Principles of

Geographic
Information
System
Dr. Zubeida Ali B. Aladwan

Dr. ZubeidaAli Aladwan, Albayt University

 Lecture 5_ Map Projections and
Coordinate Systems
-Common Map Projections in GIS
-Conversion among coordinate systems
Coordinate sys. & Earth Shape
Early measurement

In specifying a coordinate system, we Measurements

must first define the size and shape of made by Eratosthenes to
the Earth. determine the
circumference
of the Earth.

Dr. ZubeidaAli Aladwan, Albayt University

Coordinate sys. & Earth Shape
Specifying the ellipsoid
Efforts then focused on precisely measuring the size of
the Earth’s ellipsoid (two characteristic dimensions; semi
major axis a, & semi minor axis)
The equatorial radius is always greater than the polar
radius for the Earth ellipsoid. This difference in polar and
equatorial radii can also be described by the flattening
factor,
Measurement efforts through the 19th and 20th
centuries led to a set of official Ellipsoids. Table
Why not use the same ellipsoid everywhere on Earth,
instead of the different ellipsoids? The
radii a and b measured for North America were different
than those made elsewhere, and there was no practical
way to combine them until the late 20th century.
Dr. ZubeidaAli Aladwan, Albayt University
Official ellipsoids.
Radii may be
specified more
precisely than
the 0.1 meter
shown here
(from Snyder,
1987 and other
sources).
Different ellipsoids were
estimated due to local
irregularities in the Earth’s shape.
Local best fit ellipsoids varied
from the global best fit, but until
the 1970s, there were few good
ways to combine global geodetic
measurements.
Earth Ellipsoids & Coordinates
because the Earth's shape is not a perfect ellipsoid, different ellipsoids around the
world usually had slightly different origins, axis, orientations, and radii. These
differences, while small, often result in quite different estimates for coordinate
location at any given point, depending on the ellipsoid used.
More recently, data derived from satellites, lasers, and broadcast timing signals have
been used for extremely precise measurements of relative positions across continents
and oceans. Global measurements and faster computers allow us to estimate
globally-applicable ellipsoids. These ellipsoids provide a “best” overall fit ellipsoid to
observed measurements across the globe. Global ellipsoids such as the GRS80 or
WGS84 are now preferred and most widely used.
Ellipsoidal, orthometric, and geoidal height
Horizontal Datums
A geodetic datum is a reference surface. A geodetic datum consists of two major
components. The first component is an ellipsoid with a spherical or three-dimensional
Cartesian coordinate system and an origin.
Eight parameters are needed to specify the ellipsoid: a and b to define the size/shape
of the ellipsoid; the X, Y, and Z values of the origin; and an orientation angle for each
of the three axes.
Commonly Used Datums
Three main series of horizontal datums have been used widely in North America.
The first of these is the NAD series, beginning with the North American Datum of 1927
(NAD27), …NAD 83
The World Geodetic System of 1984 (WGS84) is a second set of datums developed and
primarily used by the U.S. Department of Defense (DOD). It was introduced in 1987 based on
Doppler satellite measurements of the Earth, and is used in most DOD maps and positional data.
The WGS84 ellipsoid is similar to the GRS80 ellipsoid.
We must emphasize while much data are collected in WGS84 datums using GNSS (such as
GPS), most data are converted to a local or national datum before use in a GIS.
The third set of datums, commonly used worldwide and increasingly in North America,
International Terrestrial Reference Frames, (ITRF), with datum realizations of the International
Terrestrial Reference System (ITRS).
The NAD83 and ITRF datums use similar
ellipsoid diameters, but different ellipsoid
origins and orientations, so coordinates will
change when transformed between them.
 Points about Datums !
There are a few points about datums that must be emphasized.
•First, different datums specify different coordinate systems.
You do not expect coordinates for any physical point to be the same when they are expressed
relative to different datums.
•Second, the version of the datum is important.
NAD83(1996) is a different realization than NAD83(2011). The datum is incompletely
specified unless the version is noted. Many GIS software packages refer toa datum without
the version, for example, NAD83. This is indeterminate, and confusing, and shouldn’t be
practiced. It forces the user to work with ambiguity
•Third, differences between families of datums change through time. The NAD83(86) datum
realization is up to two meters different than the NAD83(CORS96),and the original WGS84
differs from the current WGS84 version by more than a meter over much of the Earth.
Datum
Transformations
Converting geographic
coordinates from one datum to
another typically requires a
datum transformation.
 A datum transformation
provides the latitude and
longitude of a point in one
datum when we know them in
another datum;
for example, we can calculate
the latitude and longitude of a
benchmark in NAD83(2011)
when we know these geographic
coordinates in NAD83(1986)
This graphic summarizes
the evolution of the three
main families of datums
used in North America.
As the datums have been
adjusted, horizontal
positional differences
between benchmark points
have varied, within the
ranges shown. “Aligned”
datums
(e.g.,WGS84(G1150) and
ITRF00) may be
considered equivalent for
most purposes when
applying datum
transformations.
GIS projects should not mix datums except under circumstances when the datum
shift is small relative to the requirements of the analysis. Unless proven otherwise, all
data should be converted to the same coordinate system, based on the same datum.
Map Projections and Coordinate Systems
Datums tell us the latitudes and
longitudes of features on an ellipsoid. We
need to transfer these from the curved
ellipsoid to a flat map. A map projection
is a systematic rendering of locations
from the curved Earth surface onto a flat
map surface.

A conceptual view of a map projection.

Map projections can distort the shape and area of features, as illustrated with these various
projections of Greenland, from a) approximately unprojected, b) geographic coordinates on
a plane, c) a Mercator projection, and d) a transverse Mercator projection.
Common Map Projections in GIS
There are hundreds of map projections used throughout the world; however most
spatial data in GIS are specified using a relatively small number of projection types.
 Common Map Projections in GIS
•The State Plane Coordinate System is a standard
set of projections for the United States.

•Universal Transverse Mercator Coordinate

System The Universal Transverse Mercator State plane zone boundaries, NAD83
(UTM) coordinate system is another standard
coordinate, distinct from the State Plane
system. The UTM is a global coordinate system,
based on the transverse Mercator projection. It
is widely used in the United States and other
parts of North America, and is alsoused in
many other countries.

UTM zone boundaries and zone designators. Zones are six degrees wide and numbered
from 1 to 60 from the International Date Line, 180oW. Zones are also identified by their
position north and south of the equator, e.g., Zone 7 North, Zone 16 South.
Common Map
Projections in GIS Continental and Global Projections
There are map projections that are commonly
National Coordinate used when depicting maps of continents,
Systems hemispheres, or other large regions.
Many governments
have adopted a
standard project for
nationwide data,
particularly small and
midsized countries
where distortion is
limited across the
spanned distances

UTM south zones, such as Zone 52S

shown here, are defined such that all the northing
and easting values within the zone are positive.
Goode homolosine projection. This is an
example of an interrupted projection,
often used to reduce some forms of distortion
when displaying the entire Earth surface
Briefly
In order to enter coordinates in a GIS, we need to uniquely
define the location of all points on Earth. We must develop a
reference frame for our coordinate system, and locate positions
on this system. Since the Earth is a curved surface and we work
with flat maps, we must somehow reconcile these two views of
the world. We define positions on the globe via geodesy and
surveying. We convert these locations to flat surfaces via map
projections.