ThOAA A Photometry

POSN Astronomy and Astrophysics
Topics in Cosmology and Astrophysics

Photometry
Dr. Dhanasin Namphaisaal

Department of Mathematics
Faculty of Science
Kasetsart University
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Contents
1 Photometry 5
1.1 Photons and Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.1 Basics of Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.2 Planck Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.2 Magnitude Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
1.2.1 Apparent Magnitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
1.2.2 Absolute Magnitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
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Chapter 1
Photometry
Chapter 1.1. Photons and Optics
Chapter 1.1.1. Basics of Optics
For a wave with wavelength λ, the wave number k is given by

def 2π
k == . ‹1.1.1.1›
λ
If the frequency of the wave is ν , then its angular frequency is
def
ω == 2πν . ‹1.1.1.2›
The phase velocity cphase of this wave is the velocity at which a one-frequency
component of the wave travels. For the component with wave number k and
angular frequency ω , the phase velocity is given by
ω
cphase = . ‹1.1.1.3›
k
Note that
cphase = λν . ‹1.1.1.4›
If the wave consists of multiple components, then the wave as a whole travels at
the velocity known as the group velocity, which is given by
dω
cgroup = . ‹1.1.1.5›
dk
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POSN Astronomy and Astrophysics Photometry
Light is an electromagnetic wave. The smallest unit of an electromagnetic

wave is a photon. Photons are the carriers of the electromagnetic interaction.
Photons always travel in a vacuum at the speed c, where1.1.1.6
def
c == 299792458 m/s . ‹1.1.1.7›
Law 1.1.1.8 [Fermat’s Principle of Least Time] The path taken by a ray of
light between two given points is the path that can be traveled in the least time.

Example 1.1.1.9 A light ray is reflected on a flat surface. From Fermat’s

principle above, show that the incident angle is equal to the reflected angle.

Solution
1.1.1.6
The value of c is exact. This value of c is used to define the unit meter.
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Photometry POSN Astronomy and Astrophysics
Example 1.1.1.10 A spherical concave shaving mirror has a radius of curva-

ture of 12 inches. What is the magnification when the face is 4 inches away
from the mirror?
Answer
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Example 1.1.1.11 It was once suggested that the mirror for an astronomical
telescope could be produced by rotating a flat disk of mercury at a prescribed
angular velocity ω about a vertical axis. How fast must the disk be rotate in
order to produce a concave mirror of 10-centimeter focal length. The gravity is
assumed to be g ≈ 9.8 m/s2 .
Answer
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Definition 1.1.1.12 The optical refractive index or, simply, the refrac-
tive index of a material is the dimensionless number n such that the speed of
c
light in the said material is .
n
Example 1.1.1.13 Suppose that a light ray travels through two media. The
refrective indices of the first medium and the second medium are n1 and n2 ,
respectively. If c1 and c2 are the speeds of light in the first medium and in the
second medium, respectively, then show that
n1 c1 = n2 c2 . ‹1.1.1.14›
If λ1 and λ2 are the wavelengths of light in the first medium and in the second
medium, respectively, then show also that
n1 λ1 = n2 λ2 . ‹1.1.1.15›

Solution
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Example 1.1.1.16 [Snell’s Law] Suppose that a light ray travels through two
media. The refrective indices of the first medium and the second medium are
n1 and n2, respectively. Denote by θ1 the angle between the ray incident to the
interface between the two media and the normal line to the interface. Similarly,
θ2 is the angle between the refracted ray and the normal line to the interface
between the media. Show that
n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2 . ‹1.1.1.17›
Figure 1.1.1.18: Light Raw Travels from One Medium into Another Medium

Solution
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Example 1.1.1.19 [Lensmaker’s Equation] Consider a thin lens whose radii

of curvature are R1 and R2 , respectively. Note that the radius of curvature of
a surface is positive if the surface is convex, whereas the radius of curvature is
negative if the surface is concave. The radius of curvature of a flat surface is
∞. If n is the refractive index of the material used in this lens is n, while n0 is
the refractive index of the environmental medium in which the lens is used, then
show that the focal length f of the lens is given by
1 n 1 1

= −1 + . ‹1.1.1.20›
f n0 R1 R2

Solution
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Example 1.1.1.21 A 55-year old man can focus objects clearly from 100 cm
to 300 cm from his eyes. An eye is assumed to have a simple lens at distance
2.00 cm from the retina.
(a) What is the focal length of the man’s lens at near point (i.e., when the eye
is focused at 100 cm)?
(b) What is the focal length of the man’s lens at far point (i.e., when the eye is
focused at 300 cm)?
(c) What is the strength (focal length) of eyeglasses’ lens that this man wear in
order to be able to be able to clearly see objects at 25 cm away?

Answer
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Example 1.1.1.22 Consider a triangular prism with the apex angle α, as

shown in the figure below. For a light ray entering the prism, let δ denote the
angle of deviation.
Figure 1.1.1.23: Deviation Angle of Light Ray Entering a Prism
Denote by n the refractive index of the prism, whilst n0 is the refractive index
of the environment. If n > n0 , then show that the minimum value δmin of δ is
given by
!
n α
δmin = 2 arcsin sin −α. ‹1.1.1.24›
n0 2

Solution
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Law 1.1.1.25 [Huygen–Fresnel Principle] Every point on a wavefront is itself

the source of wavelets. In two dimensions, the wavelets are circular, whereas, in
three dimensions, the wavelets are spherical. The secondary wavelets emanating
from different points mutually interfere.
Example 1.1.1.26 [Double-Slit Experiment] Two thin slits are separated by

a distance d. A coherent light with wavelength λ hits perpendicularly to the
two slits. Let ` denote the perpendicular bisector of the line segment joining
the two slits. Angles are measured from the straight line `.
Figure 1.1.1.27: Interference Pattern from Double-Slit Experiment
(a) Nodes of the inteference occur when the interference is destructive. Show
that the angles θ of the directions from the straight line ` corresponding to
nodes satisfy
1

d sin θ = N − λ, ‹1.1.1.28›
2
where N is a positive integer.
(b) Antinodes of the inteference occur when the interference is destructive.
Show that the angles θ of the directions from the straight line ` correspond-
ing to antinodes satisfy
d sin θ = N λ , ‹1.1.1.29›
where N is a nonnegative integer.

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Solution
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Example 1.1.1.30 A two-slit interference experiment is performed using a

laser producing coherent light at wavelength λ = 5000 Å. When a thin film of a
transparent material is put behind one of the slits, the zeroth-order bright fringe
moves to the position previously occupied by the fourth-order bright fringe. If
the index of refraction of the film is n = 1.2, then calculate the thickness of the
film.
Answer
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Example 1.1.1.31 A soap film gives constructive second-order interference of

reflected red light (of wavelength 7000 Å). The index of refraction of the film is
1.33. Assuming that the incident light is directed at 30◦ to the normal line of
the film, what is the thickness of the film?
Note that, when light travels from a medium of refractive index n1 to another
medium of refractive index n2 , the reflected light at the interface between the
two media will undergo a 180◦ -phase change in the case n1 < n2 . There is no
phase change if n1 > n2 .
Answer
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Example 1.1.1.32 The radius of curvature of the convex surface of a plano-

convex lens is 30 cm. The lens is placed with its convex side down on a plane
glass plate, and illuminated from above with red light of wavelength 650 nm.
Find the diameter of the third bright ring in the interference patter.
Figure 1.1.1.33: Setup for Newton’s Ring Experiment

Answer
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Example 1.1.1.34 [Single-Slit Experiment] Consider a single slit of width d.

A coherent light with wavelength λ hits perpendicularly to the slit. Let ` denote
the perpendicular bisector of the width of this slit. Angles are measured from
the straight line `. Prove that the the angles θ of the directions from the straight
line ` corresponding to nodes of the inteference satisfy
d sin θ = N λ , ‹1.1.1.35›
where N is a positive integer.
Figure 1.1.1.36: Inteferrence Fringes Due to Diffraction from Single Slit

Solution
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Example 1.1.1.37 [Airy Diffraction] Consider a circular slit of diameter d. A

coherent light with wavelength λ hits perpendicularly to the slit. Let ` denote
the straight line passing through the center of the slit and perpendicular to the
plane of the slit. Angles are measured from the straight line `. Prove that the
the first-order dark fringe due to the diffraction interferrence from the circular
slit occurs at the angle θ which satisfies
d sin θ ≈ 1.22 λ . ‹1.1.1.38›
Figure 1.1.1.39: Airy Diffraction Pattern

Solution
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Example 1.1.1.40 The angular resolution θres of a telescope is the small-

est angle between two light sources that the telescope can distinguish. For a
reflecting telescope with aperture D and for light with wavelength λ, we have
λ
θres ≈ 1.22 . ‹1.1.1.41›
D
The Izar binary system in the constellation Boötes consists of two stars: Izar A
and Izar B. The distance from Earth to the binary system is approximately
240 light-years. If the distance between the two stars is approximately 200 AU,
then what is the smallest aperture of a reflecting telescope that we need to use
in order to resolve the two stars. (Assume that the visible light has an average
wavelength of 500 nm.)
Answer
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Polarization of light occurs when the electric field of the light wave is uni-
directional. This can be achieved by using a polarizer (or more precisely, a
linear polarizer), which is a type of filter that only allows light of a certain
polarization passes through. Given the traveling direction of a photon, there
are two independent polarizations.
Figure 1.1.1.42: Unpolarized Light Becomes Polarized Light After Passing through a Polarizer
Example 1.1.1.43 A completely unpolarized light of intensity I0 passes through

two linear polarizers P1 and P2 as shown in the figure below. If θ is the angle
between the axes of the two polarizers, then what is the intensity I of the light
that leaves the polarizer P2 ? Answer in terms of I0 and θ.
Figure 1.1.1.44: Unpolarized Light Passing through Two Polarizers

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Answer
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Example 1.1.1.45 [Brewster’s Law] A light wave travels from a medium of

refractive index n1 to another medium of refractive index n2 . The Brewster
angle θB is the angle which the incident ray makes with the normal line to the
interface of the two media so that the reflected wave is polarized in the way that
the electric field is parallel to the interface.
Figure 1.1.1.46: Light Incident on an Interface at the Brewster Angle
It is known that, when the light ray is incident to the interface at the Brewster
angle, the reflected ray and the transmitted ray are perpendicular. Show that
n2

θB = arctan . ‹1.1.1.47›
n1

Solution
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Example 1.1.1.48 The wavelength of unpolarized light from a mercury source

is λ = 546.072 nm. If incident on a plate of glass at an incident angle i = 58◦ 100 ,
the reflected light is seen to be completely linearly polarized. Find the refractive
index of the glass.
Answer
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Chapter 1.1.2. Planck Distribution
Law 1.1.2.1 [Plank–Einstein Relation] The energy E of a photon with fre-

quency ν is given by
E = hν , ‹1.1.2.2›
where1.1.2.3 h = 6.62607015 · 10−34 J · s is the Planck constant.
Remark 1.1.2.4 From the law above, if ω is the angular frequency of the
photon, then
E = h̄ω , ‹1.1.2.5›
h
where h̄ = ≈ 1.054571817 · 10−34 J · s is known as the reduced Planck
2π
constant.
Example 1.1.2.6 Light of wavelength 525 nm shines on a piece of metal, caus-

ing electrons to be emitted from the metal. Removing an electron from the
metal requires 1.2 eV.
(a) What will be the kinetic energy of electrons ejected from this metal by the
light in joules?
(b) If the intensity of the light is doubled, what happens to the kinetic energy
of the electrons? What happens to the rate at which electrons are emitted
by the metal?
(c) If the wavelength of the light is halved, what happens to the kinetic energy
of the electrons? What happens to the rate at which electrons are emitted
by the metal?

1.1.2.3
The value of h is exact as it is used to define the unit kilogram.
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Answer
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Definition 1.1.2.7 A blackbody is an idealized physical body that absorbs

all incident electromagnetic radiation, regardless of frequency or angle of inci-
dence.
A good model of a blackbody is a cavity with a small hole and with walls
that are opaque to electromagnetic radiation. This is only an approximation
since incident radiation with larger wavelength than the hole’s diameter will be
reflected, rather than absorbed. However, for smaller wavelengths, the incident
radiation is easily absorbed into the hole, thereby, giving this model a good
approximation of a black body.
Figure 1.1.2.8: Cavity with Hole
Example 1.1.2.9 Prove that a blackbody is also a perfect emitter; i.e., it

emits as much or more thermal radiative energy as any other body at the same
temperature.
Solution
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Theorem 1.1.2.10 [Planck’s Law] Consider a blackbody at temperature T .

The energy density (u) per frequency (ν ) is given by
 
du 8πhν 3
1
uν (ν, T ) := = . ‹1.1.2.11›
dν

exp
c 3 hν
−1 kB T
Here, kB = 1.380649 · 10−23 J/K is the1.1.2.12 Boltzmann constant.
3
1 hc uν (ν, T ) hν
Figure 1.1.2.13: Plot of y = with x :=
8π kB T kB T kB T

Derivation
1.1.2.12
The value given here is exact, since the Bolzmann constant is used to define the unit kelvin.
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Example 1.1.2.14 From Planck’s Law, show that the energy density per unit
wavelength (λ) is
 
du 8πhc 1
uλ(λ, T ) := = 5  . ‹1.1.2.15›
dλ

λ exp hc
−1 λkB T
3
1 hc uλ (λ, T ) λkB T
Figure 1.1.2.16: Plot of y = with x :=
8π kB T kB T hc

Solution
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Example 1.1.2.17 [Wien’s Displacement Law] Consider a blackbody at tem-

perature T . Prove that the peak wavelength of the radiation from this blackbody
is
b
, λpeak = ‹1.1.2.18›
T
where Wien’s displacement constant b is given by
b ≈ 0.002897771955 m · K . ‹1.1.2.19›

Solution
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Example 1.1.2.20 Show that the photon number density in a blackbody at

temperature T is given by
N = ξT 3 , ‹1.1.2.21›
ˆ ∞
x2
where ξ ≈ 20286846 m−3
· K . Note that
−3
dx ≈ 2.40411381.
0 ex − 1

Solution
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Example 1.1.2.22 Show that the total energy density of a blackbody at tem-
perature T is given by
utot = aT 4 , ‹1.1.2.23›
8π5kB4
where a = ≈ 7.565767 · 10−16
J · m−3
· K−4
is known as the radiation
15h3c3 ˆ +∞
x3 π4
constant. Note that dx = .
0 ex−1 15
Solution
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The momentum of a photon of energy E is given by

E
p= . ‹1.1.2.24›
c
In particular, if the frequency, the angular frequency, the wavelength, and the
wave number of the photon are ν , ω , λ, and k , respectively, then
hν h̄ω h
p= = = = h̄k . ‹1.1.2.25›
c c λ
Example 1.1.2.26 Prove that, if the total radiation energy density is utot ,
then the radiation pressure P is given by
utot
P = . ‹1.1.2.27›
3

Solution
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Theorem 1.1.2.28 The intensity per solid angle per frequency (ν ) of a black-
body at temperature T is given by
 
2hν 3  1 c
Bν (ν, T ) := 2 = uν (ν, T ) . ‹1.1.2.29›
c exp kB T − 1
hν 4π

Derivation
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Example 1.1.2.30 Prove that the intensity per solid angle per wavelength (λ)
of a blackbody at temperature T is given by
 
2hc2  1 c
Bλ(λ, T ) := 5 = uλ(λ, T ) . ‹1.1.2.31›
λ exp λkB T − 1
hc 4π

Solution
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Example 1.1.2.32 [Stefan–Boltzmann Law] Prove that the total power radi-
ated per unit surface area of a blackbody at temperature T is given by
M = σSBT 4 , ‹1.1.2.33›
2π5kB4
def
where σSB == ≈ 5.670374419 · 10−8
W · m−2
· K−4
is the Stefan–
15h3c2
Boltzmann constant.
Solution
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[44/56]
Definition 1.1.2.34 The luminosity of an object is the total radiated elec-

tromagnetic power of that object.
Example 1.1.2.35 The effective temperature of an object is the tempera-

ture Teff such that a blackbody of that temperature produces the same radiative
electromagnetic energy output as the given object. The solar luminosity is
L ≈ 3.83 · 1026 W. If the solar radius is R ≈ 696340 km, then determine
the effective temperature of the sun.
Answer
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Example 1.1.2.36 Estimate the effective temperature of Earth. Note that

the distance from Earth to the sun is 149.39 · 106 km, whereas Earth’s radius is
6371 km.
Answer
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Example 1.1.2.37 The albedo of an object is the fraction of light that is

reflected by that object. Venus’s albedo is roughly 0.60. Estimate the effective
temperature of Venus. Note that Venus is at distance 108.06 · 106 km from the
sun, and its radius is 6, 051.8 km.
Answer
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Chapter 1.2. Magnitude Scale
Chapter 1.2.1. Apparent Magnitudes
Definition 1.2.1.1 The apparent magnitude m of an object is given by

F

m = −2.5 log10 , ‹1.2.1.2›
F0
where F is the observed irradiance (received power per unit area) from the object
and F0 is the reference flux known as the zero-point flux. In astronomy, fluxes
are often in the unit Jansky or Jy, which is defined as 1 Jy = 10−26 W/m2 .
Example 1.2.1.3 The apparent magnitude of Vega is 0.03, while the apparent
magnitude of Sirius is −1.46. How much brighter is Sirius, compared to Vega?

Answer
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Remark 1.2.1.4 The apparent bolometric magnitude takes into ac-

count all wavelengths. There are, however, many filters that are often used in
astronomy:
• U Filter: The U filter operates in the ultraviolet range of 300 nm to
400 nm. The effective wavelength is 360 nm.
• B Filter: The B filter operates in the blue range of 360 nm to 550 nm.
The effective wavelength is 440 nm.
• V Filter: The V filter operates in the visible range of 480 nm to 680 nm.
• R Filter: The R filter operates in the red range of 530 nm to 950 nm. The
effective wavelength is 700 nm.
• I Filter: The I filter operates in the infrared range of 700 nm to 1200 nm.
Figure 1.2.1.5: Characteristics of U, B, V, R, and I Filters
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Example 1.2.1.6 We are detecting light from a celestial object. Suppose

that f (λ) is the flux per wavelength λ from the object. Let s(λ) denote the
transmittance (i.e., the fraction of light permmitted to pass through the filter)
at wavelength λ. What is the total flux that passes through the filter?
Answer
Example 1.2.1.7 Suppose that a filter has the following transmittance func-
tion in terms of the wavelength λ:
λ0 λ0

s(λ) = exp − ‹1.2.1.8›
λ λ
for some fixed wavelength λ0 . Calculate the total filtered flux received from a
blackbody of temperature T . Your answer may involve the Riemann zeta-
function ζ:
ˆ ∞ `−1
1 x
ζ(`) = dx ‹1.2.1.9›
(` − 1)! 0 ex − 1
for all ` = 1, 2, 3, . . ..
Answer
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[51/56]
Definition 1.2.1.10 For an apparent magnitude mX taken from a filter X ,

the X -bolometric correction BCX is given by
def
BCX == mX − mbol , ‹1.2.1.11›
wher mbol is the apparent bolometric magnitude.
Example 1.2.1.12 The visual magnitude of the sun is −26.74. If the bolo-
metric correction of the sun is −0.14, then what is the bolometric magnitude of
the sun?
Answer
Chapter 1.2.2. Absolute Magnitudes
Definition 1.2.2.1 The absolute magnitude of an object is the apparent

magnitude of this object if we measure at distance 10 pc away from the object.
(Effect of light extinction is ignored.) Note that the unit parsec or pc satisfies
1 pc ≈ 3.2615637769 ly ≈ 3.08567758 · 1013 km . ‹1.2.2.2›
Example 1.2.2.3 What is the absolute bolometric magnitude of the sun?

Answer
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Example 1.2.2.4 At what distance from a 100-W light bulb is the radiant flux
equal to the solar irradiance?
Answer
Example 1.2.2.5 A binary system of stars consists of a star A with absolute

magnitude MA and another star B with absolute magnitude MB . What is the
total absolute magnitude of this binary system?
Answer
[53/56]
Definition 1.2.2.6 Let X and Y be two filters. Suppose that mX and mY

are the apparent X -magnitude and the apparent Y -magnitude of a celestial
object. Then, the X –Y color index is simply mX − mY .
Example 1.2.2.7 From the definition above, show that the X –Y color index
is also given by MX − MY , where MX and MY are the absolute X -magnitude
and the absolute Y -magnitude of this object.
Solution
[54/56]
Theorem 1.2.2.8 Suppose that a celestial object is at a distance d from an

observer. If m and M are the apparent magnitude and the absolute magnitude,
respectively, of this, then
m = M + µ, ‹1.2.2.9›
where µ is the distance modulus, which is defined to be

d

def
µ == 5 log10 . ‹1.2.2.10›
10 pc

Derivation
Example 1.2.2.11 The star Rigel has an apparent magnitude of +0.18 and
an absolute magnitude of −6.7. Find the distance to Rigel.
Answer
[55/56]
Example 1.2.2.12 The parallax angle for Sirius is 0.37900 .

(a) Find the distance to Sirius in parsecs, light years, astronomical units, and
meters.
(b) Determine the distance modulus of Sirius.

Answer
[56/56]

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POSN Astronomy and Astrophysics

Topics in Cosmology and Astrophysics

Dr. Dhanasin Namphaisaal

Chapter 1.1. Photons and Optics

Chapter 1.1.1. Basics of Optics

For a wave with wavelength λ, the wave number k is given by

Light is an electromagnetic wave. The smallest unit of an electromagnetic

Example 1.1.1.9 A light ray is reflected on a flat surface. From Fermat’s

Example 1.1.1.10 A spherical concave shaving mirror has a radius of curva-

n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2 . ‹1.1.1.17›

Example 1.1.1.19 [Lensmaker’s Equation] Consider a thin lens whose radii

Example 1.1.1.22 Consider a triangular prism with the apex angle α, as

Figure 1.1.1.23: Deviation Angle of Light Ray Entering a Prism

Law 1.1.1.25 [Huygen–Fresnel Principle] Every point on a wavefront is itself

Example 1.1.1.26 [Double-Slit Experiment] Two thin slits are separated by

Figure 1.1.1.27: Interference Pattern from Double-Slit Experiment

Example 1.1.1.30 A two-slit interference experiment is performed using a

Example 1.1.1.31 A soap film gives constructive second-order interference of

Example 1.1.1.32 The radius of curvature of the convex surface of a plano-

Figure 1.1.1.33: Setup for Newton’s Ring Experiment

Example 1.1.1.34 [Single-Slit Experiment] Consider a single slit of width d.

where N is a positive integer.

Figure 1.1.1.36: Inteferrence Fringes Due to Diffraction from Single Slit

Example 1.1.1.37 [Airy Diffraction] Consider a circular slit of diameter d. A

d sin θ ≈ 1.22 λ . ‹1.1.1.38›

Figure 1.1.1.39: Airy Diffraction Pattern

Example 1.1.1.40 The angular resolution θres of a telescope is the small-

Example 1.1.1.43 A completely unpolarized light of intensity I0 passes through

Figure 1.1.1.44: Unpolarized Light Passing through Two Polarizers

Example 1.1.1.45 [Brewster’s Law] A light wave travels from a medium of

Figure 1.1.1.46: Light Incident on an Interface at the Brewster Angle

Example 1.1.1.48 The wavelength of unpolarized light from a mercury source

Chapter 1.1.2. Planck Distribution

Law 1.1.2.1 [Plank–Einstein Relation] The energy E of a photon with fre-

where1.1.2.3 h = 6.62607015 · 10−34 J · s is the Planck constant. 

Example 1.1.2.6 Light of wavelength 525 nm shines on a piece of metal, caus-

Definition 1.1.2.7 A blackbody is an idealized physical body that absorbs

Figure 1.1.2.8: Cavity with Hole

Example 1.1.2.9 Prove that a blackbody is also a perfect emitter; i.e., it

Theorem 1.1.2.10 [Planck’s Law] Consider a blackbody at temperature T .

Here, kB = 1.380649 · 10−23 J/K is the1.1.2.12 Boltzmann constant.

Example 1.1.2.17 [Wien’s Displacement Law] Consider a blackbody at tem-

Example 1.1.2.20 Show that the photon number density in a blackbody at

The momentum of a photon of energy E is given by

Definition 1.1.2.34 The luminosity of an object is the total radiated elec-

Example 1.1.2.35 The effective temperature of an object is the tempera-

Example 1.1.2.36 Estimate the effective temperature of Earth. Note that

Example 1.1.2.37 The albedo of an object is the fraction of light that is

Chapter 1.2. Magnitude Scale

Chapter 1.2.1. Apparent Magnitudes

Definition 1.2.1.1 The apparent magnitude m of an object is given by

Remark 1.2.1.4 The apparent bolometric magnitude takes into ac-

Figure 1.2.1.5: Characteristics of U, B, V, R, and I Filters

Example 1.2.1.6 We are detecting light from a celestial object. Suppose

Definition 1.2.1.10 For an apparent magnitude mX taken from a filter X ,

wher mbol is the apparent bolometric magnitude. 

Chapter 1.2.2. Absolute Magnitudes

Definition 1.2.2.1 The absolute magnitude of an object is the apparent

where1.1.2.3 h = 6.62607015 · 10−34 J · s is the Planck constant.

wher mbol is the apparent bolometric magnitude.