 2015; Tabott
et al., 2010). Miles and Adu (2014) utilized this method of scoring when
assessing relationships between demographic variables and job stress among
academicians working in universities in London. Khan (2013) employed the
same scoring method as Tabott et al. (2009) when validating the job stress
instrument using a sample of Chinese knowledge workers. All scales in the
Field Worker Job Stress Instrument are five-point Likert scales, ranging from
“strongly agree” to “strongly disagree.”
Independent Variable Details. The independent variables include gender,

age, length of time of employment, ethnicity, employment status and position
type. All independent variables are measured as nominal data. See Figure 1 for
groupings and other details concerning categorical demographic variables. See

Figure 4 for groupings and details concerning job characteristics categorical
variables.
Data Management. The raw data downloaded from SurveyMonkey (an

online survey platform) will undergo necessary data preparations. The researcher
will download data from SurveyMonkey.com periodically during the open period
and review data for missing information and duplicates to ensure the sample size
(N =586) is reached with complete information and usable data. The researcher
will remove data with missing relevant information and duplicates, which can
occur if a respondent completes the survey more than once, and possible outliers.
Data Analysis. Data analysis will be performed using SPSS version 26.0. First,
the data will be summarized using descriptive statistics, which include measures
of central tendency and dispersion for continuous variables and frequency tables
for displaying demographics. The mean and standard deviation will be reported
for continuous variables and frequencies for categorical variables. Second, the
results will be summarized using inferential statistics. Multiple regression ana-
lysis will be used for responding to all three research questions to determine the
differences in means between groups. The researcher will conduct multiple linear
regression analysis (α =.01).
The results of prior job stress studies revealed that age and gender are sig-
nificantly positively related to job stress among various populations (Miles, 2016;
Adu, 2016; Miles & Adu, 2017). Placing these independent variables in the
regression model will control for the credit these variables may receive, allowing
for observed independent effects of length of time of employment and ethnicity.
Utilizing SPSS, the researcher will test for all assumptions and make appropriate
adjustments, such as removing outliers, transforming data, dropping variables or
using other comparable statistical methods such as time-series methods. Utilizing
a large sample size will lessen the effects of assumption violations of the inde-
pendent t-test (Miles & Adu, 2015).
The other tests the researcher will conduct include the independent sample
t-
test with categorical demographic variables having two groups, such as
gender. The researchers utilized the independent sample t-test when examining
differences in means between two groups (Miles, 2016). The one-way ANOVA
will be used to examine differences in three or more groups in the data. The
researchers will utilize the ANOVA to avoid alpha inflation, which occurs when
conducting too many two-group t-tests resulting in increased chances of making
a Type I error (Miles & Adu, 2014).
The null hypothesis, when utilizing the one-way ANOVA for examining group
mean differences, states that the means between each group are equal. The F and
df statistics are used for calculating the significance using α =0.05 as the alpha
level (Miles & Adu, 2013). The researcher rejecting the null hypothesis means
that there are significant differences in means between any of the groups (Miles
& Adu, 2016). The results from the one-way ANOVA will highlight if group
mean differences exist. However, they do not indicate which group means differ.
Therefore, the researcher will run post hoc tests for determining specific group
mean differences (Miles & Adu, 2015). When determining the appropriate post
hoc tests, it depends on the outcome of meeting assumptions for running the
one-way ANOVA.
Sample Size. For the study, the sample calculations were performed using
G*Power 4.0 and assuming a .01 Type I error and 80% power. A minimum
number of (N =589) participants will be required to detect an effect size of .15.
The effect size of .15 is considered a medium effect size in the multiple regression
model with ten predictors.
Data Analysis (Qualitative)

In this section, the researcher discusses the data analyses and statistical tests. The
researcher provides the basis for the research problem as the basis for the data ana-
lysis. Furthermore, the researcher will discuss the instrumentation and the appro-
priate statistical tests for the data analyses. The researcher needs to also mention
the reliability and validity of the data collection instrument. The characteristics
of the instrument/scale should be discussed in this section as well. The researcher
wants to provide a rigorous background when writing about the data analyses.
Main Points and Directions for Qualitative Data Analysis Procedures
developing the “Data Analysis” section of chapter three:
• Relist the problem statement or purpose statement along with the research
question(s)
• Provide evidence that the quantity and quality of data is sufficient to answer the
research questions
• Provide details on the instrument (interview questions) and demographic profile
of participants (gender, age, ethnicity, education, marital status, etc.). Provide a
minimum of 10 to 12 demographic, closed-ended questions (scaled, Likert type)
• Describe in detail the data management practice, including how the interviews
and raw demographic data were organized and prepared for analysis
• Describe the software packages used for analyzing the data and analyses (Miles,
2022)
Qualitative Analysis Steps
• Describe the transcription process for interviews, focus groups and so on

• Describe the descriptive statistics (mean scores, percentages) calculated from the
demographic profile data of the participants
• WHAT: Describe in detail the non-statistical analysis used and the procedures
used to conduct the data analysis
• WHY: Provide the justification for each of the (non-statistical) data analysis
procedures used in the study
• HOW: Demonstrate how the non-statistical data analysis techniques align with
the research questions and research design
• Identify and discuss the specific analysis approach or strategy (thematic analysis,
narrative analysis, phenomenological analysis or grounded theory analysis)
• Discuss and describe the coding procedures and theming process used in the
data analysis
• Provide evidence of how codes moved to themes must be presented
By following these key points, the researcher can fully develop the “Data Analysis”
Example 21.13 Data Analysis (Qualitative)
The central problem to be researched by the proposed study is the challenges of

access to resources experienced by women field workers that affect the growth of
their businesses. This descriptive design will assist the researcher in investigating
the experiences of participants. The following research questions will examine
the phenomena:
• RQ1: How do women field workers in the agricultural industry describe

their experiences with the challenges of professional social networks?
their experiences with the challenges of professional mentoring?
their experiences with the challenges of access to resources?
The sources for the data collection will be based on semi-structured interviews
through in-person administration.
Data Preparation. First, each interview will be recorded and then downloaded
to a computer. The researcher will use audio recording devices for the inter-
view. In addition, the researcher will have a journal available for note taking.
The data from the interviews will be recorded. Second, the data preparation
includes collecting data and transcribing interviews. Next, the coding process
will be accomplished through identifying similar words and related themes. The
researcher will minimize the risk of the identity being revealed if anonymity is
applied (Miles, 2015). As explained by Adu (2012), “The purpose and outcome of
data analysis are to reveal to others through fresh insights what we’ve observed”
(p. 109). The researcher will allow the participants the opportunity to review their
transcripts for accuracy, member checking before the analysis of the data.
Data Collection and Sample. The study will be based on the collection
of data from 25 participants: women field workers who are also small business
owners in agricultural industries. The data collection will consist of open-ended
questions, which will be transcribed using NVivo. The interview sessions will last
a minimum of 60 minutes. Thematic analysis allows the researcher to identify
patterns and themes (Adu & Miles, 2018). Adu et al.’s (2015) guiding principles
discuss a four-step process that researchers will adhere to in the data analysis pro-
cess (Adu et al, 2011; Miles, 2020). Adu (2012) proposed extensively reviewing
the data, generating codes based on the relevant information extracted from the
data, organizing the codes under each of the research questions and categorizing
the codes, leading to the development of themes. Miles and Adu (2012) defined
coding as the process that allows collected data to be gathered, categorized and
thematically sorted while discovering meanings and themes. The coding pro-
cess in qualitative data analysis is integral to the development of themes, while
Adu and Miles (2012) add that the researcher can “factor cluster items that were
related” (p. 254).
Data Analysis Procedures. In step one, the researcher will summarize the
passages of the data using themes. In the case of interviews, the collected data
will be analyzed using NVivo. The researcher will assign labels and descriptive
codes to passages of data. The themes in NVivo will be displayed in the margins
of coded passages of text. The researcher will code the transcripts generated
through interviews first. After the transcripts from the interviews have been
coded, the transcripts will be coded. The researcher will review the data and
highlight relevant phrases and descriptions that are pertinent to the ideas and
concepts of the research questions. In step two, the researcher will code the data.
This will involve the researcher distinguishing commonalities between codes then
grouping these codes into categories. In step three, the researcher will review the
high-level categories and search for themes. The researcher will conceptualize
on the relationships identified between high level categories; analytic mining will
be used.
Data Analysis Strategy. Data collected throughout the interviews will be

transcribed using automated AI-powered transcription software. Additionally,
the researcher will use a content analysis method approach to explore diverse
patterns or themes developed though the data collection. Adu (2005) noted that
“content analysis is a technique that provides new insights [and] increases a
researcher’s understanding of a particular phenomenon” (p. 18). While analyzing
the interviews after data collection, the researcher will eliminate potential sample
bias in the analysis by being objective. To ensure the integrity of the study, the
researcher will follow strict data collection protocols. After completing the study,
the researcher will destroy the data after seven years.
Data Management. Data management procedures for this study will be

strictly adopted to maintain data securely for both paper-based and electronic
data. The researcher will secure paper-based and or electronic data in a home
office safe box for seven years per the university’s requirements. However, the
researcher will upload any paper files to a password-protected portable hard
drive by scanning them. There will not be any paper-based data. If there is, it
will be destroyed and shredded after seven years. The researcher will destroy the
portable hard drive files after seven years with a hammer. Again, the purpose of
this study will be to gain an understanding of how women field worker business
owners describe and reflect on their experiences with challenges of job stress
and agricultural resources. The underlying goal of using the thematic analysis
approach in this study is to develop themes that originate from the qualitative
data collected in this study. The qualitative data collected from semi-structured
interviews and focus groups will be analyzed to answer the research questions
in this study.
Reliability
In this section, the researcher discusses reliability within the instrumentation section
of the chapter. The researcher will provide evidence of the instruments’ reliability.
Furthermore, the researcher will discuss the instruments’ reliability, consistency and
internal consistency. The researcher basically provides evidence of the instruments’
characteristics of reliability. The characteristics of the instrument (scale) should be
discussed in the section as well. The researcher wants to provide a rigorous back-
ground of the instrument used in the study.
Main Points and Directions for Quantitative Reliability
developing the “Reliability” section of chapter three:
• Provide specific reliability statistics for the instrument; discuss how the statistics
were developed
• Explain the specific approaches for how reliability was proven for the study and
the data collection approaches
• Instrument reliability: Provide evidence of the instrument’s reliability.
Provide evidence of the instrument’s consistency in terms of its ability to con-
sistently measure what it is intended to measure
• Inter-rater/Observer reliability: Provide evidence concerning the degree
to which different raters/observers give consistent answers or estimates
• Test-retest reliability: Provide evidence concerning the consistency of a
measure evaluated over time
• Parallel-forms reliability: Provide evidence concerning the reliability of
two tests constructed the same way from the same content
• Internal consistency reliability: Provide evidence concerning the consist-
ency of results across items; measure with Cronbach’s Alpha statistical test
By following these key points, the researcher can fully develop the “Reliability”
Example 21.14 Reliability of the Instrument in the Study
Prior researchers have tested the reliability of the Field Workers Stress
Instrument. Miles et al. (2007) performed reliability testing of the Field Workers
Stress Instrument after identifying the sub-factors of job stress (e.g., job stress
creators) resulting from validity testing. In their study, Miles et al. (2007) also
investigated relationships between job stress creators (Job Stress-Work Overload,
Job Stress-Conflict and Job Stress-Personality Type) in two private companies in
the US (N =533). These researchers calculated the reliability of each sub-factor
using Cronbach’s alpha. Results indicated that all sub-factors met or exceeded
recommended Cronbach’s alpha values of 0.70 or greater (Miles et al., 2015; Adu
& Miles, 2016; Miles et al., 2007; Tarafdar et al., 2007). Cronbach’s alpha results
for technostress creators were as follows: Job Stress-Work Overload, α =0.85, Job
Stress-Conflict, α =0.82, and Job Stress-Personality Type, α =0.88. In addition,
Miles et al. found significant relationships between job stress creators and prod-
uctivity (r = -0.275, p < 0.01) and Job Stress-Conflict (r = -0.650, p < 0.01).
Reliability Scores. Miles (2016) confirmed reliability scores ≥ 0.70 of three

technostress scales when investigating relationships between the three techno-
stress creators (Job Stress-Work Overload, α =0.88; Job Stress-Conflict, α =0.82;
and Job Stress-Personality Type, α =0.83) and productivity among business
professionals (N =455). Miles (2016) found significant correlations between prod-
uctivity and Job Stress-Work Overload (r =-.630, p<0.01); Job Stress-Conflict
(r =-.641, p<0.01); and Job Stress-Personality Type (r =-.585, p <0.01). Results
of the study indicate that, as these factors of technostress increased, aviation
crew productivity decreased. Miles et al. (2013) also utilized the Field Workers
Stress Instrument and confirmed reliability scores ≥ .70 of three job stress scales
(Job Stress-Work Overload, α =0.81, Job Stress-Conflict, α =0.796, and Job
Stress-Personality Type, α =0.801) when investigating the relationship between
the three technostress creators (Job Stress-Work Overload, Job Stress-Conflict
and Job Stress-Personality Type) and the job stress of basketball referees in India
(N =216). Adu et al. (2013) found significant relationships between job stress
and job satisfaction. The result of the multiple regression analysis revealed that
together, the job stress creators accounted for 28.3% of the variance in job satis-
faction among this population.
Miles and Adu (2014) utilized the Field Workers Stress Instrument when
examining the relationship between demographic factors and all five job stress
creators among Indian field workers (N =116) and confirmed Miles et al.’s
(2007) reliability findings of the following: Job Stress-Work Overload, α =0.83,
Job Stress-Conflict, α =0.87, and Job Stress-Personality Type α =0.82. In add-
ition, Miles and Adu (2015) found significant relationships between the following
demographic factors and job stress: male managers had higher levels of job stress
than female managers (t = -3.54, p < 0.05), older managers (≥ 35) experienced
more job stress than younger managers (t =3.10, p < 0.05), and those man-
agers with a longer length of time of employment experienced less job stress
than those with less organizational tenure (F =2.32, p <0.05). These arguments
confirm that the Field Workers Stress Instrument has acceptable reliability for use
in the proposed study.
Main Points and Directions for Qualitative Reliability
developing the “Reliability” section of chapter three:
• Qualitative studies: Establish the consistency and repeatability of the data

collection through in- depth documented methodology, detailed interview/
observation/data collection protocols and guides, the creation of a research
database or the use of triangulation
• Dependability: Define and discuss how the study documents research
procedures
• Confirmability: Define and discuss how the study could be confirmed or
findings corroborated by others
• Describe the threats to the dependability and confirmability of the study inherent
in the study design, sampling strategy, data collection method instruments and
data analysis
• Address how these threats will be minimized
• Appendices must include copies of instruments, materials, qualitative data

collection protocols, codebook(s) and permission letters from instrument authors
(for validated instruments, surveys, interview guides, etc.)
• Define the concepts of credibility and transferability
• Credibility: Define and discuss how the study represents the participants’
experiences
• Transferability: Define and discuss how the study represents the participants’
experiences
• Writing length: Minimum of two to four paragraphs or approximately one page
(Miles, 2022)
By following these key points, the researcher can fully develop the “Reliability”
Example 21.15 Reliability for the Instrument in the Study
The researcher must address the reliability of the instrument in the study. There
are five key concepts of reliability in a qualitative study: (a) Dependability and
(b) Confirmability. In qualitative research, the two areas of reliability need to
be addressed. The objective of reliability in qualitative research is to establish
consistency and repeatability of data collection. This is through an in-depth
documented methodology.
Dependability. The concept of dependability is an important concept in a

qualitative study because it is seen to establish trustworthiness and reliability. To
secure dependability, the researcher needs to ensure that the analysis process is
aligned with the accepted standards for the design (Miles & Adu, 2018). Miles
(2019) asserts dependability refers to the constancy of data over time and is an
evaluation of data collection quality and theory generation that has been under-
taken in a study. Reliability will be established through the researcher adhering
to consistent and repeated data collection, documented methodology, detailed
interviews, and use of triangulation. The interview questions will be validated
by a three-member expert panel who each hold terminal degrees. Lastly, Miles
(2020) argues the researcher might adjust the data collection method contingent
on the information the researcher obtains during the data collection process;
during this process, any changes must be documented.
Confirmability. The researcher will take some steps to address reliability for
the study. The researcher will use a panel of three experts to review the interview
questions associated with the proposed research questions in this study. They will
also review the demographic profile questionnaire of the participants for the study.
Miles (2019), determined in research the audit trail confirms how data is collected
and interpretations were made. According to Miles, Adu, and Robinson (2019),
asserts confirmability describes the degree of neutrality or the extent to which
findings of the study reflect the participants experiences and opinions rather
than the researchers’ personal biases and interests. In this case the researcher,
needs to ensure objectivity because they are a small business owner. To assist with
confirmability, in addition triangulation will be used to reduce researcher bias
throughout the study. Nevertheless, the auditing trail is essential for qualitative
research and proper documentation is important for the researcher.
The original quotes and other data that form the researcher’s interpretations
are defined as conformability (Miles, 2018). The scope of this qualitative study
will use two types of data: semi structured interview and a demographic pro-
file questionnaire for the participants. The demographic profile questionnaire
will consist of closed-ended, Likert type questions. So, the researcher will pre-
pare interview questions with open ended so the participants can give details and
elaborate on their answers where no follow up questions are needed. The data
collection method will be appropriate to answer the research questions. A pos-
sible threat to confirmability and dependability would be misrepresenting quotes
or answers from the participants. The researcher must give detailed descriptions
of observations including which documents and how they were included
(Miles, 2021).
Validity
In this section, the researcher discusses the validity for the instrument section in the
chapter. The researcher provides the discussion the validity for the instrument and
provides some evidence of the instrument’s validity. Furthermore, the researcher,
will discuss the instrumentation’s validity. The researcher basically provides the evi-
dence of the instrument’s characteristics of validity. The researcher wants to pro-
vide a rigorous background of the instrument used in the study.
Main Points and Directions for Quantitative Validity
These are the main key points that doctoral research wants to consider when
developing this validity section of Chapter 3:
• Provide evidence the instrument has validity. Validity is the extent to which
an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure and performs as it is
designed to perform.
• Provide evidence the study has external validity. External validity is the extent to
which the results of a study can be generalized from a sample to a population.
• Provide evidence the instrument has content validity. Content validity refers to
the appropriateness of the instrument accurately assess what you want to know.
• Provide evidence the instrument has discriminant validity. This validity is

concerned with the extent to which the instrument can measure different
constructs.
• Provide evidence the instrument has convergent validity. This validity is
concerned with to the extent to which the instrument can measure the same or
similar constructs.
• Provide evidence the instrument has criterion-related validity. This validity
is concerned with the ability of the measures (questions) to make accurate
predictions.
• Provide evidence the instrument has construct validity. This validity is concerned
with the extent to which your measurement questions actually measure the
presence of those constructs you intended them to measure.
• Provide evidence the instrument has face validity. This validity is concerned the
extent to which a measurement method appears “on its face” to measure the
construct of interest.
• Provide evidence the instrument has nomological validity. This validity is
concerned with assesses the relationship between theoretical constructs.
By following these key points, the researcher can fully develop the “Validity”
Example 21.16 Validity of the Instrument in the Study
The researcher must address the validity of the instrument in the study.
Validity is defined as the extent to which an instrument measures what it is
supposed to measure and performs as it is designed to perform. The research
must be able to provide evidence of the validity of the instrument used for the
study. An interesting note is that validity is more difficult to prove compared
to reliability. While validity is difficult to measure, there are many approaches
to address that.
Validity. The task of conducting social science research requires utilizing

validated instruments to accurately measure intended variables, test theories
through hypotheses and answer research questions (Miles & Adu, 2016). The
Field Worker Job Stress Instrument has been previously validated for content
validity, discriminant and convergent validity and reliability (Miles et al., 2007).
The instrument is comprised of three scales for measuring job stress creators.
Utilizing a previously validated instrument is recommended because it eliminates
the need for testing the reliability and validity of the instrument. This is certainly
valuable if the manner of administering the instrument is similar to the original
instrument (Adu & Miles, 2012). Researchers consider an instrument valid if it
measures what it is intended to measure. In other words, validity refers to meas-

uring the true meaning of the concept under investigation (Miles et al., 2014).
Validity – Field Worker Job Stress Instrument. Miles et al. (2007)

established and confirmed the validity of the Field Worker Job Stress Instrument
in three ways. First, these researchers used subject matter experts to provide con-
tent validation on job stress for the instrument. Within the context of job stress
and organizational response, four experts from business organizations and six
experts from the agricultural industry provided instrument feedback germane to
item relevance and clarity, based on their expertise and professional experiences.
Second, Miles et al. (2016) performed a factor analysis and kept items having
EFA factor loadings ≥ 0.4. Third, in addition, Miles et al. (2016) conducted dis-
criminant and convergent validity testing on the job stress-satisfaction model.
Results of the validity testing confirmed that all five indexes met or exceeded
acceptable values (GFI =0.945, AGFI =0.925, NFI =0.965, CFI =0.965, and
RMR =0.051), indicating acceptable validity of the Field Worker Job Stress
Instrument. Miles et al. (2014) utilized the Field Worker Job Stress Instrument
when developing an instrument for measuring job stress among online students
(N =210) and conducted validity testing. Results indicated that the ratio of the
chi-square first order to second order model exceeded the recommended value
of 85%, thus also confirming the validity reported by Miles et al. (2007). These
arguments support the validity of the Field Worker Job Stress Instrument.
Main Points and Directions for Qualitative Validity
These are the main key points that the doctoral researcher wants to consider when
developing the “Validity” section of chapter three:
• Define the concepts of credibility and transferability

• Credibility: Discuss how the study represents the participants’ experiences
• Transferability: Discuss how the study’s findings may be applicable to policy,
practice and future research.
• Describe the threats to the credibility and transferability of the study that
are inherent in the study’s design, sampling strategy, data collection method/
instruments and data analysis
• Address how these threats to credibility and transferability will be minimized
By following these key points, the researcher can fully develop the “Validity” section
of the chapter (see Example 21.17).
Example 21.17 Validity of the Instrument in the Study
The researcher must address the validity of the instrument in the study. There
are two key concepts of validity in a qualitative study: (a) credibility, and (b) trans-
ferability. In qualitative research, these two key areas of validity need to be
addressed. Credibility is a method of defining and discussing how the study
represents the participants’ experiences. Transferability is a method for how the
study represents the participants’ experiences. These are the two strategies used
to establish the validity of an instrument (interviews) in a qualitative study.
Credibility. According to Miles (2014), credibility is supported in qualitative

studies when the researcher demonstrates engagement methods of observation
and evidence of auditing. Miles et al. (2020) stated that negotiating credibility
came forth at the end of the analytic process as a method of reflecting the level
of active engagement of participants. The researchers further added that there
were reviewers who questioned the generalizability of the study results, which
ensured alignment of the study’s methodology. However, the concept of member
checking will also be used to establish credibility. Miles and Adu (2018) assert that
transcripts of the interviews should be sent to participants for feedback and the
findings should be presented to participants to confirm any theories. After the
interviews, member checking will be conducted so that participants can review
the accuracy of their answers. As such, the researcher must also constantly read
and reread data, analyze them, theorize them and revise concepts accordingly
(Miles & Adu, 2018). Lastly, the researcher will use thematic analysis to analyze
the data from the interviews.
Transferability. As Miles et al. (2019) explained, transferability refers to

the external validity of a study: Can the results of the study be applied to a
similar study. Furthermore, transferability is similar to generalizability, where the
researcher provides sufficient information about the researcher as an “instrument
and the research context, processes, participants, and researcher- participant
relationships to enable the reader to decide how the findings may transfer” (Miles
et al., 2019, p. 358). Open-ended questions will be used for validity purposes. The
researcher will conduct interviews throughout in conjunction with journaling for
data collection. Additionally, validity must also be considered. In the process of
ensuring validity while collecting data, the researcher must put aside personal
biases and be diligent in remaining objective by providing accurate recordings
and transcriptions of participants’ own words. According to Miles & Adu (2018),
the researcher will design the study then determine which strategies will be
appropriate for the study. Another method to ensure credibility is through tri-
angulation. The researcher will verify the participants’ responses in the transcript
by member checking (Miles, 2010).

Ethical Issues and Research Process

In this section, the researcher discusses the ethical issues in the study. The researcher
discusses any potential risks for harm in the study. The IRB process is discussed, as
are key ethical issues related to anonymity, confidentiality, privacy, strategies to pre-
vent coercion and any potential conflict of interest. Lastly, the researcher discusses
the data management procedures and data security. The section primarily deals
with ethical issues and security. This section should perfectly match the section in
chapter one. This section should be aligned with chapter one.
developing the “Ethical Issues and Research Process” section of chapter three:
• Provide a discussion of the ethical issues. This might include the Belmont Report
and any IRB guidelines relating to the study and the population of interest
• Explain which principles and issues are relevant to the study
• Identify the potential risks for harm that are inherent in the study
• Describe the procedures for obtaining informed consent and for protecting the
rights, wellbeing and privacy of the study’s participants
• Address the key ethical criteria of anonymity, confidentiality, privacy, strategies
to prevent coercion and any potential conflict of interest
• Describe the data management procedures used to store and securely maintain
paper and electronic data. This includes the length of time data will be kept,
where it will be kept and how it will be destroyed
• Describe how the researcher plans to implement each of the items that are rele-
vant to the study’s data management, data analysis and publication of findings
By following these key points, the researcher can fully develop the “Ethical Issues
and Research Process” section of the chapter (see Example 21.18).
Example 21.18 Ethical Issues and Research Process
The study has some considerations for ethical issues and the research process.
For the study, the researcher will work with the participants by getting informed
consent prior to collecting data. Since the study will be based on a farming com-
pany, an agricultural organization, the entity will need to approve the research
before it takes place. A formal letter, on the university’s letterhead, will be sent to
all participants (and management) to invite them to take part in the study. In add-
ition, a consent form will be sent to participants for their approval to participate
in the study. The form will include an explanation of the purpose and benefits of
the study and the role and time commitment of the participants. The researcher
has considered certain basics and obligations when it comes to conducting
research involving human participants. Miles & Adu (2013) added that the basics
concepts will be “tenet primum non nocere” (first do no harm), “which posits that
the risk of harm to the research participants should normally never outweigh that
which they would be expected to encounter during the course of their everyday
lives” (p. 23).
Belmont Report. Based on the Belmont Report, which focuses on the ethical
implications of a study, the researcher will use the three principles (respect for per-
sons, beneficence and justice). Miles et al. (2015) illustrated that “the expanding
scope of research ethics has sensitized the society, which has become conscious of
the necessity of getting involved in decision-making on issues or procedures which
ultimately affect their health, wellbeing and liberty” (p. 253). The first step in this
process will be to receive approval from the institutional review board at Stanford
University (SU) to conduct research with human subjects. Since the interviews
will be coded, the identity of the participants will be concealed. In addition, the
participants will be aware of the study’s content, such as its purpose, benefits and
any risks that could be associated with it. The researcher will need to acknow-
ledge all requirements of Stanford University (SU) procedures through their
doctoral process. Therefore, it is important and even critical that the researcher
adhere to all the rules established in Stanford University’s policy and following
IRB requirements. Therefore, it would be unethical for the researcher to collect
any data without first getting the IRB approval letter (Stanford University, 2017b).
Ethical Considerations. Further, ethical considerations in a research study

will cover more than informed consent forms (Miles & Adu, 2014). The researcher
must plan their time for a more manageable research design while considering the
reviewers’ approval. This would be critical in conducting the study. As required by
any research to be undertaken, the Institutional Review Board (IRB) will receive
all appropriate forms to be submitted to the participants before the study takes
place, in accordance with the research guidelines and regulations for approval.
Data Management Procedures. It is also critical for the researcher to keep

the data secure and in a confidential location that only they know about. The
data can then be destroyed after a period of seven years. The participants will
receive a letter explaining the reason for the study as well as its purpose and
benefits. The participants will receive information about their right to either par-
ticipate or withdraw from the interview. Furthermore, confidentiality is also a
critical factor in this study. Assumed names or pseudonyms will be given to each
participant to ensure their privacy. All information will be collected according to
the Institutional Review Board (IRB) and Stanford University (SU) guidelines to
ensure that participants are protected from any harm.
Participant Confidentiality. All the participants of the study will need to be

treated with respect because they will be giving up their free time to be interviewed
by the researcher. The researcher will ensure that none of the participants can be
matched to the interview responses provided. Also, the researcher will ensure that
none of the participants’ names are disclosed in the study. No personal informa-
tion about the participants will be made public. So, it is the researcher’s responsi-
bility to ensure and maintain participant anonymity, as well as the confidentiality
of the participants and the organization in this study. Another ethical concern for
the researcher is to advise participants that all information will be kept secure and
not shared in any way with anyone in the organization outside of the dissertation
committee. The data from the study will be secured for seven years, which will
be discussed with the participants. Also, the researcher will allow the participants
some consideration for their decision, either accepting the invitation for the inter-
view process or withdrawing from participating. No costs will be applied to their
decisions.
Assumptions, Limitations and Delimitations

In this section, the researcher discusses the limitations and delimitations in the study.
First, with the limitations, the researcher provides the constraints of the study based
on the research methodology and research design. In this regard, the researcher has
no control over the limitations. Second, the researcher discusses the delimitations,
which are the constraints of the study based on the population scope for collecting
the data. In this regard, the researcher has control over the delimitations (Miles &
Scott, 2017). Lastly, assumptions are statements that are considered true, though
they have not been scientifically tested. Assumptions provide a basis for the devel-
opment of theories and research instruments and, therefore, influence the devel-
opment and implementation of the research process (Happen, 2008; Patidar 2010;
Sampson, 2010). This section should perfectly match the section in chapter one.
This section should be aligned with chapter one.
when developing the “Assumptions, Limitations and Delimitations” section of
chapter three:
• Describe the assumptions related to statements that are scientifically unproven

but need to exist for your study to be valid or trustworthy
• Describe the limitations in terms of the research methodology and design of
the study
• Describe the delimitations in terms of the population scope of the study

• Present strategies to minimize and mitigate the negative consequences of both
the limitations and delimitations
• Align the “Assumptions, Limitations and Delimitations” section with the section
in chapter one
By following these key points, the researcher can fully develop the “Assumptions,
Limitations and Delimitations” section of the chapter (see Example 21.19).
Example 21.19 Assumptions, Limitations and Delimitations
There are assumptions, limitations and delimitations to be addressed for this

study. All are addressed in this section.
Assumptions. Assumptions are an opportunity for the researcher to establish

the value of research regarding experimentation (Miles, 2004; Miles & Adu,
2014). The researcher identified three major assumptions in this study. First, it
is assumed that respondents in this study did not manipulate their ASVAB test
scores in any way. It is assumed the answers on the test were answered completed
honestly and to the best of their ability. This is assumed because the ASVAB
testing procedures are implemented to protect the testing security. Second, it is
assumed that the respondents in the study did not manipulate their student aca-
demic records in any way and that the documentation was completed accurately.
It is assumed that these documents are reported accurately to the Wyoming state
agencies for legal purposes. Lastly, it is assumed that this study is an accurate
representation of the conditions at the time of the implementation of a psy-
chological profiling program in the state of Wyoming. Documentation to the
Wyoming state reporting agency has been used to ensure the authenticity of these
conditions.
Limitations. Limitations are defined as the constraints of the study based

on the methodology and design (Miles, 2016; Adu & Miles, 2014). Limitations
are related to the research approach and methodologies resulting from the
parameters of the study, over which the researcher has no control. Limitations
consist of the constraints related to the researcher’s choice of methodology. As a
basis for the study, the limitations were threefold as identified by the researcher.
The first constraint of this study is that the instrument was closed and did not
have open-ended questions. The second constraint of this study is based on the
use of aggregated data that was collected from the state in a publicly accessible
medium. The last constraint of this study is related to the use of a comparative
design based on other limitations and restricted data. However, these limitations
are mitigated by the fact that these procedures were implemented to increase the
security of the testing instrument.
Delimitations. Delimitations are defined as constraints of the study based on

the population scope (Miles & Adu, 2009; Miles, 2016). Delimitations are things
over which the researcher has control, such as the place of the study (Adu, 2011).
In some cases, these delimitations may prevent an exact replication in other
situations (Miles, 2004). Furthermore, the study gathered data from a specific
assessment given at a specific time, which may not be applicable to other situ-
ations. As a basis for the study, the delimitations were threefold as identified by
the researcher. The following delimitations confined the study. Firstly, this study
was delimited to the state of Wyoming. As such, the results of the study may not
be applicable to entities outside of this state. Secondly, this study was delimited
to traditional public high schools. The study did not look at alternative, charter
or private school campuses. Lastly, this study is delimited to gifted and talented
students in public schools. The study did not look at other specific groups. The
study did not look at other groups such as special education student groups, and
gender-based delineations or ethnicity-based delineations were not considered.
The study was delimited to the investigation of overall testing groups only. The
task for a future researcher may have some 30 conditions. The exact replication
of this study may be difficult; however, this study may have wider parameters that
may provide more nuanced results.
Summary
The methodology chapter is one of the most rigorous parts of the dissertation. In
this chapter we provided the basis for the researcher to develop their dissertation
from the methodology plan. This chapter provides some practical strategies and
templates for the researcher when writing these core sections within the dissertation
format.
In this chapter, we discussed how to write the following nine sections: intro-
duction; problem statement, purpose statement and research questions; research
method and design; population, sample and sampling technique; instrumentation;
data collection; validity; reliability; and, lastly, ethical issues and research process.
By the end of this chapter, the reader should be knowledgeable about these nine
core areas of the dissertation.
References
Booton, C. (2014). How to align the elements of your dissertation proposal. Love Your Dissertation.
Retrieved November 26, 2019, from https://loveyourdissertation.com/wp-content/uplo
ads/2015/01/how-to-align-the-elements-of-your-diss-proposal.pdf
(Data Analysis and Findings)
Objectives
1. Determine the structure for communicating their results
2. Present their findings
Presenting Results in Quantitative Research
Introduction
We have spent an enormous amount of time discussing the importance of data

collection and data analysis in the previous chapters. Collecting data is a difficult
task with research. However, presenting the results and discussing them is quite
an enormous task. Not everyone is qualified to discuss or explain the results from
the study. Presenting the results of the study is an art form. The researcher has
to take into consideration the audience and the reader. Many statisticians are
great at dazzling an audience with sophisticated statistical charts and matrices.
However, it is an art form to take something sophisticated and make it simple for
the audience.
Many researchers make this mistake. As researchers, we ourselves have cer-
tainly made this mistake. A considerable number of novice researchers and doc-
toral students have difficulty presenting and discussing the results. There are
many reasons for this. One, the researcher is not comfortable with presenting and
discussing statistics. Some are not confident presenting information in front of an
audience. Lastly, some are not good at presenting information in front of an audi-
ence. It is imperative that the readers and novice researchers who have this book
understand the concepts in this chapter.
It is our objective to help novice researchers and doctoral students master this
task. It is imperative. In this section, we discuss the time-honored rules of presenting
quantitative results. We will provide readers with a roadmap for discussing quanti-
tative results. Again, presenting and discussing results is an art form. In this section
we will provide examples of how to both present results and discuss them.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003268154-22
394 Writing Your Dissertation: Chapter 4 (Data Analysis and Findings)
How to Present Results in Quantitative Research
The task of presenting quantitative research is difficult yet manageable. The diffi-
cult part of presenting and discussing results is understanding what to present and
what not to present. First of all, the researcher should review the results. Second,
they should present and discuss the descriptive results. Third, they should present
and discuss the inferential results. Lastly, they should summarize and discuss the
significance of the results (Figure 22.1).
The use of tables and figures is a standard way of illustrating the results of
the study. Notably, the researcher should summarize the significant results of
the study. Using unnecessary tables and figures is ill advised when presenting the
results. Lastly, in a presentation of the results, the researcher should only explain
the detailed information that they can explain and not the detailed information that
they cannot explain in terms of statistics.
The next step in the process is to choose your statistical analysis design strategy
for presenting the results. The data analysis strategy is based on the establishment of
the research design. There are generally two statistical analysis designs used when
presenting quantitative results: (a) descriptive analysis, which is used to describe what
the data look like, where their center or midpoint is, how broadly they are spread,
how closely two or more variables within the data are intercorrelated and the like;
and (b) inferential analysis, which is used to draw inferences about large populations
by collecting data on relatively small samples (Leedy & Ormrod, 2019; Burns &
Bush, 2003; Field, 2017; Harrison et al., 2020).
Figure 22.1 Flow diagram of the results presentation process.

Writing Your Dissertation: Chapter 4 (Data Analysis and Findings) 395
Descriptive Statistics: Univariate Statistics –Presenting Results
Descriptive Statistics Results
The first step in presenting the results is to show the descriptive statistics of the
study. The objective is to present the descriptive and frequency results of the study.
It is my preference that novice researchers and doctoral students use parametric
tests such as: (a) central tendency (mean, mode and median) and other forms of
descriptives such as crosstabulation; and (b) dispersion of distribution, which is a para-
metric statistical test that measures the data (percent distribution, minimum and
maximum, percentile) (Burns & Bush, 2003; Harrison et al., 2020). The most com-
monly used statistical techniques for presenting descriptive techniques are shown in
Figure 22.2. SPPS 26.0 was used for displaying the results in Figures 22.3 and 22.4.
Presenting and Writing Up Descriptive Results
There is a method that researchers should follow to present the results of a quanti-
tative study. With presenting and describing the results in a descriptive table, there
are two objectives. The first objective is to be succinct. When presenting the data
from the analysis, let the table describe the results. Let the data in the table tell the
story. As the saying goes, “A picture is worth a thousand words.” This statement is
true when it comes to describing the results in quantitative research.
The second objective is to describe the data properly. When writing about the
results of the data in a table, give the highest number and the lowest number in
the table. It is not necessary to give a full narrative of the descriptive table. You will
take the visual effect away from the table, and it conflicts the reader. By describing
the highest and lowest numbers, you let the reader see the data in between the
two. That way, the reader can see for themselves. For example, “In describing
Figure 22.2 Descriptive statistics techniques model.

Figure 22.3 Descriptive results of age in the data.

Source: Excerpt from a presentation at the Fall 2020 Academy of Business Research Conference
(Miles et al., 2020).
Figure 22.3, the highest age group is 26.3% in the 30 to 35 age group. The lowest
age group is 3.2% in the 56–59 age group.”
Again, the second objective is to describe the data properly. By describing the
highest and lowest numbers, you let the reader see the data in between the two. For
example, “In describing Figure 22.4, the highest number in the ethnic group is 57%
in the Caucasian/European category. The lowest number in the ethnic group is
1.1% for both the Middle Eastern (Arab) and Native American (American Indian)
category.”
Presenting and Writing Up Crosstab Results
Writing about the results of the data in a crosstabulation table is a different

animal compared to the typical descriptive table. When writing the narrative
for the crosstab table, again the researcher wants to give the highest number
and the lowest number in the table. Again, it is not necessary to give a full
narrative of the crosstabulation descriptive table. By describing the highest and
lowest numbers, you let the reader see the data in the middle of the two frequen-
cies. For example, “In describing Figure 22.5, the highest number that ‘Strongly
Agreed’ with Question 7 was 23 respondents in the 25 to 29 age group. The
lowest number that ‘Strongly Agreed’ with Question 7 was 3 respondents in the
55 to 59 age group.” Because the crosstabulation table is so concentrated with
information, the researcher has to provide a minimal narrative of the data in
the table.
Figure 22.4 Descriptive results of ethnicity in the data.

Figure 22.5 Crosstab results of age and online retail purchases in the data.
Presenting and Writing Up Histogram Results
Writing about the results of the data in a histogram graph is another different animal
compared to the typical descriptive table. When writing a narrative of the histogram,
again the researcher wants to give the highest number and the lowest number in the
table. Because of the crosstab properties of the histogram graph, the researcher must
be prudent and let the graph do the talking. To write a narrative of the results, the
researcher must follow the high/low formula: only briefly describe the two frequencies.
For example, “In Figure 22.6, the highest number among the respondents ‘Agreed’
with Question 7 (Most often when I purchase products from an online retailer, I read
the past online reviews). The lowest number among the male respondents ‘Strongly
disagreed’.” Normally, the information in a histogram table is straightforward.
Because of this, the researcher can provide a standard narrative of the data in the
table that is most significant to the reader and audience (see Figure 22.6).
Figure 22.7 shows another example of a histogram with more variables to pre-
sent and discuss. Again, following the high/low formula, when writing a narrative
of the histogram, the researcher wants to give the highest number and the lowest
number in the table. Because of this histogram graph, the researcher can present
the high/low results and let the graph do the talking. Again, to write a narrative of
the results, the researcher follows the high/low formula: only briefly describe the
two frequencies.
For example, “In Figure 22.7, on a 7-point Likert scale, the highest number
among the male respondents ‘Agreed’ with Question 7 (Most often when I purchase
products from an online retailer, I read the past online reviews). The lowest number
among the male respondents ‘Disagreed.’ For the female respondents, the highest
number ‘Strongly agreed’ with Question 7. The lowest number among the female
respondents was ‘Neutral’.” Because this histogram table is so concentrated with
information, the researcher has to provide a minimal narrative of the data in the
table that is most significant to the reader and audience (see Figure 22.7).
Figure 22.6 Histogram results of gender, age and online retail purchases in the data.
Figure 22.7 Histogram results (two charts) of gender, age and online retail purchases in the data.
Presenting and Writing Up Mean and Standard Deviation Results
Writing about the results of data in a table with standard deviation and mean can
be an overwhelming task. This is a bit more difficult compared to the previous
tables. Because the table is only dealing with gender, which has two values, the
narrative has to focus on the high/low formula. Also, since there are two items of
description, the mean and standard deviation, the researcher has to be succinct in
their narrative.
In writing the narrative of the mean and standard deviation, again the
researcher wants to give the highest number and the lowest number in the table.
To write a narrative of the results, the researcher must follow the highest/lowest
formula, only briefly describing the two frequencies. For example, “In Figure 22.8,
the male respondents had a slightly higher mean and standard deviation (M =
2.01, SD =.938) compared to the female respondents (M =1.91, SD =1.129)
with Question 7. However, the female respondents had a higher standard devi-
ation.” Again, because the mean and standard deviation table is so concentrated
with information, the researcher has to be careful and provide a minimal narrative
of the data in the table that is most significant to the reader and audience (see
Figure 22.8).
Bivariate Statistical Techniques

The next phase in the descriptive statistics process is the use of bivariate statistics
to present the results. This part of the descriptive statistics process is optional and
Figure 22.8 Results of gender mean and standard deviation of consumer behavior purchases online and
offline in the data.
depends on the research questions and the research objectives. Using bivariate
statistics is not as essential as univariate statistics in descriptive statistics. The pri-
mary objective of bivariate statistics is the measure of relationships. Bivariate analysis
is defined as aiming to understand the relationship between two variables, x and y.
The measure of relationships can be studied through (a) Pearson correlation; (b) simple
linear regression, where the cause-and-effect relationship can be studied through
simple regression equations; and (c) scatterplots (Figure 22.9).
The first most common bivariate statistical technique is correlation. More specif-
ically, it is called the Pearson correlation. When the researcher uses bivariate statistics,
one of the primary approaches to this analysis is correlation. Correlation is defined
as the measurement of the relationship between two variables (usually dependent
variables). This bivariate statistical technique was invented by Karl Pearson. Karl
Pearson’s coefficient of correlation is also known as the product moment correlation coef-
ficient. The value of r lies between ± 1. A positive value of r indicates a positive cor-
relation between the two variables, while a negative value of r indicates an inverse
relationship or negative correlation. This occurs when two measured variables take
place in the opposite direction. A zero value of r indicates that there is no associ-
ation between the two variables (Kothari, 2009; Field, 2017; Morgan et al., 2017).
Another bivariate statistical technique is a simple linear regression. A simple linear
regression is defined as the determination of a statistical relationship between two
Figure 22.9 Bivariate statistical techniques model.
or more variables. In a simple regression, we have only two variables, one variable
(defined as independent) is the cause of the behavior of the other (defined
as dependent) (Kothari, 2009). This is primarily a measure of the relationship
between the independent variable’s influence (cause) on the dependent variable
(effect) (Kothari, 2009; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). Lastly, the final bivariate statis-
tical technique is the scatterplot. A scatterplot is defined as a figure showing the
relationship between two variables; it is a graphical representation of a correlation
coefficient. In a scatterplot, two measurements are represented for each partici-
pant by the placement of a marker such as the horizontal x-axis and the vertical
y-axis. A scatterplot may show four basic patterns: a positive relationship, a
negative relationship, no relationship or a curvilinear relationship (Jackson, 2009;
Field, 2017).
Presenting and Writing Up Pearson Correlation Results
Again, the primary objective is to describe the data properly. When writing about
the results of data in a table for a Pearson correlation, give the highest significant
coefficient relationship in the table. It is not necessary to give a full narrative of the
Pearson correlation table. There were very few correlations in the data.
For example, “The researcher conducted a Pearson correlation statistical test for
the data. The researcher wanted to measure the relationship between Questions 13
to 17. When we measured the relationship between ‘Question 17 (Most often when
I seek to stay at a hotel for travel, I read the prior online customer reviews) and
‘V15 (Most often when I seek to buy a consumer electronic device (headphones,
iPod, & etc.) from an online retailer, I read the past customer reviews), we found a
significant relationship between the two variables with an (r =.506) coefficient. The
Pearson correlation indicated that there is a strong relationship between the two
variables” (see Figure 22.10).
Figure 22.10 Pearson correlation.

Presenting and Writing Up Simple Linear Regression Results
When presenting and writing up the results of a simple linear regression in a table,
the researcher should give only the most significant predictor variables (inde-
pendent variables) on the dependent variable. Again, if possible, it is not necessary
to give a full narrative of the simple linear regression results.
For example, “In the results, we found that the independent variable ‘V6D-
Children’ has a strong significant influence on the dependent variable ‘V8-Most
often when I purchase products from an online retailer, I rely on word-of-mouth)’ ”
(see Figure 22.11).
Here is another example. Again, when writing up the results of a simple linear
regression in a table, the researcher should give only the most significant predictor
variables (independent variables) on the dependent variable. If possible, it is not
necessary to give a full narrative of the simple linear regression results.
Figure 22.11 Simple linear regression example 1.

Figure 22.12 Simple linear regression example 2.

For example, “In the results, we found that the independent variable ‘V2D-
Age’ is a significant (p =.001) influence on the dependent variable ‘V9-Most
often I purchase products from a retailer (brick & mortar), I read the past
reviews.’ In addition, we found that the independent variable V3D had a mod-
erately significant influence (p =.012) on the dependent variable V9” (see
Figure 22.12).
Figure 22.13 Scatterplot example.

Presenting and Writing Up Scatterplot Results
Here is an example of a scatterplot. When writing up the results of a scatterplot,

the researcher should review the scatterplot configuration and discuss what is sig-
nificant. There is not a considerable narrative here.
For example, “In conducting a scatterplot analysis, the results show there was a
significantly weak relationship between the three variables V13, V14 and V15. We
found no significant relationship between the three variables” (see Figure 22.13).
Inferential Statistics: Multivariate Statistics
Inferential Statistics Results
The first step in statistical analyses usually involves the researcher conducting a
descriptive analysis of the data, with a focus on measures of frequencies, central
tendency and variation. The second step in statistical analyses is to conduct an
inferential analysis of the data, which is a more sophisticated measurement that is
used to test hypotheses and examine confidence intervals and effect sizes. Inferential
statistics measure things that cannot be measured by descriptive statistics. The
practice of using inferential statistical tests tends to measure relationships between
variables that cannot be done with descriptive statistics. For example, this allows the
researcher to make comparisons among two or more groups.
Inferential statistics makes it possible for the researcher to draw inferences about
large populations from relatively small samples. Inferential statistics have two pri-
mary functions: (a) to estimate a population parameter from a random sample;
and (b) to test statistically based hypotheses (Jackson, 2009; Kothari, 2009; Leedy
& Ormrod, 2019). Under inferential statistics, it utilizes statistical elements such
as the alpha levels, the actual p values, the critical region of rejection, test stat-
istic results, the degrees of freedom, effect size and confidence intervals (Creswell,
2012). The use of inferential statistics involves hypothesis testing. There are two
types of hypotheses: (a) alternative hypothesis, which is a type of hypothesis that the
researcher wants to support, predicting that a significant difference exists between
the groups being compared; and (b) null hypothesis, which is the hypothesis predicting
that no difference exists between the groups being compared (Creswell, 2012).
There are two types of error involved in inferential statistics: (a) Type I error,
which is an error in hypothesis testing where the null hypothesis is rejected when
we should have failed to reject it; and (b) Type II error, which is an error in hypoth-
esis testing when there is a failure to reject the null hypothesis when we should have
rejected it (Creswell, 2012).
Inferential statistics primarily utilizes parametric statistical tests. Some of the
most utilized inferential statistical techniques and their purpose are listed here: (a)
t-test, which is used to determine whether a statistically significant difference exists
between two groups; (b) analysis of variance (ANOVA), which is used to examine
differences among three or more groups by comparing the variances within and
across groups; (c) multiple analysis of variance (MANOVA), which is used to examine
differences among groups for two or more dependent variables rather than for
the single dependent variable; (d) analysis of covariance (ANCOVA), which is used
to look for differences among groups while controlling for the effects of a variable
that is correlated with the dependent variable (and a covariate); (e) multiple linear
regression, which examines how accurately one or more variables enable predictions
regarding the values of another (dependent) variable; (f) factor analysis, which is used
to examine the correlations among a number of variables and identify clusters
of highly interrelated variables that reflect general underlying categories within
the data; and (g) structural equation modeling (SEM), which is used to examine the
correlations among a number of variables. It is typically used to test a previously
hypothesized model of how variables are causally interrelated; SEM uses two
approaches such as path analysis and confirmatory analysis (Creswell, 2012).
Multivariate Statistical Techniques

We will now briefly describe the different types of multivariate techniques. We
will discuss the most commonly used multivariate statistical techniques for dis-
sertation studies. We will also describe, in brief, some of the other multivariate
techniques, such as factor analysis, cluster analysis and structural equation mod-
eling. Again, for the purposes of this discussion, nonparametric techniques will
not be discussed. In this book, only parametric statistical techniques will be
discussed.
Multivariate statistics is defined as methods that examine the simultaneous
effect of multiple variables. The traditional classification of multivariate statistical
methods is based on the concept of dependency between variables (Marinković,
2008). An interesting aspect of the multivariate analysis of variance is that it is an
extension of the bivariate analysis of variance. Conversely, multivariate analysis

is focused on variables to which the ratio of among-groups variance to within-
groups variance is calculated on a set of variables instead of a single variable
(Kothari, 2009).
Presenting and Writing Up Exploratory Factory Analysis Results

Writing about the multivariate statistical results of data in a table or figure is
somewhat more complex compared to univariate statistical results. This is a
bit more of a challenge compared to the previous tables. Also, since there are
numerous items in the factor analysis graph, the researcher wants to just give a
basic description of the results. When writing a narrative of the factor analysis,
this also means providing a narrative on the most significant coefficients. The
narrative does not have to include all the coefficients, only the most significant
ones. Example 22.1 shows how to write up the results of an exploratory factor
analysis (see Table 22.1).
Table 22.1 Exploratory factory analysis
1 2 3
*V16 .731
*V8 .723
*V10 .717
*V30 .703
*V18 .703
*V32 .666
*V14 .630
*V28 .627
*V22 .599
*V12 .599
*V20 .550
*V34 .474
*V17 .772
*V31 .760
*V15 .753
*V7 .689
*V27 .687
*V29 .600
*V11 .574
*V23 .561
*V24 .551
*V26 .509
*V13 .473
*V35 .805
*V21 .671
*V25 .596
Source: Excerpt from a presentation at the Fall 2020 Academy of Business Research Conference (Miles
et al., 2020).
Example 22.1
The researchers conducted the initial exploratory factor analysis (EFA). The
researchers used SPSS 23.0. A principal component analysis (PCA) with a
varimax rotation was used for extraction. The rationale for using the PCA was
for when the research purpose is data reduction or exploration and when the
research is a variance-focused approach (Garson, 1998; Brown, 2006; Hair
et al., 1998). For establishing the criteria for the EFA, we set a benchmark of a
minimum coefficient of .3 or higher for the factors. This indicates that some of
the scale factor loadings measured for this PCA (29 items) met and surpassed
the minimum standard for the benchmark coefficient score of greater than .3.
Thus, the factor loadings were considered a reasonable measure in the factor
(Rummel, 1970; Mulaik, 1972). For the pilot study, the observed screen test in the
EFA suggested an optimal solution of four factors. In order for the researchers
to properly assess the validity of the factor solutions, coefficient patterns for
each factor and the theoretical four-factor solution were tested using the statis-
tical properties. To establish the factor names, we conducted a subsequent factor
analysis.
In the PCA, the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure (KMO) of sampling adequacy
resulted in a .883, thus above the commonly recommended value of .3; the
Barlett’s test of sphericity was significant χ2, df (171) =1758, p < .000. In terms
of PCA, a finding that indicators have high loadings on the predicted factors
indicates convergent validity conceptually. Interestingly, a few items loaded into
more than one factor, which indicates good discriminant validity. Eigenvalues (λ)
are a statistic used in the factor analysis to show how much variation in the group
of variables is accounted for by a particular factor (Mulaik, 1972; Rummel, 1970;
Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). The researcher made the decision that the standard
for an eigenvalue score is greater than 1.0 (Vogt, 1993) (see Table 22.1) (Miles
et al., 2019).
Presenting and Writing Up Confirmatory Factor Analysis Results
Writing about the confirmatory factor analysis results of data in a figure is a more
complex task compared to univariate statistical results. Again, this is a bit more of
a challenge compared to the previous tables. Also, since there are numerous items
in the confirmatory factor analysis graph, the researcher wants to just give a basic
description of the results. In terms of writing a narrative of the confirmatory factor
analysis, this means just providing a narrative on the most significant coefficients.
The narrative does not have to include all the coefficients, only the most significant
ones. Example 22.2 shows how to write up the results of an exploratory factor
analysis.
Figure 22.14 Confirmatory factor analysis.

Example 22.2
A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted to assess the construct val-
idity of the model. The researchers wanted to assess the convergent validity and
determine confirmation of the existence of a construct model. To assess the con-
vergent validity, the loading estimates and construct reliability were investigated.
To assess the convergent validity, we used SPSS AMOS 23 to analyze the data.
It was used to assess and test using the measurement model by determining the
significant t-value of each item’s estimated pattern coefficient in the construct
factor (see Figure 22.14).
A structural equation model (SEM) was conducted to examine the predict-
ability of the moviegoer’s reaction to the influence of advertising models for
seeing the movie Black Panther. The CFA was also performed to measure the
unidimensionality, convergent and discriminant validity in the RMS instrument.
The CFA results provide overall fit indices (χ2 =971.11). The χ2 test in the table
also clearly shows compelling results that the sample was not drawn from the
hypothesized population. Based on the GIF results, the statistical test supports
the rejection of the hypothesized model. The RMSEA coefficients was close to
meeting the benchmark of the desired confidence intervals (.04–.11 and .06–.08,
respectively). RMSEA (root mean square error of approximation) =0.122, GFI
(goodness-of-fit) =0.78, AGFI (adjusted goodness-of-fit) =0.72, CFI (compara-
tive fit index) =0.87, RMR (root mean square residual) =0.39 and NFI (normed
fit index) =0.82. Figure 22.14 presents the results of the CFA analysis and the fit
statistics results (Miles et al., 2019, p. 1099)
Presenting and Writing Up Path Analysis Model Results
Writing about the results of a path analysis in a figure is, again, a more complex
task. Also, since there are numerous items in a path analysis graph, the researcher
wants to just give a basic description of the results. In terms of writing a narrative
of the path analysis, this means just providing a narrative of the most significant
elements of the path and coefficients. The narrative does not have to include all
the elements and coefficients, only the most significant ones. Example 22.3 shows
how to write up the results of a path analysis. The authors reference Tabachnick &
Fidell (2007) for an example of how to write a narrative of the results. Also see the
advanced path analysis in Figure 22.15 (Khan & Miles, 2020).
Figure 22.15 Path analysis.

Example 22.3
The hypothesized model is in Figure 22.15. Circles represent latent variables, and
rectangles represent measured variables. Absence of a line connecting variables
implies lack of a hypothesized direct effect. The hypothesized model examined
the predictors of health care utilization. Health care utilization was a latent vari-
able with 2 indicators (number of visits to health professionals and frequency of
drug use).
It was hypothesized that perceived ill health (a latent variable with 2
indicators –number of mental health problems and number of physical health
problems), age and number of life stress units directly predicted increased health
care utilization. Additionally, it was hypothesized that perceived ill health is dir-
ectly predicted by poorer sense of self, greater number of life change units and
increasing age. Perceived ill health served as an intervening variable between age,
life change units, poor sense of self and health care utilization. Additionally, it
was hypothesized that perceived ill health is directly predicted by poorer sense of
self, greater number of life change units and increasing age. Perceived ill health
served as an intervening variable between age, life change units, poor sense of
self and health care utilization.
Assumptions
The assumptions were evaluated through IBM SPSS and EQS. The dataset
contains responses from 459 women. There were complete data for 443
participants on the nine variables of interest. Five participants (1.1%) were
missing data on attitudes toward marriage (ATTMAR), 4 participants (.9%) were
missing age (AGE), and 7 (1.5%) are missing the stress measure (STRESS). This
analysis used only complete cases (N =443).
There were no univariate or multivariate outliers. There was evidence that
both univariate and multivariate normality were violated. Eight of the measured
variables (TIMEDRS, PHYHEAL, MENHEAL, DRUGUSE, ESTEEM,
CONTROL, STRESS and ATTMAR) were significantly univariately skewed,
p < .001. Mardia’s normalized coefficient =6.42, p < .001, indicating viola-
tion of multivariate normality. Therefore, the models were estimated with max-
imum likelihood estimation and tested with the Satorra–Bentler scaled chi square
(Satorra & Bentler, 1988). The standard errors also were adjusted to the extent of
the nonnormality (Bentler & Dijkstra, 1985; Mack et al., 2018).
Model Estimation
Only marginal support was found for the hypothesized model Satorra–Bentler x2
(20, N =443) =86.91, p < .05, Robust CFI =.88, RMSEA =.08. Post hoc model
modifications were performed in an attempt to develop a better fitting model.
On the basis of the Lagrange multiplier test and theoretical relevance, two
residual covariances were estimated (residual covariance between the number
of physical health problems and number of visits, and the residual covariance
between frequency of drug use and number of visits to health professionals).
The model was significantly improved with the addition of these paths, Satorra–
Bentler x2 difference (2, N =443) =37.33, p < .05. The final model fit the data
well, Satorra–Bentler x2 (18, N =443) =40.17, p < .05, Robust CFI =.96,
RMSEA =.05. Because post hoc model modifications were performed, a correl-
ation was calculated between the hypothesized model estimates and the estimates
from the final model, r(20) =.97, p < .01. This high correlation indicates that
the parameter estimates from the first and last models are highly related to each
other. The final model with standardized and unstandardized coefficients is in
Figure 22.16 (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007; Moore & Rudd, 2006).
Presenting Results in Qualitative Research
Introduction
After collecting the data, you next step is to make sense of it and present what you
found to your audience. At this point, your goal is not to draw conclusions from what
you found but to present what you found (Sreejesh et al., 2014). Whether conducting
quantitative, qualitative or mixed methods research, there are standards set by the
research community that need to be followed when conducting data reduction to
attain valid, credible and meaningful results. In a qualitative study, the data reduc-
tion process begins with generating phrases based on the significant information
extracted from the data, clustering the codes with the goal of creating themes.
These themes are then presented in a way that addresses the research question
for the study and makes sense to the audience. For a mixed methods study, quan-
titative and qualitative data are analyzed concurrently or sequentially to arrive at
findings that are then used to address the research questions. The presentation of
the findings report can be grouped into six main sections: overview, research setting,
participants’ demographics, data analysis process, findings and summary (see Adu,
2021). The information being presented in this chapter was based on the presenta-
tion on ‘Writing your results’ by Adu (2021).
Overview
In this section, you are expected to present some brief background information
about your study, reminding your readers about the research gap you will be filling
(i.e., research problem) and what you did in the study (i.e., purpose of the study). In
addition, you could highlight the main topics you will be discussing in the chapter
(for a dissertation). A common list of contents that are normally presented in the
findings chapter of a dissertation is as follows: research setting, participants’ demo-
graphics (features of the data sources), data analysis process and presentation of
newgenrtpdf
412
Writing Your Dissertation: Chapter 4 (Data Analysis and Findings)
Figure 22.16 Advanced path analysis.
Source: Excerpt from a presentation at the Fall 2020 Academy of Business Research Conference (Miles et al., 2020).
the findings. The essence of this section is to introduce the findings chapter to your
readers so that, after reading the content of this section, they know what both the
study and the content of the chapter are about. Here are questions that need to be
addressed in this section:
• What was the problem that led to the design and implementation of the study?
• What was the purpose of the study?
• What is the findings chapter about?
• What are the main topics you will be addressing in this chapter?
Research Setting
In this section, you focus on brief information about where, how and when the
data was collected and what your experience was at the data collection stage. This
section should not be a repetition of the “Procedure/Data Collection” section in
the “Research Methodology” chapter but succinct information on how, where and
when the data was retrieved, portraying the context and conditions surrounding
the data collection process, experience and outcomes. It is not required to have a
“Research Setting” section, but sharing such information reminds readers of how
and where the data was collected. It also helps readers to have an understanding of
your experience when collecting the data. Lastly, based on the information shared,
readers can learn from any challenges faced and recognize best practices that can
be useful in their research.
Participants’ Demographics
This section houses the presentation of results related to the features of your data
source. If your source of data was people, then you are expected to present the
participants’ demographics. The way demographics are presented in a quantitative
study can be different from how they are presented in a qualitative study. The next
paragraph explains how you should describe your participants when conducting a
quantitative or qualitative study.
When reporting participants’ demographics in a qualitative study, you could pre-
sent in an individualized or a collective way or even present a mixture of both (Adu,
2019). With the individualized way of presenting participants’ background infor-
mation, each participant with unique demographic characteristics is highlighted.
This approach is consistent with the assertion that participants’ background, beliefs
and preconceptions influence how they experience a phenomenon and make sense
of or share their experience. It is therefore appropriate to share their background
and its uniqueness when presenting what you found. However, if there are com-
monalities between participants’ demographics that are worth highlighting, you
can present them in a collective fashion.
An Example of an Individualized Presentation of Participants’

Demographics
Participant P5 was one of five females in the study (see Table 22.2). She was an
artist. Participant P5 had been in this profession for about 20 years. She became
fascinated with art works when she was a child. She remembered at the age of
eight years old her parents took her to the Guggenheim Museum in New York.
That was the place her interest in art began. At the time of the data collection,
she was 48 years old and was doing artwork, including organizing workshops for
young people who were interested in art.
An Example of a Collective Presentation of Participants’

Demographics
In all 10 participants were interviewed for this study of which half of them were
females. Majority of them were in between 24 and 35 years old (n=6, 60%). Also,
half of the participants were married. They have diverse profession ranging from
artist through to teacher.
As stated above, you could present participants’ demographics in both indi-

vidual and collective form if you plan to showcase the commonalities among them
and, at the same time, highlight the unique characteristics that each person has.
Also, as shown in Table 22.2, the demographic features of each participant have
Table 22.2 Participants’ demographics
Participant Gender Age Profession Marital Status
P1 Male 55 Physician Married

P2 Female 23 Content creator Single
P3 Female 32 Teacher Married
P4 Male 31 Dentist Married
P5 Female 48 Artist Single
P6 Female 52 Nurse Single
P7 Female 44 Farmer Single
P8 Male 35 Police officer Married
P9 Male 24 Construction worker Married
P10 Male 25 Plumber Single
been displayed. The point of having this kind of table is to help readers to quickly
know who your participants were, especially when one of them is quoted to support
a theme or an assertion (Adu, 2019). Besides this individualized demographic table,
you could also have a collective table, especially if you have a lot of participants
and want to show the number of participants under each category of a demo-
graphic variable (see Adu, 2019). Lastly, if you are doing a mixed methods study,
you could present participants’ demographics in both an individualized and a col-
lective manner.
Data Analysis Process

This section focuses on addressing the question, “How did you arrive at your
finding?” By addressing this question, researchers can follow your data analysis
steps and get the same or similar results, promoting the reliability or dependability
of your study (Creswell, 2012; Moon et al., 2016; ). Also, sharing how you analyzed
your data increases the credibility of the finding. In order words, readers will believe
what you found if you show them how you conducted your data analysis.
Presenting the Data Analysis Process in Qualitative Research
You start describing your data analysis process by stating the specific type of analysis
you used. There are many qualitative data analysis techniques you could choose
from (see Onwuegbuzie et al., 2012). The three main types of data analysis mostly
used by researchers are thematic analysis, content analysis and grounded theory
analysis (constant comparative analysis) (Adu, 2019; Onwuegbuzie et al., 2012;
Saldaña, 2021). With thematic analysis, you generate codes as you go through the
data to identify relevant information (Adu, 2019). You then categorize these codes,
leading to the development of themes at the end of the analysis (see Figure 22.17)
(Adu, 2019; Maguire & Delahunt, 2017). However, with content analysis, codes/
themes are first generated based on the literature reviewed and/or conceptual/the-
oretical framework developed (Zhang & Wildemuth, 2009; Moustakas, 1994). The
codes/themes are used to label relevant information extracted from the data (see
Figure 22.18). Lastly, the constant comparative method is a data analysis strategy
used mostly in grounded theory studies to examine how the themes and model/
theory generated align with a new set of data (Charmaz, 2014; Kolb, 2012; Strauss,
1989) (see Figure 22.19).
Figure 22.17 T hematic analysis process.

Figure 22.18 Content analysis process.
Figure 22.19 Grounded theory (constant comparative) process.
After writing about the type of qualitative data analysis used and explaining
what it involved, you then provide, in detail, the steps you took to analyze the data.
Also, you are expected to present what the outcomes are after each major step.
For example, after the following step, “Relevant information selected from the
data were assigned codes,” you would state, “At the end, 25 and 58 codes were
generated under research questions one and two.” You could also provide examples
of the codes generated to help your readers to have an idea about the kind of codes
developed. In summary, your goal in this section is to provide clear steps on how
you analyzed your data.
Presentation of the Findings

Here is where you present the outcomes of the data analysis that address
your research questions or test your hypotheses. There are different ways of
presenting the findings, but the most important thing is to make sure you pre-
sent them in the format accepted by your research community or discipline. You
could follow the format suggested by the American Psychological Association
(see American Psychological Association, 2019; Appelbaum et al., 2018; Levitt
et al., 2018).
Presenting the Findings in Qualitative Research
There are many ways of presenting your qualitative findings. The most important
thing is to make sure you are presenting them in such a way that the results are
directly addressing your research questions. That way, your reader will more likely
understand what you found (Adu, 2019). The common presentation strategy is to
state the research question you addressed and describe the themes addressing the
question. For each theme, you are expected to:
• Provide a description in terms of what the theme represents

• Explain what the theme means
• Support the theme with evidence
• Make a concluding statement showing how it addresses the research question
In Example 22.4, you can see how the theme is presented to address the research
question, “What were the factors contributing to public concerns about GM (genet-
ically modified) research and foods in the UK?” (Adu, 2019, p. 348).
Example 22.4 (Theme:) GM Risks Uncertainties
Similar to any technological innovation such as the production of self-driving

vehicles, GM research and products have potential risks. The findings show that
the public wanted an assurance from GM scientists that there were no side effects
associated with GM technology and crops. To them, the scientists should be
certain about the risks involved before making them available for consumption.
However, according to one GM scientist (“S16”), not many studies have been
conducted about GM side effects, making it challenging to completely promise
safe GM technology outcomes. Moreover, due to the nature of scientific inquiry,
they could not guarantee that GM foods are totally safe, although there has not
been any evidence proving otherwise. As a student/staff (“NS2”) asserted, GM
scientists could not assure the public that there was no risk due to the nature of
scientific studies. In effect, this lack of assurance from GM scientists about GM
safety and related uncertainties influenced the public negative attitude towards
GM research and crops (Adu, 2019, pp. 354–355).
Example 22.4 is just one way of presenting themes (see Table 22.3). In this
case, based on the data, you have established relationships among the themes
generated, you can also present the connections between the themes as you address
the research question. Adu (2019) calls this structure of presentation a “synthesized
theme-driven format” (p. 360).
Creating visual representations such as tables, mind maps, charts, tables, word
clouds and word trees could add to the understanding of your findings. One
of the visual aids you could create is a summary table (see Adu, 2019; Saldaña,
2021). A summary table normally contains all the themes presented, the number
of participants connected to the theme (if available), the number of excerpts
extracted from the data connected to the theme (if available), a brief description of
the themes in terms of their meaning or what they present and evidence from the
data supporting each theme.
Table 22.3 Excerpts from the description of the themes and their respective features
Excerpts from the Description of the Themes Labels for the Theme
Description Excerpts
• “Due to the nature of scientific inquiry, they could What the theme represents
not guarantee that GM foods and totally safe
although there has not been any evidence proving
otherwise” (Adu, 2019, p. 355).
• “Similar to any technological innovation such as Explanation of the theme
the production of self-driving vehicles, GM research
and products have potential risks” (Adu, 2019,
p. 354).
• “The findings show that the public wanted an
assurance from GM scientists that there were no side
effects associated with GM technology and crops.
To them, the scientists should be certain about the
risks involved before making them available for
consumption” (Adu, 2019, p. 354).
• “According to one GM scientist (“S16”), not many Supporting evidence
studies have been conducted about GM side effects,
making it challenging to completely promise safe
GM technology outcomes” (Adu, 2019, p. 355).
• “As a student/staff (“NS2”) asserted, GM scientists
could not assure the public that there was no risk
due to the nature of scientific studies” (Adu, 2019,
p. 355).
• “In effect, this lack of assurance from GM scientists Concluding statement
about GM safety and related uncertainties influenced
the public negative attitude towards GM research and
crops” (Adu, 2019, 355).
“Summary” Section
The summary section could include an overview briefly describing the research
problem and purpose. It could also contain highlights of participants’ demographics
and the data analysis procedure. In addition, you are also expected to briefly share
the key findings. Lastly, you end this section with a concluding statement (Adu,
2021). The easiest way of getting this section done is to first write a sentence for
each of the below components:
• Research problem
• Research purpose
• Demographics
• Statistical tests or data analysis process
• Main findings
• Concluding statement
After that, you can arrange them in such a way that there is a logical flow of
information presented in the summary section.
Summary
The credibility of a study could depend on how the findings are presented. For a
quantitative study, you are expected to present the collective characteristics of the
participants, sharing the counts, percentages, mean and standard deviations for the
demographic variables. In addition, you are expected to present the results from
conducting descriptive and inferential statistics. However, with a qualitative study,
you are more likely to present participants’ demographics in an individual format,
helping your audience to know the characteristics of each participant. Further,
the main findings are normally presented in themes and organized under their
respective research questions. This chapter focused on demonstrating the best way
of structuring the presentation of your qualitative, quantitative or mixed methods
study. By the end of the chapter, you should be able to communicate your results in
a meaningful way and show how you arrived at the research outcomes.
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(Discussion and Conclusions)
Objective
1. Write the discussion and conclusions chapter of their dissertation

In this chapter, the researcher reintroduces the topic again and reiterates the
research problem as the basis for the study. This chapter provides another intro-
duction and overview of the study and the topic. In this section, the researcher
discusses the findings of the study. The researcher provides a discussion of the
findings for the instrument and provides some evidence in support of the study’s
findings. Furthermore, the researcher will provide an overview of why the study
is important and how the study was designed to contribute to our understanding
of the topic. The researcher basically provides a transition, explains what will be
covered in the chapter and reminds the reader of how the study was conducted.
The chapter provides a discussion and overview of what is contained in the
chapter.
developing the “Introduction and Overview” section of chapter five:
• Provide a summary of the study framework, including a recap of the research

problem and purpose statement
• Remind the reader of the research questions and how the reported data analysis
(not findings) align with answering the research questions
• Provide an overview as to why the study is important and how the study was
designed to contribute to our understanding of the topic
• Provide a transition, explain what will be covered in the chapter and remind the
reader how the study was developed
DOI: 10.4324/9781003268154-23
Writing Your Dissertation: Chapter 5 (Discussion and Conclusions) 423
• Provide an overview of what is contained in the chapter

(Miles, 2022)
and Overview” section of the chapter (see Example 23.1).
Example 23.1 Introduction and Overview
The purpose of this study was to determine if statistically significant differences

existed between two groups, employees that participated in leadership educa-
tion program and employees that did not, and the performance on a company-
mandated assessment for employees throughout the company. The researcher
identified three key research objectives in this study. The first objective of the
study was to determine whether a statistically significant difference existed
between a group taking the leadership education program and a group that
did not, and if it had an influence on Leadership Intelligence Quotient (LIQ)
scores for the management competence part of the assessment. The second
objective of the study was to determine whether a statistically significant diffe-
rence existed between a group taking the leadership education program and a
group that did not, and if it had an influence on LIQ scores for the leadership
trust worthiness part of the assessment. The last objective of the study was to
determine whether a statistically significant difference existed between a group
taking the leadership education program and a group that did not, and if it
had an influence on LIQ scores for the leadership commitment part of the
assessment.
This study was developed because of the need to gain insights regarding
the extent to which a specified leadership education program impacts
employees or future managers based on their success on the company’s LIQ
test. The results of the study should contribute to the literature addressing the
needs of companies with increasing incidents of office politics, workplace pol-
itics, nepotism, workplace bullying and other bad organizational behaviors
identified by the Employee Leadership Behavior and similar behavioral
assessment tools.
Finally, it should also contribute to the body of knowledge and prior research
addressing the relevance of zero- tolerance policies in private and public
organizations and their settings. The study examined whether the personal char-
acter development curriculum influenced overall company assessment scores.
The data was analyzed in company departments with a leadership education
program and compared to the same data in departments without a leadership
education program.
424 Writing Your Dissertation: Chapter 5 (Discussion and Conclusions)
Overview of Chapter
This chapter will discuss the primary objectives for this study. The sections
included in this chapter will review the research questions, summarize the
study, summarize the findings and conclusions, discuss the research questions
and accompanying hypotheses, review the conclusions and implications of
the study and suggest recommendations regarding the study. This quantitative
study examined whether leadership education has any influence on employee
weighted percentage of change year-over-year on company standardized testing
in departments throughout the company. Based on the results of the analysis, this
study indicated considerable significance between the implementation of a lead-
ership education program and weighted percentage of change year-over-year on
the LIQ.
Summary of Findings and Conclusions

In this section, the researcher summarizes the findings and conclusions of the study.
The researcher provides a convincing discussion on how the study is aligned with
and advances the research on the topic. Furthermore, the researcher will discuss
the significance of the findings. The researcher basically provides a conclusion
to the findings in the study. The researcher wants to provide a rigorous discussion
of the findings and conclusions in the study.
developing the “Summary of Findings and Conclusions” section of chapter five:
• Summarize the study’s findings. Compare, contrast and synthesize the study’s
findings in the context of prior research on the topic
• Provide a convincing discussion on how the study is aligned with and advances
the research on the topic
• Illustrate that the findings are aligned with the research study design described
in the previous chapters (chapters one, two and three)
• Illustrates how the findings are supported by the data and theory and how the
findings directly align with and answer the research question(s)
• Discuss the significance (or non-significance) of the findings
• Directly relate each of the findings to the Significance of the Study section of
chapter one
• Abstain from including unrelated or speculative information in this section
• Provide a conclusion to summarize the key findings
• Relate the key findings back to chapter one and link the study to it
• Writing length: Minimum of three to five pages (Miles, 2022)
By following these key points, the researcher can fully develop the “Summary of
Findings and Conclusions” section of the chapter (see Example 23.2).
Example 23.2 Summary of Findings and Conclusions
The demand for employee improvement and corporate achievement in the

organization’s departments, as well as the rest of the company, has increased
since the passage of equity and inclusion policy and practices. The ensuing
pressure caused by this legislation has caused the company’s gender bias-based
environment to change over time (Miles, 2015). According to the literature,
there has been an increase in inappropriate workplace behaviors and product-
ivity disruptions, as well as increased efforts in employee inclusion practices. This
has influenced an increase in the number of employee complaints about upward
mobility and employee attrition.
This company-based study began by identifying an opportunity to investi-
gate the impact of a leadership character education course on employee training
achievement as described in Chapter 1. This section provides a summary of
key findings that were uncovered from data analysis on the leadership training
program as offered in Chapter 4. The findings from the weighted percentage
of change between the organization’s departments are organized based on the
research questions and hypotheses that are specific to this study. After examining
the findings for each question, conclusions will be drawn based on the analysis of
the results. Furthermore, the findings will be discussed as they pertain to current
research on leadership education.
In conclusion, the results of the data indicated that there may be a significant
gain in testing scores as a result of a character education program in the company.
There was a similar result in the analysis for overall scores, management com-
petence scores, leadership trust worthiness scores and leadership commitment
scores. However, more information may be determined from looking at the score
distributions themselves.
Discussion: Research Question and Hypothesis One, RQ1: Is there a

statistically significant difference between a group taking the leadership education program and
a group not taking it, as measured by the Leadership Intelligence Quotient (LIQ) instrument?
The first research question investigated the relationship between taking a char-
acter education class and overall passing success on the LIQ instrument. It was
hypothesized that there would be positive, statistically significant relationships
between leadership education and the overall test passing percentages. The set of
data was collected using the Management Excellence Indicator System (MEIS),
which is a publicly accessible record through the IRS and other government
agencies (IRS, 2018). The researcher collected data regarding demographics
such as gender, while management experiences and education achievement
results were not included because they were not part of the original instruments’
questions.
The percentage for each department was calculated by using the population
of the school and the number of employees for that department who achieved
a passing rate on the LIQ assessment. The information was then subjected to
an independent sample t-Test that was used to determine the significance of the
findings. A t-Test was conducted to determine if there were differences in populated
weighed percent of the change between the two groups for LIQ overall scores.
The 215 participants who received the leadership program training (M =480,
SD =34.5) compared to the 28 participants in the non-participating group who
did not take the leadership program course (M =425, SD =31) demonstrated
significantly better peak flow scores, t(51) =2.1, p =.04. There was a significant
effect for sex, t(38) =1.7, p =.004, despite women (M =55, SD =8) attaining
higher scores than men (M =53, SD =7.8). These were similar, as assessed by a
visual inspection. The null hypothesis was rejected (M =445, z =1.272, p =.003),
using an exact sampling distribution (Miles & Adu, 2014). The key finding from
the results indicate there was a significant difference between the two groups with
the implementation of the leadership program.
Discussion: Research Question and Hypothesis Two, RQ2: Is there a

statistically significant difference between a group taking the leadership trust worthiness test and
The second research question was content-based and focused on the leadership
trust worthiness test. It investigated the relationship between taking a leadership
education class and passing percentage rates for employees taking the Leadership
Intelligence Quotient (LIQ) instrument. It was hypothesized that there would be
a positive, statistically significant relationship between leadership education and
percentage of passing scores on the LIQ instrument.
Again, an independent sample t-Test was conducted to determine if there
were differences in populated weighed percent of the change between groups
for LIQ scores. These were similar, as assessed by a visual inspection. The null
hypothesis was rejected (M =344, p =.003), using an exact sampling distribution
for the mean (Miles & Adu, 2003). The participants who received the leader-
ship program training (M =480, SD =34.5) compared to the 28 participants
in the non-participating group who did not take the leadership program course
(M =425, SD =18) demonstrated significantly better peak flow scores, t(51) =2.1,
p =.04. There was a significant effect for sex, t(38) =1.7, p =.004, despite
women (M =55, SD =8) attaining higher scores than men (M =53, SD =7.8).
These were similar, as assessed by a visual inspection. The null hypothesis was
rejected (M =445, z =1.272, p =.003), using an exact sampling distribution
(Miles & Adu, 2014). Based on the statistical test, the results found that there
was a statistical significance for leadership trust worthiness test scores. The key
finding from the results indicates there was a significant difference between the
two groups with the implementation of the leadership education program in a
private company.
Discussion: Research Question and Hypothesis Three, RQ3: Is there a

statistically significant difference between a group taking the leadership education program and
The last research question was content-based and focused on the leadership
education program LIQ test. It investigated the relationship between taking
a character education class and passing percentage rates for students taking
the Leadership Intelligence Quotient (LIQ) instrument and Skills. It was
hypothesized that there would be a positive, statistically significant relation-
ship between character education and percentage of passing scores on the LIQ
administration. Again, an independent sample t-test was used to determine if
there were no differences in populated weighed percent of the change between
groups for LIQ scores. These were similar, as assessed by a visual inspection
(Adu & Miles, 2004). The null hypothesis was rejected (M =344, p =.003),
using an exact sampling distribution for the mean (Miles & Adu, 2003). The
participants who received the leadership program training (M =480, SD =34.5)
compared to the 28 participants in the non-participating group who did not take
the leadership program course (M =425, SD =18) demonstrated significantly
better peak flow scores, t(51) =2.1, p =.04. There was a significant effect for sex,
t(38) =1.7, p =.004, despite women (M =55, SD =8) attaining higher scores
than men (M =53, SD =7.8). These were similar, as assessed by a visual inspec-
tion. The null hypothesis was rejected (M =445, p =.003), using an exact sam-
pling distribution (Miles & Adu, 2014). Based on the statistical test, the results
found that there was no statistical significance for leadership trust worthiness test
scores. The key finding from the results indicates there was a significant diffe-
rence between the two groups with the implementation of the leadership educa-
tion program in a private company. Based on the statistical test, the results found
that there were not any statistical significance differences for LIQ test scores.
The key finding from the results indicates there was no significant difference
between the two groups with the implementation of the leadership education
program.
Conclusions of the Study

The research found three key conclusions from this study. This study investigated
the potential role of participation in a leadership education program in employee
success on company-mandated standardized assessments. First, based on the first
key finding of the study, the conclusion is that there is a strong nexus between the
leadership education program and change in a year over-year test score perform-
ance. The key finding from the results indicates there was a significant difference
between the two groups with the implementation of the leadership education
program in the department and company. In fact, the implementation of leader-
ship programs in departments was found to be significant in its relationship with
the test scores in both departments of the company. This finding is consistent
with other studies investigating potential relationships between character leader-
ship program participation and attendance (Miles, 2016; Miles et al., 2018; Adu
et al., 2019; Miles et al., 2016).
Second, based on the second finding of the study, the conclusion is that there
is strong nexus between the character education program and leadership trust
worthiness test score performance. The key findings from the research indicate
there was no difference between the two groups with the implementation of the
leadership program. The implementation of the leadership program in the com-
pany departments was found to be significant in its relationship with the test
scores in the departments and the company.
Lastly, based on the third key finding of the study, it is concluded that there is
no nexus between the character education program and leadership commitment
year-over-year test score performance. The key finding from the results indicate
there was no significance between the two groups with the implementation of
the leadership education program. Implementation of the employee leadership
program in schools was found to be insignificant in its relationship with the year-
over-year test scores in the department and the company. The overall conclusion
of the study is that participation in a leadership program did have a notice-
able impact on employee year-over-year performance on company-mandated
assessments. This may have been attributed to a couple factors. First, many
of the previous studies were qualitative in nature, giving a direct record of the
participants’ perceived impact of employee participation in the course. Lastly, the
use of primary data may have impacted the results.
Interpretation of the Findings

In this chapter, the researcher discusses the interpretation of the findings. In this
section, the researcher discusses the findings of the study section in the chapter.
The researcher provides a discussion of the findings in regard to the instrument
and provides some evidence in support of the study findings. The researcher
basically provides a transition to the findings section in the chapter. The chapter
explains the interpretation of the findings and how the study was conducted.
The chapter also provides a discussion of the interpretation of the findings in
the chapter.

developing the “Interpretation of the Findings” section of chapter five:
• Reiterate the research problem, purpose statement and research questions (if
necessary)
• Describe the key interpretations and make sure they are relevant to the research
problem, purpose statement and research questions
• Describe the key findings from the study that are significant and relevant
• Describe and discuss the content that advances the findings to interpretations
• Describe and discuss the content that does not generalize beyond the evidence
of the findings
• Discuss and directly relate the interpretation to the research problem that guided
the study
• Describe and provide logical interpretations of the findings from the research
• Describe and discuss the topic of the interpretation. Do not stray into other
areas that are not relevant; remain on the key topic
• Describe and discuss content that states whether your interpretations align with
those of previous researchers
• Describe and provide content as to whether the interpretations have some
adherence to previous research findings or whether they are a departure from
previous research findings
• Describe and provide content regarding the reasons for the adherence or
departure (such as different patient populations, different procedures or different
level of data quality)
(Miles, 2022)
By following these key points, the researcher can fully develop the “Interpretation
of the Findings” section of the chapter (see Example 23.3).
The task of interpreting the findings is the most critical part of chapter five.
The researcher should take this process very seriously. The task of developing the
findings can also be a difficult endeavor for the novice researcher or the doctoral
student. This part of the process can be very difficult for them. One way to address
this is to follow this process. The basic task of interpreting your findings is a three-
step process (see Figure 23.1).
Figure 23.1 T he interpretation of the findings process.
Review the Data Analysis Results
The first step in the interpretation of findings is to review the data analysis results.
The researcher wants to review the results to see what the data is telling them. As
a researcher, you want to see the story the data and results are telling you. All data
tells a story. You want to see the story the data is telling you. Next is to look for
patterns in the data analysis. The researcher wants to look for emergent patterns
among their results that can be considered a first round of analysis. When you find
patterns, you can tell what is consistent in the data analysis. Also, you want to look
for inconsistencies in the data results. Again, what is the story that the data results
are telling you. That is what you want to do in this step (Kliewer, 2007; Bloomberg
& Volpe, 2008).
Interpretation of Findings from Results
The task of interpreting the findings from the data is a critical part of the process.
A critical part of the interpretive reading of your data analysis results involves
constructing a version of what you infer from it. First, the task of interpret-
ation essentially involves reading through or beyond the data analysis results and
interpreting the findings (e.g., making sense of the findings). This is focused on
answering the “why?” and “why not?” questions around the results (Kliewer, 2007).
Interpretation involves identifying the important understanding from the detail and
complexity of the findings. We know there are differences between interpreting
findings in quantitative and qualitative results. So, the researcher must learn the
characteristics of each methodology and look for the significance in the results and
deduce the findings from those results.
Second, when composing the findings, the researcher must understand that the
findings of the study will either confirm what is already known about the subject
area surrounding their research problem or diverge from it (Bloomberg & Volpe,
2008). You as the researcher must put forward your interpretations concerning the
patterns and idiosyncrasies in the results. Lastly, the researcher needs to make the
audience understand that they looked at different angles to conclude their findings.
This involves giving the audience the confidence that the researcher did their
due diligence to develop convincing findings. The researcher must be diligent in
performing this. The reader should get the sense that you have looked at your
findings from different angles, that you have taken into account all the information
relevant to the analysis, that you have identified and discussed the most important
themes, and that your argument is systematically constructed (Long et al., 1985;
Miles & Scott, 2017).
Synthesis of the Findings
The last step in the process is the task of synthesizing the findings. Synthesis involves
the task of pulling everything together from the different parts of the data analysis
results. These turn into your findings. The incredible advantage of synthesis is that
it puts everything together in one place. Furthermore, the task of synthesis involves
combining the individual units of analysis into a more integrated whole. Synthesis
can also allow the researcher to see how the interpretation of the individual findings
conflate or contrast with each other (Webster, 1998a, 1998b; Kliewer, 2007). (see
Example 23.3).
Example 23.3 Interpretation of the Findings
For the purpose of the analysis and interpretation, the researcher used Adu’s
(2008) seminal work and how he perceived leadership in corporations and the
need for such leaders in the business world today. Adu’s (2008) framework served
as a lens to filter the data. A persistent theme in the literature was consistent
with Adu’s (2008) perception of crisis leadership. The literature suggested that, as
employment demographics change in the United States, the demographics of the
corporations do not mirror this change. The research also revealed a consistent
theme regarding an area that will contribute to the much-needed studies on crisis
leadership. This concept of leadership is based on the attitudes, beliefs and life
experiences of managers in corporations today and how they are meeting the
needs of a growing multicultural population. This type of literature resonated
with Adu’s (2008) concept of crisis leadership. The following are the key findings
that were significant in the data. There were three key findings from the data
analysis results.
Key Finding #1: Inconsistent Crisis Approaches to Problems

The first key finding based on the data analysis is the issue of inconsistent crisis
approaches to problems. The participants were dedicated in their efforts to pro-
vide a coherent environment conducive to team building. A secondary theme and
aspect of the research was that of formerly marginalized female managers who
now serve as business leaders. How are these female leaders meeting the needs
of a growing culturally diverse population? It was on this premise that the female
leaders connected with their staff and students in such a way that the notion
of crisis leadership could not be ignored. The notion of crisis leadership was a
salient aspect of how the leaders connected to their employees. The participants
had very similar backgrounds to the employees, which provided a level of insight
that prepared the leaders to meet their employee’s needs. These leaders enacted
agendas that were similar and brought action to what Adu’s (2007) model defined
as crisis leadership. Furthermore, the managers focused on meeting the needs of
all employees. This was integral to keeping the issues of the marginalized at the
center of all decisions made in each department of the corporation. According
to Adu (2007), how these leaders utilize crisis leadership in their decision making
in the manager role gives them a unique perspective on the resistance they feel as
they work to move their vision of crisis.
Key Finding #2: Transition Crisis Leadership Behavior

Characteristics
The second key finding is the issue of transition crisis leadership characteristics.
The participants exemplified the characteristics of transition crisis leadership.
They all agreed that crisis leadership is an arduous and unfulfilling task that
must be embraced. This mindset puts it into perspective for these managers
and their crisis leadership approaches to problems. Their vision of handling the
crisis for each department was equally as important. This vision established at
the outset of each fiscal year must be articulated in such a way that all employees,
shareholders and stakeholders know how to share it. These managers are aware
that this requires a transition crisis approach from the organization, not only in
the physical sense but also in the subliminal sense, to the employees. According
to Miles and Adu (2005), transition crisis leadership is the ability to articulate
a vision in a crisis situation and an uncertain environment. Transition crisis
leadership creates a sense of empowerment and calm throughout the crisis for
employees and staff. The vision of the managers becomes an infectious atti-
tude during a crisis that can empower employees and the department. In turn,
crisis leadership yields an environment of uncertainty and calamity among
employees. Managers need to practice crisis leadership during a crisis and when
there is no crisis.
Key Finding #3: Societal Perceptions of African American

Principals
The third key finding is the issue of transition crisis leadership characteristics.
Managers are exposed to a certain level of scrutiny as leaders in a crisis. The
managers expressed the same sentiment in regard to the actions of their
employees and how they affect the leadership role. Adu (2005) asserts that “some-
times, crisis leadership is not automatic in the way that you would speak around
your manager peers and how you speak to employees. It may be different than
how you would speak during a crisis setting; sometimes leaderships are tested
during a crisis.” Female managers have been marginalized for quite some time.
A stimulating aspect of this research to me was how female managers viewed
themselves during a crisis leadership situation. How do marginalized female

managers who ascend to the leadership position address a crisis leadership situ-
ation in their department or organization? The participants do not dwell on these
bad circumstances; instead, they focused on what they could have done better in a
crisis and learn from it and use it to their advantage in the next crisis. Being vigi-
lant toward these crisis situations can promote a level of careful decision making
in that environment. This can yield positive or negative results in a crisis. These
were the key findings of this study.
Implications and Applications of the Findings

In this chapter, the researcher reintroduces the implications and applications of the
findings in the chapter. This chapter provides insight into what those implications
are for the study. The chapter lays down the foundation and also provides an intro-
duction and overview of the study. Next, the chapter discusses the theoretical
implications of the study. In this section, the researcher discusses the theory and
its implications on the findings of the study. Next, the chapter discusses the practical
implications of the study. In this section, the researcher discusses the study’s prac-
tical nature and how the research is applicable to the workplace.
Furthermore, the researcher will discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the
study. This involves the assumptions, limitations and delimitations. Lastly, the
researcher basically provides a transition and explains what will be covered in
the chapter to remind the reader how the study was conducted. The chapter
provides a discussion and a special overview of what is contained in the chapter.
when developing the “Implications and Applications of the Findings” section of
chapter five.
Theoretical Implications
• Provide and discuss a retrospective examination of the theoretical framework

presented in chapter two in light of the dissertation’s findings
• Discuss and connect the findings of the study back to the theoretical framework
or conceptual framework
• Discuss and connect the study results in context to how the results advance
practitioners’ knowledge of that theory, model or concept
Practical Implications
• Discuss and connect the study’s findings back to the prior research discussed in
chapter two
• Discuss and develop the practical implications of the study based on how the
results advance practitioners’ knowledge of the topic and influence future practice
Future Implications
• Develop and discuss the future implications of the study based on new insights
derived from the research and how it may influence future research
• Develop and discuss possible underserved populations that could be pursued as
a line of inquiry for future research.
• Develop and discuss possible diverse research methodology and designs that
could open up new and diverse lines of inquiry for future research.
Strengths and Weaknesses
• Indicate and discuss all the limitations of the study and critically evaluate the
study’s strengths and weaknesses
• Indicate and discuss the degree to which the conclusions are credible given the
methodology, research design and data analysis and results
• Writing length: Minimum of one to four pages (Miles, 2022)
By following these key points, the researcher can fully develop the “Implications
and Applications of the Findings” section of the chapter (see Example 23.4).
Example 23.4 Implications and Applications of the Findings
Implications for Theory and Research

The findings of this study will be discussed in the context of the leadership theory
and the concept of “followership,” along with some other traditional leadership
theories. According to the principles of leadership theory, certain persons usually
become leaders only when they are perceived as leaders because of their visual
qualities, skills or attributes (Miles, 2014). The result of this study aligns with the
leadership/followership theory because field workers reported that they were not
promoted to leadership positions because their managers and supervisors did
not observe the qualities of leadership in these employees. In the context of the
leadership theory, the researchers also focused on the role of followership in influ-
encing managers’ promotion decisions.
According to the researchers, some field workers were more often viewed as
potential leaders than followership-oriented field workers because of associations
between leadership and followership in people’s perceptions (Miles et al., 2015;
Adu et al., 2015). This study provided evidence from the field worker participants’
narratives to support the idea that leadership-oriented field workers were often
selected to be promoted to higher positions because of their leadership qualities,
even if they did not have enough experience.
Implications for Practice

The current study has many implications for practitioners and professionals
in the field of management. First, the results of this study can be effectively
applied by managers and supervisors in US agricultural organizations to over-
come obstacles with field workers in the situation of their promotion. The field
worker participants revealed that they were not perceived as leaders by their
colleagues because of followership qualities; the field workers needed to prove
their skills and qualifications. Furthermore, they were not discriminated against
in the process of promotion because of their ethnicity or gender but because
of the high-level of followership traits they displayed. Managers working with
followership-oriented field workers need to take these challenges into account
to improve their support and socialization. Their leadership traits need to be
trained as well to demonstrate leadership credibility and leadership account-
ability (Miles et al., 2017; Adu, 2018). The associated reason for using the
implications of this study in practice is that the researcher discovered no pre-
vious studies related to the lived experiences of field workers belonging to the
age group of 35–45 years, and this research provided information for leaders in
US agricultural organizations.
The second reason is that the findings of this research can be successfully used
in order to modify and enhance the field worker policies and practices adopted
in predominately US agricultural organizations. Furthermore, while following
the concept of providing equal opportunities for all employees, it could also pre-
vent interdepartmental dissonance and conflict. This study examined the lived
experiences of field workers related to their career development to determine cer-
tain negative aspects in practices that were used in U.S. agricultural organizations.
This was conducted at all stages of hiring, retaining and promoting leadership-
oriented qualified field workers for the study.
Lastly, managers can apply the results of the study to focus only on leader-
ship qualification or on followership qualifications. This study can help man-
agers to understand and improve their hiring practices. The results of this
study provided more significant implications for recruiting new employees. The
results help to support the key principles of leadership practices, with a focus on
the potential of leadership-oriented field workers for advancement in US agri-
cultural organizations. The study supported the views of management in US
agricultural organizations that followership-oriented employees (field workers)
are not viewed as effective leaders, and they are rarely promoted because of an
assumed lack of leadership qualities. The study also supported the conclusions
made by the students. This was also supported by management among the
US agricultural personnel. According to the field worker participants, multiple

barriers to promotion do not allow them to overcome the “experience ceiling.”
Lastly, this study could contribute to an expansion of knowledge through the
lived experiences of women of ethnicity in the area of their professional devel-
opment with reference to the existing theories. The field worker participants’
expressions of their experiences added to the understanding of how the
“experience ceiling” can affect them, and workplace discrimination is still used
in corporations.
Limitations
In this section, the researcher discusses the limitations of the study. The researcher
discusses the limitations concerning the methodology. The researcher discusses the
limitations concerning the research design. The researcher provides a discussion
of the data collection. The researcher should provide a rigorous narrative of the
limitations concerning the study and the instrument used in the study.
developing the “Limitations” section of chapter five:
• Discuss the limitations concerning the research methodology

• Discuss the limitations concerning the research design
• Discuss the limitations concerning the design sampling strategy
• Discuss the limitations concerning the data collection approach
• Identify and discuss the instruments and data analysis
• Provide a rationale for each limitation
• Identify the limitations of the research design and associated consequences for
the study’s generalizability
• Discuss the limitations concerning the applicability of the findings
By following these key points, the researcher can fully develop the “Limitations”
Example 23.5 Limitations
In this study, the data were collected from a sample including 20 field worker
participants. Non- probability purposive sampling was used to recruit the
participants. The researcher found three key limitations related to and influ-
encing this study. The first limitation is that the study used a purposive sam-
pling technique, which can limit study results in terms of their generalizability,
but this limitation is typical of qualitative studies, and they are considered by
the researcher. Furthermore, while reflecting on the experience of conducting
a qualitative phenomenological study, it is possible to state that one of the
key difficulties was the application of a bracketing technique. It was used to
avoid the problem and impact of the researcher’s bias on the description or
interpretation of the findings. It has been problematic to identify codes and
themes that reflected the participants’ unique lived experiences associated
with their career paths and perceptions rather than issues associated with the
literature reviewed by the researcher because the focus was on data-driven
coding (Miles, 2015).
The second limitation is associated with the research methodology and
design. The methodology was a limitation due to the obstacles experienced by
the researcher when collecting data from the field workers. The research design
is related to the specifics of phenomenological studies where the number of
participants is always limited. The use of the research design, which is a descrip-
tive study, was a limitation in terms of the ability of the researcher to collect
data expediently. This was an obstacle for the researcher and presented a limi-
tation as well. Furthermore, the collected data were subjective in their nature,
not allowing for making generalized conclusions. However, this limitation was
addressed with reference to the research methodology, which was aimed at an
in-depth understanding of field worker participants’ lived experiences and the
barriers they faced in the workplace.
The last limitation of this study was associated with the affected validity or
credibility of the results because of the reliance on self-reported data. It was
important to note that, during interviews, the participants could possibly con-
ceal data, provide inaccurate details or change facts (Miles et al., 2013). In con-
trast to the interpretive phenomenology, the researcher described a meaningful
structure of the participants’ lived experiences without misinterpreting them or
conceptualizing through the researcher’s own perspective. Furthermore, when
conducting coding and identifying themes, it was difficult to avoid the impact of
the researcher’s biases on the data analysis process and guarantee the trustworthi-
ness of the described results. There were issues of credibility and trustworthi-
ness. There were issues of self-selection bias by the researcher when choosing the
participants, which presented a limitation.
The possible personal biases that could influence data analysis were associated
with the researcher’s interest in discovering data related to barriers or obstacles
faced by the field worker participants in the US agricultural organizations.

However, it is worth noting that it is important to apply the bracketing technique
and concentrate on the actual data presented in the narratives. This should be
done without the impact of the researcher’s biases and assumptions. The research
tried fervently to avoid the influence of researcher bias. Therefore, the researcher
contributed to developing conversations without expressing her own ideas and
views regarding the topic.
As a result, the study’s integrity was ensured and accurate descriptions of
the field worker participants’ lived experiences and meanings ascribed to them
were presented as the findings. These findings were discussed with a focus on
the existing literature. Based on this study, the researcher was able to concen-
trate on the techniques of working with the self-reported data of the field worker
participants. The influence of researcher bias on the study’s results was strictly
addressed. Lastly, the researcher made note of the fact that the field worker
participants could provide inaccurate information or data or change the facts
related to their experiences. Furthermore, the researcher’s own assumptions
could minimally influence the results of the data. The aforementioned items in
the study were considered during the data analysis process.
Recommendations for Future Research

In this section, the researcher discusses future recommendations for further
research. The researcher also provides recommendations for future practices in the
study. Furthermore, the researcher will discuss the significance of the findings and
more possible recommendations.
The researcher basically provides the rationale for future research
recommendations. The researcher wants to provide a rigorous study in terms of
data collection and participant diversity in the research.
developing the “Recommendations” section of chapter five:
• Develop a list of at least four to six recommendations for practitioners and

future research
• Identify and discuss the areas that need further examination or that will address
any gaps or needs the study found
• Provide recommendations that relate back to the study significance and know-
ledge sections in chapter one
• Provide recommendations that relate back to the theoretical foundation section

in chapter two
By following these key points, the researcher can fully address the required items
in the “Recommendations” section of the chapter (see Example 23.6).
Example 23.6 Recommendations for Future Research
The researcher has identified four major recommendations for future research in
this subject area. First, as suggested in Chapter 4 of the study, those companies
that use leadership programs may be achieving a higher passing percentage of
met standard scores on the LIQ. This also suggests that similar findings may be
attained with the other assessment systems. The LIQ has been used as a more
vigorous assessment tool by companies. Thus, future research could be conducted
with a gender study. This could be used to measure differences between males
and females in leadership programs. This type of study could determine the
impact of gender on leadership education program courses. This would be an
interesting line of inquiry.
Second, another future line of inquiry would be to examine ethnicity and
its impact on leadership education programs. This line of inquiry would pro-
vide another interesting study that focuses on examining ethnicity. Adu (2010)
suggested a possible connection between ethnicity and leadership education
and possible decreased incidents of negative behaviors in the workplace. Future
researchers should consider exploring this line of inquiry and replicate this study
to examine the impact of ethnicity on leadership education. This type of research
could bear some interesting fruit.
Third, another future line of inquiry would be to examine the impact of age
on leadership education. Different age levels could have a significant result on
this as a study. With most of the leadership education programs investigated, age
has not been taken into consideration for future research. This would provide
not only an interesting line of inquiry but also a possible unique focus that has
not been captured in the prior research. This would be a fruitful and interesting
line of inquiry. Therefore, a study examining the impact of age on leadership
program assessment would be relevant for further study as an empirical line of
inquiry.
Lastly, another future line of inquiry would be to use a qualitative meth-
odology approach. This type of further research could explore previous
limitations of the current research methodology. A qualitative approach to
this type of research could get more in-depth information that would not
be possible with an empirical type of research. This could definitely add a
body of knowledge on leadership programs at private companies. Qualitative
research would be a welcome approach that has not been captured in the prior
research. Future researchers may consider utilizing publicly accessible quali-

tative software to analyze data and bring new findings that could add to the
body of knowledge. Using a qualitative approach to analyze leadership educa-
tion programs would indeed be very interesting. While prior investigation has
determined the impact on employees with preexisting conditions or behavioral
concerns, this area of future study should explore the influence of leadership
education programs with a focus on current managers at the workplace (Miles
et al., 2008). Since this population of employees is in the private sector, this typ-
ically would be of interest in measuring current management leadership skills
to help researchers understand if they perform better on company-mandated
standardized tests. This also could use a combination of qualitative and quan-
titative methodologies.
Summary
The development of the results chapter is at the heart of the research endeavor.
Understanding and writing up the findings of the study can be a challenging
endeavor. The foundation of research is based on providing meaningful and sig-
nificant finds, and this is imperative. This chapter discussed writing up the sections
in the final chapter for novice and burgeoning researchers. The chapter provided
models and tools to help doctoral students and researchers develop the results
chapter in their dissertation.
This chapter discussed how to write the following six sections: introduction; sum-
mary of the findings; interpretation of the findings; implications and applications of
the findings; limitations; and, lastly, recommendations. We hope that our proposed
models and frameworks have provided students and researchers with a template for
developing a solid chapter five in their dissertation.
References
Bloomberg, L. D., & Volpe, M. (2008). Completing your qualitative dissertation: A roadmap from
beginning to end. Sage.
Kliewer, M. A. (2007). Writing it up: A step-by-step guide to publication for beginning
investigators. Canadian Journal of Medical Radiation Technology, 38(3), 27–33. https://doi.
org/10.1016/s0820-5930(09)60208-5
Webster, W. G. (1998a). Developing and writing your thesis, dissertation or project. Academic
Scholarwrite.
Webster, W. G. (1998b). 21 models for developing and writing theses, dissertations, and projects.
Index
Note: Page numbers in bold refer to tables, and those in italics refer to figures.
accessibility of participants 179 bivariate population 280

accidental sampling 253 bivariate statistical techniques 280–2, 281;
action-knowledge conflict gap see practical Pearson correlation 280; scatterplot
knowledge gap 281–2; simple linear regression 281;
action research 36–9 writing dissertation 399–404
active research consumer 11–2
alignment see research alignment case study research approach 62–3
Alignment Matrix 127, 128 case study research design 219
alternative-forms reliability 302 categorical data 222
analysis-driven purposeful sampling 257 categorical scales 305
analysis-governed purposeful sampling 257 categorizing data 268
analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) 405 causal-comparative research design 214–5
analysis of variance (ANOVA) 61–2, 405 causal-comparative research method
AND, search command symbol 19 55–7; common statistical tests 54, 56–7;
annotated bibliography 22–3 independent t-test 56; logistic regression
applied contributions 161 57; multiple linear regression 57; paired
associative analysis 286 sample t-test 56; prediction studies 55;
assumption(s) 147–56; axiological 147; purpose of 54; simple linear regression
clarifying aspects of study 150; definition 56–7
of 148, 336–7; epistemological 147; causal-comparative statistical research
examples of 152, 153–5; general types design 272
of 151, 337; for investigations 149–50; causality 212
justifications 149; making 148–9; cause-and-effect relationship 50, 55–7, 59,
ontological 147; participant bias 155–6; 214, 215, 272, 280, 310, 313, 400
qualitative research 151, 152; research census 239
synthesis process 148; Statement Grid ChatGPT 219, 343
154; writing dissertation 336–7, 389–90 cleaning data 267–8
*search command symbol 19 cluster analysis 284
attitude survey 189 cluster sampling 248–9, 251
attribution evaluation 41–2, 42 coding data 268
axiological assumptions 147 coefficient alpha 287, 298, 301, 303
common factor analysis 284
backward searching 19 common statistical tests: causal-comparative
Belmont report see ethical principles research method 54, 56–7; correlational
beneficence 185 research method 53, 53–5; descriptive
Berkson’s fallacy 250 research method 51, 53; experimental
big data 174, 175 research method 54, 59–60;
Index 443
quasi-experimental research method 54, credibility 314, 386

61–2 criterion validity 287, 310, 312
communicator, research 14–5 critic of research literature 12–4;
comparative qualitative research questions conceptual research article 13, 13–4;
115 empirical research article 13, 14
compiled data 221 Cronbach’s alpha 287, 298, 302–3
complementarity 68 cross-checks 224
concept: literature search 21; research- cross-section analysis 16
related term 26 crosstab analysis 51, 396, 397
conceptual research article 13, 13–4
conceptual/theoretical contributions 160 data analysis 265–93; conducting 278;
conceptual/theoretical framework see practice of 265; qualitative 287–93;
theoretical/conceptual framework quantitative 266–87
conclusions 45, 428 data collection 187–200, 202–35;
concurrent nested mixed methods design appropriate selection of 198, 200; ethical
66–7, 70 issues 230–1; planning see research
concurrent transformative mixed methods planning; qualitative 192–8, 199;
design 67, 70 quantitative 188–92, 190; testing method
concurrent triangulation mixed methods 187–8; writing 234–5
design 66, 70 data collection implementation 231–4;
confirmability 316, 382–3 eligibility of participants 232; informed
confirmation bias 240 consent 232–3; participants’ recruitment
confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) 407–9, 232; participating in study 233; storing
408 collected data 233–4
conjoint analysis 284 data collection preparation: consent
consent forms 229–30 form 229–30; qualitative study 228–9;
construct 26 quantitative study 228
construct validity 287, 310, 312 data conversion 224
content analysis 290, 416 data management 375, 379
content data 224 data management protocols 369–70
content validity 287, 310, 312 data needs/types 220–4; primary data
continuation 166 220–1; qualitative data 223–4;
continuous data 222 quantitative data 222–3; secondary
continuous scales 305 data 221
contradictory evidence gap see evidence gap data preparation process 267, 267–70;
contributions of a study 159–63; cleaning data 267–8; coding and
applied 161; conceptual/theoretical categorizing data 268; creating data file
160; empirical 160; examples 268–70, 270; transcribing data 268–70;
161–3; importance/reasons 159–61; using software 270, 271
methodological 160–1; Statement Grid data saturation 227–8
161, 162; survey 161; types of 159–61, data security 372
160; writing dissertation 339–40 data security protocols 369
control group 215 data source(s) 174–85; appropriate
convenience sampling 253–4, 258 176–8; data types and sources 175;
correlational research design 214 definition of 175–6; ethical principles
correlational research method 51–5; 183–5; qualitative studies 177, 178–80;
common statistical tests 53, 53–5; quantitative studies 178, 180–3, 183,
purpose of 53; relationship between 184; sample size determination 178–83
variables 51–3 data transformation 224
correlational statistical research design 271 definition of key words 37
cost-benefit analysis 42 degree of relevance 17
cost-effectiveness analysis 39 delimitation(s) 140–5; in action research
creating data file 268–70, 270 38; categories 142, 143; definition of
444 Index
140–4; examples 143–5; formula for event 242

144; Statement Grid 144, 336; writing evidence gap: audit for 83; characteristics
dissertation 335–6, 336, 389–91 78; definition of 79
dependability 316, 382 exclusion bias see undercoverage bias
descriptive data 222 expansion rationale 68
descriptive phenomenological research experimental group 215
design 217 experimental research design 215–6
descriptive qualitative research questions experimental research method 57–60;
115 common statistical tests 54, 59–60;
descriptive quantitative research questions external validity 58; internal validity
106 58; pre-experimental design 58;
descriptive research design 213–4 pre-test/post-test control group design
descriptive research method 49–51; 58; purpose of 54; quasi-experimental
common statistical tests 51, 53; purpose method vs. 60; static group comparison
of 53 design 59
descriptive statistical analysis design 285 experimental statistical research design 272
descriptive statistical research design 271 explanatory qualitative research questions
descriptive statistics 51, 273–4, 395, 395–6, 115
396 explanatory survey 189
developmental evaluation 39, 41–2 exploration 212
development rationale 68 exploratory factory analysis 406, 406–7
dichotomous data 223 exploratory qualitative research questions
dichotomous scale 307–8 115
differences analysis 286 ex post facto research see quasi-experimental
direct observation 189, 191 research method
discipline 21 extension 166
discrete data 222 external validity 58, 311
discriminant analysis 284
disproportionate stratified sampling 248 face validity 287, 310, 313
dissertation process 1–8; appropriate topic factor analysis 284, 405
criteria 7; performance 4; planning 2–4; factual survey 189
preparation 1–2; presentation 4–5; stages field experiments 215
of 1; topic selection 6; in writing see first-person point of view 5–6
writing dissertation focus groups: data 224; qualitative 195,
documentary secondary data 224 199; quantitative 190, 192
document as data source 175, 175 formative evaluation 39, 41–2
forward searching 19
economic evaluation 39, 41–2, 42 frequency distribution 51
element 239
empirical contributions 160 generalizability 212, 225, 303
empirical gap: audit for 82; characteristics G*Power software 182–3, 183, 184
76–7; definition of 79 grounded theory analysis 290–1, 416
empirical research article 13, 14 grounded theory research approach 63
epistemological assumptions 147 grounded theory research design 217–8
equiprobability sampling 245
equivalence 300 haphazard sampling 253
ethical issues: data collection 230–1; data healthy user bias 250
sources 183–5; writing dissertation 387–9 Heidegger, Martin 64
ethical principles 183–5; beneficence 185; histogram 397–8, 398, 399
justice 185; respect for persons 184 Husserl, Edmund 64
ethnographic research approach 63
ethnographic research design 218 illusory correlation 214
evaluation 212 imaginative variation 255
evaluation void gap see empirical gap impact evaluation 41–2, 42
Index 445
implementation evaluation 39, 41–2 lab experiments 215

independent samples t-test 279 level of abstraction 17
independent t-test 56, 59 Likert scale 308
inductive reasoning 151 limitation(s) 136–40; in action research 38;
inferential quantitative research questions definition of 136–7; examples 138,
106 139–40, 335; formula for 138; in
inferential statistical analysis design 286 program evaluation 45; Statement Grid
inferential statistics 274–5; measures of 138; writing dissertation 334–5, 335,
central tendency 273–4; measures 389–91, 436–8
of variability 274; primary scales of linearity 281
measurement 274; writing dissertation literature characteristics matrix 23
404–5 literature matrix on themes 23
informed consent 232–3, 369 literature review 9–18; arguments building
initiation rationale 68 16; chronological presentation 17, 17;
innovative qualitative approach 64 comparing discoveries 16; conceptual
Institutional Review Board (IRB) 4, 371, presentation 17, 17–8; conducting 9–11,
372, 388 10; exploring patterns 15–6; knowledge
instrumentation 313, 363–7 building 15–6; knowledge contribution
integration 68 16–8; methodological presentation 17,
inter-item consistency reliability 301 18; presentation format and examples
internal consistency of measures 300–1 17, 17–8; process 15; research skills,
internal reliability 298, 300 perfecting 11–5; thematic presentation
internal validity 58, 311, 312 17, 17; writing dissertation 347–9
inter-observer consistency 298 literature search 18–24; deciding kinds of
inter-observer reliability 302 literature 18; extracting information
interpretation of findings 428–33 22–4; extraction criteria 20; finding
interpretative phenomenological approach 18–9; managing outcomes 20–1;
64 selecting 21–2; strategies 19, 21; writing
interpretative phenomenological research dissertation 343–4
design 217 logistic regression 57, 59, 282–3
inter-rater reliability 300
interrogation 221 maturation 313
interval data 222 mean 274, 399, 400
interval scale 274, 307 measurement(s) 212, 221, 301–5; good
interview(s): data 224; qualitative 193–5, criteria 303; primary scales of 274;
194, 199; quantitative 190, 191–2; reliability 301–5; rules of 304–5; scales
research questions 194; semi-structured of 305–7, 306; validity 123
193; structured 193; writing dissertation measures of central tendency 273–4
366, 371 measures of relationship 280
inverse relationship 214 measures of variability 274
item analysis 302 median 273–4
itemized rating scale 308 member checking 315, 371–2
methodological contributions 160–1
job stress-conflict scale 364–5 methodological gap: audit for 82;
job stress-demographic model 332–3, 333 characteristics 77; definition of 79
job stress-personality type scale 365 methodology void gap see methodological
job stress-work overload scale 364 gap
judgement sampling 255 mixed methods design 65–9, 70;
justice 185 concurrent nested 66–7, 70; concurrent
transformative 67, 70; concurrent
knowledge gap: audit for 82; characteristics triangulation 66, 70; ensuring quality
77; definition of 79 316–7; sequential explanatory 65–6, 70;
knowledge void gap see knowledge gap sequential exploratory 65, 70; sequential
kurtosis 276, 277 transformative 66, 70
446 Index
mixed methods design characteristics: observer bias 250

integration 68; priority 68; purpose 69; one-way analysis of variance 279
theoretical lens 67–8; timing 67 ontological assumptions 147
mixed methods evaluation questions 43 open-ended survey questions 189
mixed methods research model 210 ordinal data 222
mode 273 ordinal scale 274, 307
mortality 313 OR, search command symbol 19
multifaceted description 212 overview 45, 342–3
multiple analysis of covariance
(MANCOVA) 283 paired sample t-test 56, 59
multiple analysis of variance (MANOVA) paired t-test 280
62, 283 paradigm war 49
multiple forms test 299 parametric statistical test 275–6, 277
multiple linear regression 57, 59, 282, 405 ( ) search command symbol 19
multi-stage sampling 249, 251 participant(s) 239; bias 155–6, 309;
multivariate population 280 demographics 413–5, 414; error 309;
multivariate statistical techniques 282–5, recruitment 232
283; cluster analysis 284; conjoint participation 221
analysis 284; discriminant analysis 284; path analysis model 409, 409–11, 412
factor analysis 284; logistic regression Pearson correlation 280, 401, 402
282–3; multiple analysis of covariance Pearson product-moment correlation
283; multiple analysis of variance 283; coefficient 51–2
multiple linear regression 282; structural Pearson’s correlation coefficient 51, 54
equation modeling 285; writing people as data source 175, 175
dissertation 405–11 performance: dissertation process 4;
Musk, Elon 196 research gap audit tool 82–3
personal judgment/convenience 228
narrative analysis 291–2 phenomenological research approach 64
narrative inquiry research design 218–9 phenomenological research design 216–7
narrative research approach 63 phenomenon of study 21
new inquiry 166 planning: dissertation process 2–4; research
nominal data 222 project see research planning
nominal scale 274, 306–7 population: bivariate 280; definition of 239;
nomological validity 312 multivariate 280; qualitative research
non-equivalent control group design 61 226–7; quantitative research 225–6;
non-equivalent groups 216 target 239, 361–2; writing dissertation
non-numeric data 174, 175 360–3
nonparametric statistical test 276, 278 population gap: audit for 82; characteristics
non-probability sampling 227, 250, 252; 75–6; definition of 79
research designs 253–7, 258–9, 260; population of focus 21
size determination 260 power analysis formula 225
NOT, search command symbol 19 practical-knowledge gap: audit for 83;
numerical data 223 characteristics 78–9; definition of 79
numerical scale 308 practical significance 165–6
numeric data 174, 175 predictive analysis 286
pre-experimental design 58
objectivity 212 preparation: data 267, 267–70; data
observation: assessment 191; data 224; collection 228–30; dissertation process
as data source 175, 175; direct 189, 1–2
191; primary data 221; qualitative presentation: chronological 17, 17;
196–8, 199; quantitative 189, 190, 191; conceptual 17, 17–8; dissertation
structured 191 process 4–5; literature review format
observational research 50 and examples 17, 17–8; methodological
Index 447
presentation 17, 18; thematic 195, 199; interviews 193–5, 194,

presentation 17, 17 199; observations 196–8, 199; writing
pre-test/post-test control group design 58, dissertations 370–2
61 qualitative data sources: accessibility of
primary data 174, 175, 220–1 participants 179; categorization chart
primary scales of measurement 274, 305, 177; research approach type 179–80;
306 sample size determination 178–80;
primary sources 175, 175, 220 saturation attainment 179
principal axis factoring (PAF) 284 qualitative evaluation questions 43
principal component analysis (PCA) 284 qualitative population and sampling
priority 68 methods 226–7
probability 212 qualitative purpose statement 97, 97
probability sampling: advantages of 246; qualitative research design 209, 209–13;
definition of 245–6; disadvantages of case study 219; ethnographic
246; research designs 226, 247–9, 251 218; grounded theory approach
problem identification 212 217–8; narrative inquiry 218–9;
problem statement 85–93, 204, 206; phenomenological 216–7
definition of 85–6; examples 89–93; qualitative research methodology 62–4;
meaning of 85–6; research questions case study approach 62–3; ethnographic
86–7; Statement Grid 87, 87–8, 89, 326; approach 63; grounded theory
writing dissertation 87–93, 324–6, 326, approach 63; narrative approach 63;
353–4, 356 phenomenological approach 64
process-focused qualitative research qualitative research questions 114–9;
questions 115 characteristics 115; comparative 115;
program cost analysis 39 descriptive 115; examples of 116;
program evaluation 39–45; characteristics explanatory 115; exploratory 115;
of 42–5; definition of 39; purpose of 39, process-focused 115; with theoretical
41–2; types of 39, 42 framework 118–9; without theoretical
proportionate stratified sampling 248 framework 117–8
purpose: mixed methods design qualitative sampling methodology 252–3
characteristics 69; program evaluation 39, qualitative sampling research design 253–7,
41–2; quantitative research designs 53–4 260; convenience sampling 253–4, 258;
purpose statement 95–103; definition of judgement sampling 255; purposive
95–6; examples 100–2; meaning of sampling 254–5, 258; quota sampling
95–6; qualitative studies 97, 97; 256, 258; snowball sampling 256–7, 258;
quantitative studies 96–7, 97; Statement theoretical sampling 257, 259, 260
Grid 98, 99–100, 328; using verbs 98, quantitative assumptions 152
98; writing dissertation 98–102, 326–8, quantitative data 174, 175, 222–3
328, 354, 356–7 quantitative data analysis 266–87;
purposive sampling 254–5, 258 appropriate technique 266, 266; data
preparation process 267, 267–70;
qualitative assumptions 151, 152 dissertation research 285–6; reliability
qualitative data 174, 175, 223–4 286–7; statistical data analysis strategy
qualitative data analysis 223, 287–93; process 271, 271–85; validity 287;
content analysis 290; credibility of writing dissertations 373–6
findings 292–3; grounded theory analysis quantitative data collection: focus groups
290–1; narrative analysis 291–2; process 190, 192; interviews 190, 191–2;
288–9; right type of 292; thematic observations 189, 190, 191; surveys
analysis 290; types of 289–92; writing and questionnaires 188–9, 190; writing
dissertations 376–9, 415–6 dissertations 367–70
qualitative data characteristics 223 quantitative data sources: categorization
qualitative data collection: document chart 178; G*Power software 182–3, 183,
collection 195–6, 199; focus groups 184; sample size determination 180–3
448 Index
quantitative evaluation questions 43 relatedness 17

quantitative population and sampling relevance 303
methods 225–6 relevant literature search see literature
quantitative purpose statement 96–7, 97 search
quantitative research design 208, 208–9, reliability: calculating 302–3; definition
211–3; causal-comparative 214–5; of 286–7, 298; good measurement
correlation 214; descriptive 213–4; criteria 303; inter-item consistency 301;
experimental 215–6; quasi-experimental internal 298, 300; internal consistency
216 of measures 300–1; inter-observer 302;
quantitative research methodology 47–62; inter-rater 300; measurements 301–5;
advantages of 48–9; causal-comparative principles of 300; scaling 303–8;
method 54, 55–7; correlational method split-half 300, 301; threats to 309; types
51–5, 53; definitions of 48; descriptive of 299, 299–300; validity vs. 310; writing
method 49–51, 53; examples of studies dissertation 379–83
47; experimental method 54, 57–60; replicability 212
purpose of 53–4; quasi-experimental replication study 166
method 54, 60–2; statistical analyses research alignment 121–35; Alignment
53–4 Matrix 127, 128; basic rules 123;
quantitative research questions 106–14; definition of 121–2, 355; examples
descriptive 106; established instrument 129–34; meaning of 121–2;
107–8; examples of 107; inferential measurement validity 123; model 124;
106; instrument/scale constructs 108; poorly aligned study 122; Statement Grid
researcher-designed instrument 106–7; 125–7; systemic validity 123; treatment
theoretical framework and constructs validity 123; well-aligned study 122;
106–8, 110–4 writing up problem statement 125, 126,
quantitative sampling methodology 246–7 355; writing up purpose statement 125,
quantitative sampling research design 126, 355; writing up research statement
247–9; cluster sampling 248–9, 251; 126, 127, 355
multi-stage sampling 249, 251; simple research contributions see contributions of
random sampling 247, 251; stratified study
sampling 248, 251; systematic random researcher bias 309
sampling 247–8, 251 researcher error 309
quantitative statistical analysis design 271, research gap 74–83; audit tool 82–3;
271–85 empirical 76–7, 79; evidence 78, 79;
quasi-experimental research design 216 knowledge 77, 79; methodological 77,
quasi-experimental research method 79; population 75–6, 79; practical-
60–2; common statistical tests 54, 61–2; knowledge 78–9, 79; theoretical
definition of 60; experimental research 77–8, 79; theoretical foundation and
vs. 60; non-equivalent control group development 74–5; types of 75–9, 76;
design 61; purpose 54 writing dissertation 79–80, 80, 81
quasi-experimental statistical research research method approach 211–3
design 272 research methodology 47–71; mixed
? search command symbol 19 methods design 65–9, 70; qualitative
quota sampling 256, 258 62–4; quantitative 47–62; right research
approach 69, 71; writing dissertation 358–9
random sampling 241 research model/design approach 207–10;
range 274 mixed methods research model 210;
ranked data 222 qualitative research model 209, 209–13;
ratio data 222 quantitative research model 208, 208–9,
ratio scale 274, 307 211–3; writing dissertation 359–60
raw data 221 research objective 206–7
recommendations 45, 438–40 research planning: data need/type
regression discontinuity design 216 220–4; design approach 207–10, 213–9;
Index 449
development 203–4, 205; dissertation scaling 303–8

model approach 207–10; objectives scatter charts 282
206–7; population and sampling scattergrams 282
methods 225–7; problem statement 204, scatterplot 281–2, 404, 404
206; research method approach 211–3 scoping reviews 26
research problem see problem statement search command symbols 19
research questions 37; characteristics secondary data 174, 175, 221
105–6; definition of 105–6; meaning of secondary source 175, 175
105–6; qualitative studies 114–9, 115, selected literature, writing 24
116, 194; quantitative studies 106–14, selected model/theory 26–9; characteristics
107, 108; writing dissertation 108–9, of 27; explanatory tool 28, 28; informing
329–31, 354–5, 357 the study 28, 29; justification tool 28, 29;
research significance 166–7 labeling tool 28, 28–9; as a lens/viewing
research skills 11–5; active research 28, 29; questions 27
consumer 11–2; being good critic 12–4; selection bias 313
communicator 14–5 self-reflection process 229
research statement: Statement Grid 108, self-selection bias 250
109, 110, 329, 330; writing dissertation semantic differential scale 308
108, 109, 110, 328–9, 329, 354–5 semi-structured interview 193
respect for persons 184 sensitivity 303
response effects 243 sequential explanatory mixed methods
results interpretation 45 design 65–6, 70
results summary 45 sequential exploratory mixed methods
results utilization 45 design 65, 70
right research method 69, 71 sequential transformative mixed methods
rules of measurement 304–5 design 66, 70
significance of a study 163–71; action
sample: biases 243; definition of 239 research 37; examples of 168–71;
sample size determination 178–83; importance of 163–4; practical 165–6;
accessibility of participants 179; reasons for 163–4; research 166–7;
G*Power software 182–3, 183, 184; Statement Grid 165–8; theoretical 165;
non-probability research 260; qualitative types of 164; writing dissertation 337–9
study 178–80; quantitative study simple linear regression 56–7, 59, 281,
180–3; research approach type 179–80; 402–3, 403
saturation attainment 179 simple random sampling 247, 251
sampling: advantages of 242–3; benefits skewness 276, 277
of 242–3; definition of 239; design 240; small data 174, 175
equiprobability 245; error 240, 243; error SMART objectives 207
formula 225; frame 240; non-probability snowball sampling 256–7, 258
250, 252; probability 245–6; process Spearman correlation coefficient 53, 55
243, 244; qualitative methodology split-half correlation 301
252–3; qualitative research design 253–7, split-half reliability 300, 301
258–9, 260; qualitative research method stability 298, 300
226–7; quantitative methodology 246–7; standard deviation 274, 399, 400
quantitative research design 247–9, 251; Stapel, Jan 308
quantitative research method 225–6; Stapel scale 308
random 241; reasons 241–2; types of state 242
243, 245; unit 239; variability 243; Statement Grid: advantages of 89;
writing dissertation 360–3 assumptions 154; contributions of
sampling bias: avoiding 249–50; definition study 161, 162; delimitations 144, 336;
of 240; types of 250 problem statement 87, 87–8, 89, 126,
saturation attainment 179 326; purpose statement 98, 99–100,
scales of measurement 305–7, 306 126, 328; research alignment 125–7;
450 Index
research statement 108, 109, 110, 127, theoretical sampling 238, 257, 259, 260
329 theoretical significance 165
static group comparison design 59 theory: development 212; literature search
statistical analysis design plan 272–5, 273; 21; research-related term 26
descriptive statistics 273–4; inferential theory application void gap see theoretical
statistics 274–5 gap
statistical data analysis strategy process: threats: to reliability 309; to validity 313–4
data analytic research design 271–2; time series analysis 59–60, 216
nonparametric statistical test 276, 278; timing 67
parametric statistical test 275–6, 277; topic selection 6; criteria 7
statistical analysis design plan 272–5, topic specificity 151
273; statistical techniques 278–85 traditional research 33–6
statistical data analytic research design: transcendental phenomenological approach
causal-comparative 272; correlational 64
271; descriptive 271; experimental 272; transcribing data 268–70
quasi-experimental 272 transferability 315–6, 386
statistical significance 212 transparency 314–5
statistical techniques 278–85; bivariate treatment group 215
280–2, 281; multivariate 282–5, 283; treatment validity 123
univariate 278–80, 279 triangulation 68, 315
stratified sampling 248, 251; trustworthiness 314–6
disproportionate 248; proportionate 248 t-tests 62, 279, 405; paired 280; two-sample
structural equation modeling (SEM) 285, 405 279
structured interview 193 two-sample t-test 279
structured observation 191
subject 239–40 undercoverage bias 250
summary 418–9, 424–7 under-researched sub-groups gap see
summative evaluation 41–2, 42 population gap
survey(s): attitude 189; contributions 161; underserved population 76
explanatory 189; factual 189; open- unidimentionality 53
ended questions 189; quantitative 188–9, unit of analysis 241
190; research 50 unit of observation 241
survivorship bias 250 univariate statistical techniques 278–80,
systematic random sampling 247–8, 251 279; one-way analysis of variance 279;
systemic validity 123 paired t-test 280; t-test 279; two-sample
t-test 279; writing dissertation 395–9;
target population 239, 361–2 z-test 279
testing method 187–8
test-retest technique 299 validity 212; assessing 311–3; construct
thematic analysis 290, 415 287, 310, 312; content 287, 310, 312;
theoretical/conceptual framework 24–30, criterion 287, 310, 312; definition of
37; body of knowledge 25, 25; designing 309–10; external 58, 311; face 287, 310,
illustration 30; developing 25–9; goal of 313; goodness of measures 303, 311;
conducting research 24–5; professional best internal 58, 311, 312; nomological 312;
practices 25, 25; research-related terms 26; quantitative data analysis 287; reliability
writing dissertation 29–30, 331–3, 344–7; vs. 310; threats to 313–4; types of 310–1,
see also selected model/theory 311; writing dissertation 383–6
The Theoretical Framework in Phenomenological variance 274
Research: Development and Application verification 212
(Larsen and Adu) 26 visual representation 24, 28, 30, 34, 417
theoretical gap: audit for 82; characteristics
77–8; definition of 79 writing dissertations: assumptions 336–7,
theoretical lens 67–8 389–90; bivariate statistical techniques
Index 451
399–404; conceptual/theoretical 328, 354, 356–7; qualitative data analysis

framework 344–7; conclusions 428; 376–9, 415–6; qualitative data collection
contributions of a study 339–40; 234–5, 370–2; quantitative data analysis
delimitations 335–6, 336, 389–91; 373–6; quantitative data collection
demographics 365, 365–7, 367; ethical 234–5, 367–70; recommendations
issues 387–9; first-person point of 438–40; reliability 379–83; research
view 5–6; histogram 397–8, 398, 399; alignment 125, 126, 127, 355, 355;
implications and applications findings research design 359–60; research gap
433–6; inferential statistics results 404–5; 79–80, 80, 81; research methodology
instrumentation 363–7; interpretation 358–9; research questions 108–9,
of findings 428–33; introduction 329–31, 354–5, 357; research statement
and background of problem 322–4; 108, 109, 110, 328–9, 329, 354–5;
limitations 334–5, 335, 389–91, 436–8; sampling 360–3; significance of a
literature review 347–9; literature search study 337–9; summary 418–9, 424–7;
and selection 24, 71, 343–4; multivariate theoretical/conceptual framework
statistical techniques 405–11; overview 331–3; univariate statistical techniques
342–3; population 360–3; problem 395–9; validity 383–6
statement 87–93, 324–6, 326, 353–4,
356; purpose statement 98–102, 326–8, z-test 279

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Dissertation Research Methods

D. Anthony Miles is CEO and founder of Miles Development Industries

Philip Adu and D. Anthony Miles

I (D. Anthony Miles) want to dedicate this book to many

List of Figures xiii

1 Planning Your Dissertation 1

2 Conducting a Literature Review and Developing a

3 Understanding the Types of Dissertation Research 33

4 Choosing an Appropriate Research Methodology 47

5 Understanding the Seven Types of Research Gaps 74

6 Developing the Research Problem 85

7 Developing the Purpose Statement 95

8 Developing the Research Statement and Research

Writing Up the Research Statement and Research Questions 108

9 Research Alignment: Achieving Research Alignment

10 Understanding Limitations and Delimitations 136

11 Understanding Assumptions and How to Write

12 Understanding the Differences Between

13 Deciding on the Source of Data 174

Determining Your Sample Size 178

14 Understanding the Different Kinds of Data

15 Planning and Implementing the Data Collection

16 Understanding Populations and Sampling 238

17 Planning and Implementing the Data Analysis

18 Ensuring Quality in the Study 297

19 Writing Your Dissertation: The Standard Format –​

20 Writing Your Dissertation: The Standard Format –​

21 Writing Your Dissertation: The Standard Format –​

22 Writing Your Dissertation: The Standard Format –​

23 Writing Your Dissertation: The Standard Format –​

2.1 The essence of engaging in a review of literature 10

17.3 SPSS variable view of the data file 270

1.1 Criteria for deciding on an appropriate topic 7

9.1 The research alignment model 124

I (Philip Adu) want to acknowledge all my colleagues at Walden University,

Some institutions or doctoral programs allow their students to choose their

and conclusion. We will be discussing these components further in other chapters/​

Using First Person

• I developed the survey questionnaire.

Table 1.1 Criteria for deciding on an appropriate topic

Criteria Meaning Rating

Level of How distant a topic is The level of abstraction of my topic is:

Conducting a Literature Review

Figure 2.1 T he essence of engaging in a review of literature.

• Perfect your skills in consuming, critiquing and communicating academic

• Contribute to existing knowledge through structuring the review based on a

Perfecting Your Research Skills

• What kind of literature should I consume?

Being an Active Research Consumer

As a doctoral student working on your dissertation project, one of the rationales

Being a Good Critic of Research

This will aid in conducting a critical examination of the literature. As you

Conceptual Article: Component

Literature Feature Example

Empirical Research Article: Components

1. Focus of the study

Being a Communicator of Research

Conducting a literature review improves your skills in communicating research

Figure 2.2 Literature review process.

19 Writing Your Dissertation: The Standard Format –

20 Writing Your Dissertation: The Standard Format –

21 Writing Your Dissertation: The Standard Format –

22 Writing Your Dissertation: The Standard Format –

23 Writing Your Dissertation: The Standard Format –

and conclusion. We will be discussing these components further in other chapters/

Table 1.1 Criteria for deciding on an appropriate topic

Figure 2.1 T he essence of engaging in a review of literature.

Figure 2.2 Literature review process.

Table 2.2 Literature review presentation format and examples

Chronological presentation of a “The History and Future of Genetically Glass-O’Shea

This is about presenting a synthesis of the literature based on a theory and/or

explanatory characteristics of theories and/or models. One strategy of writing a

Table 2.3 Search command symbols, their meaning and examples

Understanding the Conceptual/Theoretical Framework

Developing and Writing a Conceptual/Theoretical Framework

Developing and writing your conceptual/theoretical framework can be a challen-

Table 2.5 Research-related terms, their meanings and examples

Table 2.6 Questions to ask to select the right model or theory

Writing About the Conceptual/Theoretical Framework

There are many ways of writing a conceptual/theoretical framework. The most

Program evaluation is the process of assessing the need for a yet-to-be-developed