Critical Thinking 1.5

CRITICAL THINKING AND REFLECTIVE PRACTICES
B. Ed 1st Semester (New B. Ed 1.5)
By
SHAKIL AHMAD
Prepared by
Shakil Ahmad
KHYBER COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

AFFILIATED WITH ABDUL WALI KHAN UNIVERSITY
MARDAN PAKISTAN
1
Khyber College Of Education Irum Colony Mardan Phone No. 0937861718
UNIT 1
INTRODUCTION TO CRITICAL THINKING AND REFLECTIVE PRACTICES
Critical thinking: what is it?
What is critical thinking? Actually, that is a critical question. Most scholars say that critical
thinking is “good thinking”. The idea of critical thinking has been a highly debated concept
among the education communities in the recent years. An investigation of the literature
reveals various definitions of critical thinking.
The concept of critical thinking can be traced back to the beginning of the twentieth-century.
John Dewey’s (1933) theory of practical inquiry included three situations – pre-reflection,
reflection and post-reflection. He defined reflective thinking as “active, persistent, and
careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds
that support it and the further conclusions to which it tends” (1933, p. 9). Dewey believed
that education must engage with and enlarge experience and that an educator’s role was to
encourage students to think and reflect. Another major historical source of critical thinking
during the mid twentieth-century was Benjamin Bloom’s (1956) cognitive taxonomy of
educational objectives. The upper end of Bloom’s intellectual scale, analysis, synthesis, and
evaluation, is often equated to critical thinking (Kennedy, Fisher, & Ennis, 1991; Gokhale,
1995).
Facione (1984, p. 260) claimed that “critical thinking is an active process involving
constructing arguments, not just evaluating them”. He refers to a set of preliminary skills that
can enable students to construct arguments:
1. Identifying issues requiring the application of thinking skills informed by background

knowledge;
2. Determining the nature of the background knowledge that is relevant to deciding
issues involved and gathering that knowledge;
3. Generating initially plausible hypotheses regarding the issues;
4. Developing procedures to test these hypotheses, which procedures lead to the
confirmation or disconfirmation of those hypotheses;
5. Articulating in argument from the results of these testing procedures; and
6. Evaluating arguments and, where appropriate, understandings developed during the
testing process. (p. 261)
According to this definition, critical thinking is a process of building arguments for problem
solving. Similarly, Scriven and Paul (2007, Defining Critical Thinking, 1) defined critical
thinking as a set of macro-level logical skill. They stated that “critical thinking is the
intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying,
analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered, or generated by,
observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and
action.”
However, not all educators agree with macro-level definitions of critical thinking. Some
educators prefer to take a more micro-level approach. For example, Beyer (1985, p. 303)
argues that critical thinking is not a process “at least not in the sense that problem-solving or
decision-making are processes; critical thinking is not a unified operation consisting of a
2
number of operations through which one proceeds in a sequence”. Beyer and others (Rudin,
1984; Fritz & Weaver, 1986) believed that critical thinking is a set of discrete skills.
According to this explanation, students will have to choose and apply discrete skills.
Recently, Hanson (2003, p.203) took exception to both perspectives. Instead, she concluded
that “a critical thinker has to engage not only with micro questions within the text, both at the
superficial and the deep readings, but also with macro-issues surrounding topics” (p.203).
She described that “core of critical thinking is the constant considered identification and
challenging of the accepted”. Hanson posited that critical thinking:
involves the evaluation of values and beliefs as well as competing truth explanations and of
course texts; it involves both rationality/objectivity and emotions/subjectivity; it involves the
questioning of the very categories of thought that are accepted as proper ways of proceeding
and to ensure that one always:
Searches for hidden assumptions;
Justifies assumptions;
Judges the rationality of those assumptions; and
Tests the accuracy of those assumptions. (p.203)
As mentioned above there are many definitions of critical thinking and choosing a single
definition even from the few listed above is difficult. Some, such as Hanson (2003) focus on
both macro and micro level logical skills. Others, such as Facione (1984), and Scriven and
Paul (2007) focus is on macro-level logical skills. However, it seems irrational to except a
single definition to encompass all the competences that might be displayed by critical
thinkers. Tice (1999) pointed out that perhaps the reason that we struggle to decide upon a
single definition of critical thinking is because it cannot be narrowly contained. She asserted
that definition of critical thinking varies according to context, and that does not indicate that
we have been inconsistent in our definition. Lastly, Tice concludes that a core element of
critical thinking is that it varies by context and we should accept the ability to tolerate
ambiguity and to distinguish among several shades of gray is an important characteristic of
critical thinking.
Many different definitions of critical thinking is one of the problems plaguing research in this
area since most educators have spent more energy on defining critical rather than working on
ways to improve it. That is why this paper questions the relationship between teaching
presence and critical thinking within asynchronous discussion forums. It requires, not a
definition of critical thinking, but instead, a model that focuses on supporting critical thinking
in a completely on-line learning environment. As mentioned in the introduction of this paper,
Community of Inquiry is one such model. This theoretical framework has grown in
prominence and has been used in hundreds of studies over the last decade (Swan et al., 2008).
Therefore, this study was constructed from the Community of Inquiry theoretical framework.
The subsequent section describes the theoretical framework for this research.
3
1.1 Method of Reflection on practices educational Issues
reflective practice
reflective practice theory, history, definitions, methods, process models, and self-
assessment tools, for self-improvement, training, and organizational
development
Reflective Practice is a modern term, and an evolving framework, for an ancient method of
self-improvement.
Essentially Reflective Practice is a method of assessing our own thoughts and actions, for
the purpose of personal learning and development.
For many people this is a natural and instinctive activity.
We can use Reflective Practice for our own development and/or to help others develop.
Reflective Practice is a very adaptable process. It is a set of ideas that can be used alongside
many other concepts for training, learning, personal development, and self-improvement.
For example, Reflective Practice is highly relevant and helpful towards Continuous
Professional Development (CPD). It's also very helpful in teaching and developing young
people and children.
Reflective Practice is mainly concerned with self-development. It enables:
 future personal growth, and addresses

 how we think and feel about ourselves and situations in the present, and
 how we think and feel about ourselves and situations in the past.
As such, Reflective Practice is a valuable methodology for:
 using insights and learning from our past,

 to assess where we are now,
 to improve our present and future.
This offers benefits far beyond professional learning and development, for example extending
to, and not limited to:
 human relationships - workplace, romance, parenting, etc

 rehabilitation
 reconciliation
 mediation
 stress-reduction and management
 all sorts of teaching, training, coaching, counselling, etc
 parenting
 and coping with change and trauma
4
Reflective Practice is essentially a very old and flexible concept, so it might be called other
things.
This alternative terminology, which includes some familiar words, can help us to understand
and explain its principles and scope.
For example, Reflective Practice might also be called, and is synonymous with or similar to:
 personal reflection
 self-review
 self-awareness
 self-criticism or self-critique
 self-appraisal
 self-assessment
 intra-personal awareness
 personal cognisance/cognizance
 reflective dialogue
 critical evaluation
 self-analysis of our thoughts, feelings, actions, performance, etc
Increasingly these principles, terminology, and underpinning theory are defined and
conveyed within the term 'Reflective Practice' and its supporting framework of terminology
and application.
As such, 'Reflective Practice' is a theory by which modern and traditional self-improvement

ideas can be more clearly defined, refined, expanded, adapted, taught, adopted and applied,
for the purposes of personal development, teaching and coaching, and wider organizational
improvement.
Reflective Practice is also helpful for personal fulfilment (US-English fulfillment) and
happiness, in the sense that we can see and understand ourselves more objectively.
Reflective Practice enables clearer thinking, and reduces our tendencies towards emotional
bias.
So we are considering a fundamental human concept.
Incidentally, the term 'Reflective Practice' is generally shown here with capitalized initial
letters. This is for clarity and style - the term can be shown equally correctly as 'reflective
practice', or 'Reflective practice'.
The capitalization also differentiates the term Reflective Practice from other general uses of
the word 'practice' in referring to a person's work or practical things, which are clarified as
such throughout this article.
The alternative spelling of 'practise' is not used here because traditionally this spelling refers
to the verb form of the word, whereas Reflective Practice is a noun, (just as 'advice' is a noun
and 'advise' is a verb).
5
Let's look now at some formal and technical definitions of Reflective Practice.
I am grateful to Linda Lawrence-Wilkes, an expert in Reflective Practice, for collaborating

and contributing to the technical content of this free Reflective Practice reference guide, and
related Reflective Practice self-assessment instruments. See Linda's biography and contact
details
reflective practice definitions
As with any theoretical concept, definitions of Reflective Practice convey a basic technical
description of the subject.
Definitions alone do not fully explain how and why something operates, nor teach us how to
use it.
Definitions do however provide a useful basis for comprehension, and consistent terminology
for discussion, especially for a subject open to quite different interpretations.
Definitions also help establish firm meanings, for sharing ideas, adopting the methods, and
understanding of how Reflective Practice can be used, alongside other developmental
methodologies.
Reflective Practice is an ancient concept. Over 2,500 years ago the ancient Greeks practised
'reflection' as a form of contemplation in search of truth, and this ancient meaning of
reflection features in several modern definitions. There are references also to the power of
reflective learning in the writings attributed to ancient Chinese philosopher Confucius,
around 460BC.
The following various definitions convey their own distinct meanings, and also assist the
reader in developing a quick general appreciation of Reflective Practice as a whole. The
definitions are not in alphabetical order - they are ordered more in a historical sense, roughly
according to the evolution of the terminology/concepts concerned.
1.2 The importance of ‘reflection’ for teachers
1. Reflection is a very important practice for teachers as it relates to whether teachers can
continue to move forward, and whether teachers can improve teaching practice so as to
become good teachers. But in the end, reflection ‘is in our own best interests’ (Brookfield,
1995, p.22). Brookfield (1995) gives us six reasons in answering the importance of
‘reflection’ for teachers: 1. It helps us take informed actions. For example, when are
questioned as to why we are doing something, we can show how our action springs form
certain assumptions we hold about teaching and learning, and then make a convincing case
for their accuracy by laying out the evidence that undergirds them (Brookfield, 1995, p.22f).
This is true for those teachers who constantly reflect their teaching beliefs / assumptions and
practice. Such teachers can have their teaching beliefs / assumptions and practice firmly
grounded in a clearly understood rationale. They can justify their teaching beliefs /
assumptions and practice when needed. So this prompts Brookfield to claim his 2nd reason
for the importance of teacher reflection: 2. It helps us develop a rationale for practice.
Brookfield (1995) provides us such explanation: A rational for practice serves as a
methodological and ethical touchstone. It provides a foundational reference point—a set of
6
continually tested beliefs that we can consult as a guide to how we should act in
unpredictable situations (p.23).
2. It helps us avoid ‘traps of demoralization and self-laceration’ (Brookfield, 1995, p.2). As
teachers often encounter various problems in classroom teaching, for example, despite our
best effort, students show resistance in learning or become uncooperative / disruptive in the
classrooms, or when dropout happens, quite often ‘we tend to accept the blame for problems
that are not of our own making’ (Brookfield, 1995, p.2). Another situation is, ‘We become
depressed when ways of behaving toward students and colleagues that we think are
democratic and respectful are interpreted as aloof or manipulative.’ But chances are that it is
due to social, emotional, cultural, and economic pressures entirely beyond our control
(Brookfield, 1995, p.2 & p.180f). If we are critically reflective, we can avoid all these ‘traps
of demoralization and self-laceration’. 4. It grounds us emotionally. Teachers can be caught
in emotional roller coaster where every action either confirms our brilliance or underscores
our failure. Either we withdraw from the classroom or we are forced to suppress the
emotional content of our daily experiences. If we have the habit of critical reflection, it can
ground us emotionally (Brookfield, 1995, pp.24-25ff). 5. It enlivens our classroom. Osterman
(1990) comments that critically reflective teachers are more likely to have classes that are
challenging, interesting, and stimulating for students (cited in Brookfield, 1995, p.25f) as
they ‘turn the classroom into a laboratory for purposeful experimentation’ (Brookfield, 1995,
p.264). 6. It increases democratic trust. If we adopt a reflective practice, we will know that
something about the effects we are having on students. A teacher who takes students
seriously and treats them as adults shows that she / he can be trusted (Brookfield, 1995,
pp.25-26ff).
3. From Brookfield’s stated reasons, we can clearly see the importance of reflection for
teachers. If we use reflection as part of our professional life, it can make us a lot easier in our
classroom teaching. Having mentioned Brookfield’s six important reasons for teacher
reflection, I shall now move into other areas that are very important for teacher reflection.
What I considered important in teacher reflection is that it can give us an opportunity to
inquire into ourselves, our students and our own teaching practice. Teachers who have a deep
respect for the power of chance to reflect can know that much of what occurs can not be
predicted. But they know that they are not victims of fate. They can make adjustments in their
teaching practice so they do not feel out of control (Bradfield, 1995, p.264f). This is the very
reason why reflection is important for the teaching professionals. The importance of teacher
reflection can extend to curriculum construction / program design, implementation and
evaluation since teachers are often involved in such process. By reflecting on such process,
we can identify some issues relating to curriculum construction / program design,
implementation and evaluation, and find solutions to the issues. In this regard, teacher
reflection is vital for the success of the curriculum construction / program design,
implementation and evaluation. Alongside the important part teacher reflection plays in
curriculum construction / program design, implementation and evaluation, the importance of
teacher reflection also relates to our own teaching practice, specifically our unit plan, lesson
plan,
4. Teaching methodologies, classroom management, assessment and reporting. Through
reflecting our own teaching practice in these areas, new teachers can survive in the
classroom; in-service teachers can further improve teaching practice. Thus, it is evident that
reflection is important for the teachers concerned. Pollard (2002) echoed that teacher
reflection supports the development and maintenance of professional expertise (p.4f).
Furthermore, through reflection, teachers can be more aware of students’ perceptions of good
teachers. For example, students think that a good teacher should be one who: helps you with
your work; explains well so we can understand; is friendly, easy to get on with, doesn’t yell
at you; make lessons interesting and enjoyable; cares about you, always ready to listen to
7
you, understands us; has a sense of humour, will have a laugh with you; controls the class
(Batten, 1993, pp.16-17) The afore-mentioned students’ perceptions of good teachers can
serve as a mirror through that we can find out how good we are as teachers. This can only be
possibly checked out through teachers’ reflection. As such, it is important for teachers to have
a reflective practice. Likewise, the importance of teacher reflection can also be seen as a way
to improve teaching.
5. Batten (1993) lists students’ comments on good teaching as: explains clearly so you
understand, shows you how to do things helps with our work caring, relates to students,
understands what we say controls the class well, doesn’t yell makes the work interesting and
enjoyable can joke around, combines humour with learning doesn’t rush us or force us, can
work in my own way we learn a lot knows what s/he’s talking about fair, straightforward
(p.28) Here we can use Batten’s list to find out if our teaching meets students’ expectations
and if a good teaching has been realised. Again, this relies on our own reflection. From this
aspect, we can see the importance of teacher reflection. More importantly, teacher reflection
can lead toward a successful teaching. We can reflect by checking against the following
comments made by in-service teachers in Batten, Marland, and Khamis’ (1993) research
findings in terms of successful teaching: 1. ‘It’s motivation basically in that the kids are
enjoying what they’re doing’ 2. ‘Having a comfortable environment where discussions can
develop and the students feel that they can get involved and have some sort of ownership of
what is being discussed’ 3. ‘Monitoring of what’s happening and basically keeping everyone
on track’ 4. ‘Classroom management’
6. ‘Almost getting towards the discipline element’ 6. ‘Feeling comfortable in the class…I think
it’s very important for them to see you as a human being and for you to treat them as such,
and then I’ve found discipline is never a problem’ (pp.82-84) Using these comments on
successful teaching for our own reflection, we can be aware of what successful teaching
meant to be. This again proves the importance of teacher reflection. All in all, reflection is an
important component in our professional life. Through reflection, we can continue to learn
from experience and grow as teachers; we can enhance our teaching and become good
teachers which will, in the end, support student learning in the best possible ways.
1.3 Fundamental of Critical thinking
Fundamentals of Critical Thinking
Game plan
• Consider elements, standards and intellectual traits per Paul and Elder
• Examine critical thinkers throughout history
• Identify Paul and Elder’s fundamentals in other’s thinking or theories of thinking
Paul and Elder
• Elements
• Standards
• Intellectual Traits
8
Critical Thinkers From History
• King Solomon – 950 BC

• Socrates – 400 BC
• Hugo of St. Victor (12th Century)
• Sir Francis Bacon (16th Century)
King Solomon
• Wisdom
• Discernment
• Effective Ruler
Socrates
• Questioning
• Probing
• Search for meaning
• Search for truth
9
Hugo of St. Victor
• Didascalion – pedagogical guide of the 12th Century

• Meditatio (reflection, contemplation, practice, and rehearsal)
• Independent reflection with humility and patience
• Personal engagement with problems leading to new thoughts and deeper insight
Francis Bacon
• Father of the Scientific Method

• “We must become as little children in order to enter the kingdom of science”
Critical Thinkers and Theorists in Modern Times
• Dewey – 1930’s
• Ennis – 1980’s
Dewey
Reflective Thinking
• Dispositions of thinking
– Open mindedness
– Whole heartedness
– Intellectual Responsibility
• Native Resources
– Curiosity
– Suggestion
– Orderliness
Ennis
• Critical thinking is “reasonable, reflective thinking focused on deciding what to

believe or do.”
Ennis - Actions a learner usually must take in order to think critically
• Judge the credibility of sources

• Identify conclusions, reasons and assumptions
• Judge the quality of an argument including the acceptability of its reasons,
assumptions, and evidence
• Develop and defend a position on an issue
Ennis - Actions a learner usually must take in order to think critically
• Ask appropriate clarifying questions

• Plan experiments and judge experimental designs
• Define terms in a way appropriate for the context
• Be open-minded
• Try to be well-informed
10
• Draw conclusions when warranted, but with caution
The essential question…
• What do we need to do as educators to encourage critical thinking?

– Ask open-ended questions
– Don’t use PowerPoint
– Find relevance – how they can relate
– Get a different perspective – outside the box
– Using positive reinforcement when seeing students thinking critically
– Probe responses – take a more facilitative role
– Educators must first be critical thinkers
• Humility, courage – questioning is a good thing
• Know where your students are coming from and where they want to go
(goals)
• Be willing to make mistakes – open mindedness
– Stay current – read and write – and model critical thinking
– Build confidence in students to ask questions and supply answers
– Encourage students to record their thoughts/findings
1.4 Why Critical Thinking Methods

Method #1: Interpretation
What it Means: Having the ability to understand the information you are being presented with
and being able to communicate the meaning of that information to others.
Throughout your career you will be presented with a variety of information in many different
types of situations. Imagine you are looking at demographic information, hoping to target a
different group of customers for a new product. Interpretation Methods will enable you to
better decode the information and add clarity to what you have discovered - which in turn
will help you better understand any potential new customer opportunities for your company.
Application Exercise: Write down 10 emotions you feel can be paired with facial
expressions, e.g. smiling equals happiness. Then give your list to a friend and ask them to
randomly recreate each facial expression as you attempt to interpret the correct emotion
simply by looking at their face. You will learn how to identify the key bits of information you
need in order to connect the dots. How many can you correctly identify?
Method #2: Analysis
What it Means: Having the ability to connect pieces of information together in order to
determine what the intended meaning of the information was meant to represent.
Imagine you are reading a companywide memo that is discussing making changes in order to
address recent movement within the business landscape. Having this Method will better
provide you with the ability to “read between the lines” and help you understand how this
will impact the overall strategy you have in your position.
11
Application Exercise: To practice this Method, try to determine the meaning behind this
Chinese Proverb: “Be the first to the field and the last to the couch.” Are you able to identify
the intended meaning behind this statement? While we all analyze information a little
differently, you should have been able to determine that this proverb is referencing having a
hard work ethic. Go here to practice some more in order to further develop this Method.
Method #3: Inference
What it Means: Having the ability to understand and recognize what elements you will need
in order to determine an accurate conclusion or hypothesis from the information you have at
your disposal.
Picture yourself as a business manager; you are looking at the latest sales forecast and you
see sales have decreased. It’s important for you to be able to understand what additional
information you may need in order to determine why that happened, including identifying
internal issues, external competition or even economic conditions. The ability to understand
the information you already have and determine what you may still need to find the best
solution is an important Method for you to have no matter what career field you are in.
Application Exercise: Try watching an episode of a weekly crime show. Focus on absorbing
the clues in an effort to determine the mystery of who completed the crime during the
episode. These shows do a fantastic job of dropping clues and bits of information along the
way that can help you make an educated guess prior to the end of the episode. Were you able
to identify it correctly?
Method #4: Evaluation
What it Means: Being able to evaluate the credibility of statements or descriptions of a

person’s experience, judgment or opinion in order to measure the validity of the information
being presented.
Imagine you are leading a focus group at work to determine how your customers view the
organization’s products. You ask the group a few questions that uncover several negative
opinions about certain items you sell. You will need to use this Method to evaluate those
responses, so you can determine if the information you received is valid and whether or not it
needs to be further looked into.
Application Exercise: With the invention of the Internet this is a Method you can hone
anytime you begin a search online. For practice, run a search on how to be a leader at work to
test your evaluation Methods. Are you able to identify whether the information you find is
reliable and valid? Being aware of additional information you may need to make this
assessment is essential. (Hint: In this example, you may need to evaluate the website’s URL,
the author’s bio and potentially many other pieces of information.)
Method #5: Explanation
What it Means: Having the ability to not only restate information, but add clarity and
perspective to the information, so it can be fully understood by anyone you are sharing it
with.
12
Imagine you are giving two presentations for new product ideas; one to the CEO of the
company, and the other to product engineers. You know both groups are extremely interested
in hearing what you have to say, but you will need to be able to explain these ideas in two
very different ways. The CEO may only need to hear high level ideas about the products
while the engineers will need more specific product details. Your ability to clearly explain
your ideas while keeping in mind who you are presenting to is important for making sure the
information is understood and well received.
Application Exercise: It’s important to remember not everyone has or needs the knowledge
or information you have. Practice this Method by explaining something complex that you
have knowledge about to two different types of people. Use your kids and your spouse since
they typically will not have the same level of knowledge of certain subjects. For example,
explain to your kids and your spouse separately how a cell phone works. The explanation
should be different since they have two different levels of knowledge yet both of them should
receive a similar understanding of the subject.
Method #6: Self-Regulation
What it Means: Having the awareness of your own thinking abilities and the elements that
you are using to find results.
Imagine you are on the phone with a customer attempting to work through a problem they are
having with your company’s software, and it’s your first week on the job. The problem they
are having is complex, and yet, you still want to assist them in order to make a good
impression at work. Your ability to understand that perhaps transferring them to a coworker
with more knowledge on the subject is the best way to provide the customer with a positive
result.
Application Exercise: It’s important to be able to separate your own personal biases or self-
interests when making decisions at work. Let’s imagine your manager asks you to write down
10 reasons why you deserve a raise prior to an annual review. After you complete your
reasons, read through each and focus on identifying your own potential biases that may
impact your argument. Awareness of these biases will help you generate a much stronger
case for getting a raise.
So the next time someone starts talking to you about developing critical thinking Methods for
your career, hopefully now you will be able to tell them you know what they are, how they
are used in the workplace and how to go about continually developing them for the future.
1.5 Critical thinking and the process of Analysis
13
The Analysis of Thinking
There are two essential dimensions of thinking that students need to master in order to
develop as fairminded critical thinkers. They need to be able to identify the "parts" of
thinking, and they need to be able to assess use of these parts of thinking, as follows:
 All reasoning has a purpose

 All reasoning is an attempt to figure something out, to settle some question, to solve
some problem
 All reasoning is based on assumptions
 All reasoning is done from some point of view
 All reasoning is based on data, information, and evidence
 All reasoning is expressed through, and shaped by, concepts and ideas
 All reasoning contains inferences by which we draw conclusions and give meaning to
data
 All reasoning leads somewhere, has implications and consequences
The question can then be raised, "What appropriate intellectual standards do students need to
assess the 'parts' of their thinking?" There are many standards appropriate to the assessment
of thinking as it might occur in this or that context, but some standards are virtually universal
(that is, applicable to all thinking): clarity, precision, accuracy, relevance, depth, breadth, and
logic.
How well a student is reasoning depends on how well he/she applies these universal
standards to the elements (or parts) of thinking.
What follows are some guidelines helpful to students as they work toward developing their
reasoning abilities:
1. All reasoning has a PURPOSE:

o Take time to state your purpose clearly
o Distinguish your purpose from related purposes
o Check periodically to be sure you are still on target
o Choose significant and realistic purposes
2. All reasoning is an attempt to
FIGURE SOMETHING OUT, TO SETTLE SOME QUESTION, TO SOLVE SOME

PROBLEM:
o Take time to clearly and precisely state the question at issue

o Express the question in several ways to clarify its meaning and scope
o Break the question into sub questions
o Identify if the question has one right answer, is a matter of opinion, or requires
reasoning from more than one point of view
3. All reasoning is based on
ASSUMPTIONS:
o Clearly identify your assumptions and determine whether they are justifiable
14
o Consider how your assumptions are shaping your point of view
4. All reasoning is done from some
POINT OF VIEW:
o Identify your point of view

o Seek other points of view and identify their strengths as well as weaknesses
o Strive to be fair-minded in evaluating all points of view
5. All reasoning is based on
DATA, INFORMATION and EVIDENCE:
o Restrict your claims to those supported by the data you have

o Search for information that opposes your position as well as information that
supports it
o Make sure that all information used is clear, accurate, and relevant to the
question at issue
o Make sure you have gathered sufficient information
6. All reasoning is expressed through, and shaped by,
CONCEPTS and IDEAS:
o Identify key concepts and explain them clearly

o Consider alternative concepts or alternative definitions to concepts
o Make sure you are using concepts with care and precision
7. All reasoning contains
INFERENCES or INTERPRETATIONS by which we draw
CONCLUSIONS and give meaning to data:
o Infer only what the evidence implies

o Check inferences for their consistency with each other
o Identify assumptions which lead you to your inferences
8. All reasoning leads somewhere or has
IMPLICATIONS and CONSEQUENCES:
o Trace the implications and consequences that follow from your reasoning
o Search for negative as well as positive implications
o Consider all possible consequences
1.6 Teaching students to think theoretically
Theoretical Introduction
15
Philosophy of Classroom Management
My personal belief is that teaching is not just the profession of spitting out information to
students that they in turn regurgitate to me. I think that teaching is a process of life learning
for these students. I believe there are four extremely important factors that distinguish a well-
disciplined class from others. They include the following factors: classroom environment,
expectations and procedures, student-teacher relationships, and active learning.
First, the environment in which learning takes place should be appealing. Regardless of the
size of the room--whether small or overcrowded--there are a number of ways to create an
environment where students focus on learning. The teacher should greet students at the door
and call them by name, and desks should be set up in a way to encourage discussion and
collaboration as well as independent work because discussion is the heart of the English
classroom. Furthermore, evidence of learning should be present around the classroom,
including posters, pictures, and student work decorating the walls of the room. Materials
should be readily available as well since it exudes the appearance of organization and
professionalism. If the atmosphere is comfortable, yet professional, student distraction will
be minimized.
In addition, student expectations and classroom procedures should be clear. The teacher
should assist students in creating class rules and expectations and then encourage and remind
students of these goals and responsibilities on a daily basis in order to maintain a sense of
collaboration, respect, and routine. I believe teachers should set high expectations for their
students. In doing so, students are reminded of the reason they are in school: to learn. By
making expectations clear, there are no discrepancies or questions about appropriate
procedures and behaviors in the classroom.
More importantly, creating positive student-teacher relationships can prevent discipline issues
from arising. By establishing a persistent tone of mutual respect, students will participate in
class activities with confidence that they and their opinions are valued. Students also should
be taught how to appreciate the unique contributions each student brings to the class, as well
as how to effectively resolve issues that may arise. I believe that demonstrating genuine
respect to students and showing interest in their concerns will allow the effective use of
instructional time, positive relationships to prevail, and minimal discipline problems to avail.
Lastly, by actively engaging students in a variety of interesting activities that encourage

critical thinking and discovery, time misbehavior is minimized. The key is preparation and
participation. Having activities and lessons prepared will negate the acts of sleeping,
misbehavior, and/or sitting idly for the bell to ring. Furthermore, collaborative strategies can
be used to help students become self-reliant learners that take responsibility for their own
learning. For instance, when students explain the purpose of learning the material, they can
assess their own progress and the relevancy to their lives.
Overall, I believe that teachers must be consistent, fair, and firm in their expectations and
procedures to achieve a well-managed and well-disciplined class. Creating positive student-
teacher relationships, establishing clear expectations, and maintaining a high awareness of the
activities and students in the classroom will create a positive and supportive learning
environment created, where many problems can be deferred.
1.7 Teaching students to think empirically
16
Introduction
It seems that approximately once a decade a new approach to learning or teaching appears,
and captures the imagination of practitioners so much that it comes to dominate thinking and
research. Reflection and reflective
teaching are related approaches that have been very fashionable in teacher education and
adult education circles for the past decade in the United Kingdom, Australia and the USA
(Hatton & Smith, 1995; Johnston & Usher, 1996). During this period any course that did not
include elements of these approaches was simply not perceived as operating within the
educational mainstream. For example, at one famous United Kingdom Institution Schön’s
(1983) reflective model, derived originally for the ‘hard’ professions, has been included in
every teacher education module Ian R. Cornford taught in their course (Strunz, 1998, p. 3).
Yet defining what actually constitutes reflective teaching or reflective practices is fraught
with difficulty, and this major problem of definition has been recognised for some very
considerable period of time (see Tom, 1985; Calderhead, 1989; Hatton & Smith, 1995). For
convenience, in this article the terms ‘reflective teaching’ or ‘reflective approaches’ are
employed as general terms to cover the concepts, although specific terminology is employed
to denote particular sets of values or philosophies.
Fostering Critical Thinking
Four main approaches have made the biggest impact on our children's critical thinking:
Inquiry
"One way we try to foster critical thinking skills in our classroom is by allowing our students
to be creative and to inquire about topics that are of interest to them." Katie Hart,
Professional Educator
We incorporate cross-curricular inquiry to foster deep learning. The students work through
the phases of immersion, investigation, coalescence and demonstration of learning.
Throughout these phases the students are able to wonder, build background knowledge,
develop questions, search for new information, synthesize information, demonstrate an
understanding and share their new learning with others. Throughout inquiry, the students tie
everything together through an essential question which helps them probe for deeper
meaning. These questions are open-ended, encourage collaboration and foster the
development of critical thinking skills.
Questioning
"We push students to dig deeper in their learning by asking guiding questions and providing
a variety of resources for students to independently find answers. Throughout their learning,
we encourage students to ask and answer their own questions through small group
discussions, conferring, working on their Personalized Learning Plans and using graphic
organizers." Elizabeth Hatab and Sarah Suesskind, Professional Educators
Questioning plays a critical role in cultivating critical thinking skills and deep learning.
Questioning models for students how they should think. Our professional educators use open-
ended questions to encourage discussion and active learning. We also incorporate questioning
into our everyday discussions with students.
Problem Solving
17
"In the 4K/5K classrooms, we don't just give students answers to issues or problems they are
having. Instead, we turn the problem onto them and ask how could they solve this problem.
This allows the child opportunities to solve their problems independently." Teresa Lutzen,
Professional Educator
Problem solving extends our inquiry work. It is important that our students think for
themselves. In problem solving they apply the critical thinking strategies they have learned.
Collaboration
"Integrating meaningful learning experiences that promote critical thinking skills is essential
in cultivating a classroom of 21st Century learners. One way we do this is by actively
involving the students in their learning through collaborative work. This helps the students
take ownership of the learning and think critically about issues." Patti Kaisler and Rebecca O-
Grosky, Professional Educators.
Our student-centered learning environments are varied and flexible to accommodate the
needs of learners and provide ongoing opportunities to build a collaborative community of
students and staff. Our environments promote collaborative, individual, small and large group
learning.
Students learn in collaborative flexible groups based on need. When students collaborate
together they learn how to communicate with others effectively, work as a team, practice self-
discipline, and improve social and interpersonal skills. Through collaboration, students are
able to have a better understanding of what they are learning and improve critical thinking
skills.
And Beyond
There are many other ways that we foster critical thinking among our learners, but these are
the four that have made the biggest impact for us. Critical thinking is a key skill that our
students need to have in order to become life-long learners and self-advocates for themselves.
18
UNIT 2
Major Proponents of Reflective Practice
2.1. Jan Dewey
John Dewey Theories of Reflective Learning
Dewey is credited with instigating the modern discourse about reflective learning. Although
Dewey is a prominent philosopher of education, you don’t encounter him much on
philosophy course in my experience. As a progressive thinker who emphasizes the
empowering aspects of education, one of the things I’ve been hoping to get out of H808 is a
more detailed exploration of his ideas.
Dewey thought of reflection as a preoccupation or dewlling upon things that puzzle or disturb
us, and saw reflection as a kind of precursor to action. (This might be one way to understand
his innovation: rather than regarding reflection as a mulling over of the past, Dewey’s
reflective energies are future-facing.)
Schön (who wrote his PhD thesis on Dewey) went on to distinguish ‘reflection-on-action’
from ‘reflection-in-action’. The former refers to the kinds of tacit knowledge we reveal in the
way we carry out tasks and approach problems. The latter occurs after the fact, and is often
conscious and/or documented.
One of the most prominent names associated with reflective learning is David Kolb. Kolb
turned Dewey’s ideas about experiential learning into a more structured learning cycle.
19
Pedler, Burgoyne and Boydell argued that Kolb’s model is too focused on the perspective of
the educator. They attempted to simplify the model in such a way that emphasized learner
perspective (especially emotional experience).
The simplified version replaces concrete experience with ‘something happens’; reflective
observation with ‘what happened?’; abstract conceptualisation with ‘so what?’ and active
experimentation as ‘now what?’.
Reflective practice is the ability to reflect on an action so as to engage in a process of

continuous learning. According to one definition it involves "paying critical attention to the
practical values and theories which inform everyday actions, by examining practice
reflectively and reflexively. This leads to developmental insight". A key rationale for
reflective practice is that experience alone does not necessarily lead to learning; deliberate
reflection on experience is essential.
Reflective practice can be an important tool in practice-based professional learning settings

where people learn from their own professional experiences, rather than from formal learning
or knowledge transfer. It may be the most important source of personal professional
development and improvement. It is also an important way to bring together theory and
practice; through reflection a person is able to see and label forms of thought and theory
within the context of his or her work. A person who reflects throughout his or her practice is
not just looking back on past actions and events, but is taking a conscious look at emotions,
experiences, actions, and responses, and using that information to add to his or her existing
knowledge base and reach a higher level of understanding.
John Dewey was among the first to write about reflective practice with his exploration of
experience, interaction and reflection. Soon thereafter, other researchers such as Kurt Lewin
20
and Jean Piaget were developing relevant theories of human learning and development. Some
scholars have claimed to find precursors of reflective practice in ancient texts such as
Buddhist teachings and the Meditations of Stoic philosopher Marcus Aurelius.
Central to the development of reflective theory was interest in the integration of theory and
practice, the cyclic pattern of experience and the conscious application of lessons learned
from experience. Since the 1970s, there has been a growing literature and focus around
experiential learning and the development and application of reflective practice.
Reflection & Education
Linguistically, the word ‘reflection’ may be seen as a meditative form of looking at

oneself, and as such may be seen as a form of experiential learning. Certainly, it is
something that we do implicitly as part of being human, underpinning our identities
through a process of negotiation between our sense of self and our experiences of others
(Demetriou, 2000, p.210). However, efforts to shift from the implicit to the explicit,
pragmatic and measurable have been driven by subjective understandings of the term and
its functions, and subsequently reflection as an educational process has remained a poorly
defined concept.
This is not to say that it lacks a history of educational application. Within established
educational models, such as Kolb (1984), reflection has been defined as central to the
ways in which knowledge and learning can be driven through a cyclical process of
identification, review, questioning and reconstruction. Here, ”Knowledge is continuously
derived from and tested out in the experiences of the learner.” (Kolb, 1984, p.27), and this
can only take place where those experiences can be reviewed and analysed retrospectively.
Essentially, however, how one views reflection may be guided by the specific purpose
through which it is approached, as can be seen within the work of the key reflective
theorists.
Dewey – Reflection as rationality
John Dewey, saw reflection as a further dimension of thought, and as such in need of
education; “while we cannot learn or be taught to think, we do have to learn to think well,
especially acquire the general habit of reflection” (Dewey, 1933). For Dewey, reflection is a
rational and purposeful act, an “active, persistent and careful consideration of any belief or
supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it, and further
conclusions to which it leads… it includes a conscious and voluntary effort to establish belief
upon a firm basis of evidence and rationality” (Dewey, 1933). Interestingly, from a modern
educational perspective, Dewey’s reference to different forms of belief and knowledge may
reveal his willingness to apply objective rationality to more affective and emotional concerns.
Dewey and How We Think
Dewey defined reflective thought as ‘active, persistent, and careful consideration of any
belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it and the
further conclusions to which it tends’ (Dewey 1933: 118). He set out five phases or aspects.
These states of thinking are as follows:
1. Suggestions, in which the mind leaps forward to a possible solution.
21
2. An intellectualization of the difficulty or perplexity that has been felt (directly
experienced) into a problem to be solved.
3. The use of one suggestion after another as a leading idea, or hypothesis, to initiate and
guide observation and other operations in collection of factual material.
4. The mental elaboration of the idea, or supposition as an idea or supposition (reasoning, in

the sense in which reasoning is a part, not the whole, of inference).
5. Testing the hypothesis by overt, or imaginative action. (See Dewey 1933: 199-209).
In this we get a feel of process. We can see links with Schön’s view of reflective practice in
the way in which educators focus on problems and experiment with situations.
In every case of reflective activity, a person finds himself confronted with a given, present
situation from which he has to arrive at, or conclude to, something that is not present. This
process of arriving at an idea of what is absent on the basis of what is at hand is inference.
What is present carries or bears the mind over to the idea and ultimately the acceptance of
something else. (Dewey 1933: 190).
2.2 L. Stenhouse and reflective practices
Lawrence Stenhouse (29 March 1926-1982) was a British educational thinker who sought to
promote an active role for teachers in educational research and curriculum development. He
was a founder member of the Centre for Applied Research in Education (CARE) at the
University of East Anglia.
He was educated at St Andrews University in Scotland.
Stenhouse was particularly influential during the 1960s and 1970s. He helped to develop
innovative classwork for secondary school pupils through the Schools Council Humanities
Project. He also served as the President of the British Educational Research Association
(BERA). In 2013, the University of East Anglia renamed their 'Education' building after him.
Works
 An Introduction to Curriculum Research and Development (1975)
 Authority, Education and Emancipation (1983)
 Research as a Basis for Teaching: Readings from the Work of Lawrence Stenhouse
(1985)
What does reflective practice involve?

At around the time that Stenhouse was writing, Donald Schon (1983, 1987) was also
publishing work about reflective practice. His ideas, which develop a notion of `professional
artistry' (1987: 22), provide helpful ways for us to think about reflective practice in early
years settings. Schon emphasizes the complexity of the role of the professional, in contrast to
earlier work by Dewey (1933) who had drawn a distinction between `routine action' (where
external circumstances, habit and tradition, and externally perceived authority, are dominant,
and where reasons for practices have not been considered actively) and `reflective action'
(where actions are persistently and carefully considered and justifications developed for
22
them). Schon's work by contrast, half a century later, emphasized that professionals
continuously face unique situations that they frame in light of previous experience, and he
recognized therefore the ongoing complexity, and the embedded reflection, in practice. In
particular, he made a distinction between `reflection on action' and `reflection in action'
(Schon 1987). In a nutshell, the difference between these was as follows.
2.3 Schon and reflective practices
By three methods we may learn wisdom: first, by reflection, which is noblest;

second, by imitation, which is easiest; and third by experience, which is the bitterest.
Reflective Practice?
Introduced by Donald Schon in 1987, reflective practice involves thoughtfully

considering your own experiences as you make the connection between knowledge
and practice, under the guidance of an experienced professional within your
discipline (Schon, 1996) Schon had previously argued (1983) that the model of
professional training that relied upon filling up students with knowledge then
sending them out into the world of practice was inappropriate in a fast-changing
world. A reflective practice model would enable learners and novices within a
discipline to compare their own practices with those of experienced practitioners,
thus leading to development and improvement.
Although given currency by Schon (1983) and Kolb (1984), reflective practice has
been advocated by educationists such as Dewey (1909) and Lewin (1952) and can
be traced back to the Socratic method of enquiry - in which questioning and
exploration of the implications of another's viewpoint are employed to enlighten the
enquirer.
Moon (1999) defines reflective practice as "a set of abilities and Methods, to
indicate the taking of a critical stance, an orientation to problem solving or state of
mind." In essence, it is a readiness to constantly evaluate and review your practice
in the light of new learning (which may arise from within the context of your
professional practice).
After its introduction, many colleges started to incorporate reflective practice into
their education and professional development programmes.
Ojanen (1993) has proposed that using students' personal histories, dialogue journals
and the use of group discussion about their experiences is the most effective way of
helping students reflect on and improve their practices.
Kettle and Sellars (1996) found that students involved in peer reflective groups were
more likely to challenge their own preconceived notions of teaching. Additionally,
they suggested that such groups modelled a collaborative style of learning that
would stand them in good stead throughout their teaching careers.
What are the benefits of reflective practice?
23
The main benefits are:
 a deeper understanding for teachers of their own teaching style
 greater effectiveness as a teacher
 validation of the teacher's ideals
 beneficial challenges to traditional approaches
 recognition of teaching as "artistry"
 respect for diversity in applying theory to classroom practice.
Boud and Walker (1998) noted various shortcomings in the way that colleges
were applying reflective practice. They criticised:
 "reflection on demand" mentality
 reflection processes with no link to conceptual frameworks
 failure to encourage students to challenge accepted teaching practices
(who might assume that the more experienced practitioner must "know
best")
Boud and Walker were also critical that the level of personal disclosure required
might be beyond the capacity of some novice teachers. They point out that "it is
Donald Schon - Donald Schon (1930-1997) was an American philosopher, author, and
Professor at Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He produced a series of books on
learning, Reflective Practice, and significantly, the development of reflective practitioners.
His seminal work 'The Reflective Practitioner' (1983) focused on professional Reflective
Practice and the role of the reflective practitioner. In his model, learning to reflect in action
(RIA) and look back on action (ROA) together form a reflective process for decision-making
and professional growth. Experiencing surprise or uncertainty during reflection in action
could be described as 'light bulb' moments, as in Köhler's earlier insight studies.
reflective practice - process and methodology
When we put Reflective Practice into effect we are actually seeking to make a change, by
using subjective and objective data from experience, to plan and decide actions.
In more detail, this process is (to the fullest extent of the concept, in reverse):
 a plan or experiment or action that we devise,

24
 which is based on our learning,
 which is from relevant experience and information,
 which might be positive and/or negative, and a mixture of:
 objective facts, evidence, knowledge, etc., and
 subjective feelings, instincts and personal reactions,
 all of which, ideally, we have assessed to understand its meaning for us, and its
validity and relevance for the particular situation.
This section seeks to convey some methods for using Reflective Practice - either for yourself,
or to help others use the concept.
It's helpful to revisit what reflection within Reflective Practice actually means, since
reflection crucially assists us to make successful change.
Jenny Moon - Jenny Moon is a Teaching Fellow and Associate Professor at Bournemouth
University. She has written much on reflective learning and the use of learning journals to
support professional development. In her book 'Reflection in Learning and Professional
Development: Theory and Practice' (the word 'practice' there refers to practical work), she
defines reflection as a thought process: "[Reflection is] ...a mental process of thinking about
what we have done, learned and experienced..." (J Moon, 1999)
Most of us reflect superficially all the time, about what we are doing during events or
experiences in our daily lives. Some call this 'thinking on our feet' (a metaphor based on
thinking while acting, which contrasts with more deliberate concentrated thought).
This expression 'thinking on our feet' often refers to a lack of preparation or reacting to a
suprising situation, although its deeper meaning is that we are reflecting about a situation 'in
the moment', in a broad external sense, and also an internal personal sense.
While reflecting 'in the moment' is valuable, and can produce effective immediate solutions,
we might not develop these reflections beyond the event itself, and not retain these valuable
pieces of reflective learning when we move on to other tasks.
If however we think more proactively, more deliberate reflection can generate conclusions
and actions for making future improvements, preventing repeated mistakes, and other
positive change.
'Thinking on our feet' (immediate reactive reflection) can solve immediate challenges,
whereas critical reflection (i.e., after-the-event proactive reflection) can produce more
complex changes for future improvements.
Put very simply, thinking about a task as we are doing it can lead to making changes to
improve the outcome of the task.
For example, if I put a bundle of white clothes in the washing machine and see that the water
has turned a blue, I am thinking I might have left a blue sock in the bundle, or a blue pen that
was in my shirt pocket.
Noticing and reacting to what happened does not guarantee I won't make the same mistake
again, whereas reflecting more deliberately about what happened can help me to think about
what I can do to:
25
 repair the damage and
 avoid it happening again (I will definitely check what I am putting into the machine
next time!)
In the above example, note the stages of Kolb's learning cycle:
 I had an experience,
 I reflected on it, to evaluate what went well or badly
 I considered some ideas and options for change
 and planned a different action.
If I remember next time to check the clothes properly before I put them into the machine I
should achieve a better outcome, i.e., a clean white wash. And then extending my reflective
thinking, besides checking pockets properly, I may reflect on other methods to get an even
whiter wash.
This simple but often-overlooked principle is reinforced by the old saying that:
"If we keep on doing the same things, we are likely to get the same outcomes..."
also often shown as:
"If you always do what you've always done, then you'll always get what you've always got..."
It is important to remember that having reflected about and understood a problem experience,
that we evaluate our strengths/weaknesses and examine how these might affect the situation.
We can then make the changes that our learning has enabled us to plan.
We can probably all recall times in our lives when we have failed to reflect on a negative
experience, consequently failed to consider options for change - and so a repeat of the
mistake becomes inevitable.
It is a nuisance if all our white clothes eventually become blue, but if we fail to reflect and
take corrective action in more serious areas, results can be catastrophic - for example in a
busy hospital, or manufacturing aircraft components.
Reflection can help us:
 understand our own strengths and weaknesses, and become better learners,
 encourage and plan development of our capabilities,
and potentially more crucially -
 adopt and apply Reflective Practice in the workplace, in professional situations, so

that..
 very serious risks are minimized,
 quality on a wide scale is optimized,
 others adopt and use similar Reflective Practice methods,
 and ongoing improvement and risk avoidance become deeply embedded into
organizational culture, to avoid stagnation and encourage innovation.
26
UNIT 3
MAJOR PROPONENTS OF REFLECTIVE PRACTICE
3.1 Brainstorming
What is Brainstorming
Brainstorming is a combination of a relaxed, informal approach to problem-solving and
lateral thinking. People are asked to find ideas and thoughts that can at first seem to be a bit
irrelevant. The idea is to use some of these ideas to form original, creative solutions to
problems. Even some seemingly useless ideas can spark still more ideas. The goal of
brainstorming is to direct people to new ways of thinking and break from the usual way of
reasoning.
The most important thing about brainstorming is that there should be no criticism of ideas.
students try to open up possibilities and discard wrong assumptions about the limits of the
problem. Judgments and analysis of ideas are explored after the brainstorming process while
focus should be at this stage on idea generation.
Why brainstorming?
27
Brainstorming contributes to the generation of creative solutions to a problem. It teaches
students to breaks away from old patterns of reasoning to new unexplored paths of thinking.
 Problem solving has become part and parcel of teaching and learning process.
Brainstorming can make group problem-solving a less sterile and a more satisfactory
process.
 It can be used with your class to bring the various students experiences into play. This
increases the richness of ideas explored, particularly before reading, listening and
textactivities.
 Brainstorming is fun. That’s why it helps student-student and students-teacher
relationships to get stronger as they solve problems in a positive, stress-free
environment.
Brainstorming technique was first designed to be used with groups, but it can also be used by
a single person privately to generate ideas.
Individual Brainstorming
When individuals brainstorm on their own, they come up with more ideas, and often better
quality ideas, than groups of people who brainstorm together. Perhaps this occurs because of
many reasons
 In groups, learners aren’t always strict in following the rules of brainstorming, and the
risk of unfavorable group behaviors may arise.
 Instead of generating their own new ideas, students may pay more attention to other
people’s ideas.
 Sometimes learners forget their ideas while they are waiting for their turn to speak.
 Sometimes people are blocked because of shyness.
 Some students tend to do well when they work alone.
 individual brainstorming may be less engaging and less stressful. Students are free
and do not worry about other people’s opinions and judgements, and can therefore be
more freely creative. For instance, a student who hesitates to bring up an idea in a
group brainstorming because he thinks its unworthy, might be free to explore it in an
individual brainstorming and find that it develops into something quite interesting.
 Students don’t have to wait for others to stop speaking before they contribute their
own ideas.
There are however some downturns with individual brainstorming. In a group brainstorming,
the experiences of the members of the group help to develop ideas thoroughly. This is
something that might be missing in individual brainstorming where only the individuals
experience come to play.
Group Brainstorming
Group brainstorming may work in so many effective ways:
 Brainstorming brings the full experience and creativity of all members of the group to
solve a problem. When individual group members get stuck with an idea, another
member’s creativity and experience can take the idea to the next stage. Group
brainstorming can therefore develop ideas in more depth than individual
brainstorming.
28
 Another advantage of group brainstorming is that it helps everyone involved to feel
that they have contributed to the end solution.
 It reminds one that other people have creative ideas to offer.
 Brainstorming can be great for team-building and creating harmony within a team!
Nevertheless group brainstorming has some disadvantages. It can be risky for individuals.
Valuable but unusual suggestions may appear irrelevant at first sight. That’s why, the teacher
needs to be careful not to suppress these ideas. Group problem-solving must not stifle
creativity.
How to Use Brainstorming
“Separate idea generation from evaluation. Start with the idea generation phase, textdown
ideas as they occur, without criticism. You should welcome wild or silly ideas, and you
should try to combine or improve ideas that were generated earlier. The hard part in this
phase is to control your internal editor– the internal voice of criticism which may lead you to
ignore an idea that seems too dumb or trivial. Just as with group brainstorming, when you
begin to run out of ideas, you can review the list as a source to stimulate further production.
When the ideas really have stopped coming, it is time to move on to the evaluation phase.
Here you review each idea to select those that seem best for solving the problem.”
As it is said above both group and individual brainstorming can work perfectly well. I thinks
that we, as teachers, should vary the types of brainstorming so that students may fulfil their
needs according to their learning style. It is also possible to combine both types by having
students carrying out individual brainstorming the results of which can be shared in a group
brainstorming. In the following description I will show how a group brainstorming should be
done.
 Prepare the environment for the brainstorming to take place. Arrange the students
desks in a manner that helps better students contributions.
 Depending on the level of students you can either write the ideas that come from the
session yourself or appoint one student to record them.
 The ideas should be noted in a format that everyone can see and refer to. You may use
the board or computers with data projectors.
 Define the problem you want students to solve clearly.
 Be sure that t students understand that the objective of the session is to generate as
many ideas as possible.
 After stating the problem, give students enough time to think the problem over on
their own.
 Ask students to contribute their ideas.
 Make sure that you give all students a fair opportunity to contribute.
 Try to get everyone to contribute and develop ideas, including the quietest members
of the class.
 Tell students that they may develop other students’ ideas, or use other ideas to create
new ones.
 Tell students that criticism and evaluation of ideas are banned at this stage because
criticism is risky and may stifle creativity and cripple the whole brainstorming
process. This uncritical attitude among members of the group is of paramount
importance.
 Encourage enthusiasm by providing positive feedback to all contributions without
exceptions.
29
 Give free vent to students creativity and imagination. Let people have fun bringing as
many ideas as possible.
Brainstorming is now a commonly used technique for generating creative ideas and gearing
up the process of innovation in industries and companies. However, few of us realize that the
technique can be effectively used in classrooms as well. If implemented properly
brainstorming has many advantages over the conventional teaching – learning process in the
classroom:
 Brainstorming stimulates and enhances the creativity of students.

 Accelerates interactive, joyful learning.
 Helps in self learning and provokes thinking Methods.
 Encourages a ‘constructivist’ approach.
Brain storming method is using in the classrooms of Pakistan by some young Teachers,
whether others are passively make the students to be freeze to express, this is a negative side
and till when modern ideas will not enter in class room all the aims of education given by the
Govt will not work properly.
3.2 Concept mapping
Concept mapping is a technique that allows students to understand the relationships between
ideas by creating a visual map of the connections. Concept maps allows the student to (1) see
the connections between ideas they already have, (2) connect new ideas to knowledge that
they already have, and (3) organize ideas in a logical but not rigid structure that allows future
information or viewpoints to be included.
Nursing students face a great need to understand the larger questions and problems of their
chosen field. Unless there is understanding, students may only commit unassimilated data to
short-term memory and no meaningful learning will occur. Meaningful learning is most
likely to occur when information is presented in a potentially meaningful way and the learner
is encouraged to anchor new ideas with the establishment of links between old and new
material (All & Havens, 1997). Concept mapping is an effective teaching method for
promoting critical thinking and is an excellent way to evaluate students' critical thinking
because it is a visual representation of a student's thinking.
Teaching and Evaluating with Concept Maps
Concept mapping is very useful in student preparation for clinical experiences. When used
for the assessment and care of a patient with multiple health problems, data gathered allows
the student to create a concept from the concepts or data collected. A common way to begin a
concept map is to center the "reason for seeking care" or medical diagnosis on a large blank
paper. Assessment data are arranged and linked to the center concept according to how the
student thinks they fit bets. As concepts or data are added, links and relationships become
evident and may change. Grouping and categorizing concepts give a holistic aspect to clinical
decisions (King & Shell, 2002).
The concept map enables students to synthesize relevant data such as diagnoses, signs and
symptoms, health needs, learning needs, nursing interventions, and assessments. Analysis of
the data begins with the recognition of the interrelatedness of the concepts and a holistic vie
of the client's health status as well as those concepts that affect the individual such as culture,
ethnicity, and psychosocial state.
30
Once the preliminary concept map is complete, answering additional questions enable the
student and instructor to make connections between concepts and begin formulating
judgments and decisions. Once complete, the student and the instructor see all components
simultaneously, providing a deeper and more complete understanding of the client's total
needs. Development of the concept map forces the student to act upon previous knowledge,
connect it with new knowledge, and apply it. It requires the student to have a mental grasp of
the situation, rather than relying on rote memory. Review of the map with the student gives
the instructor an opportunity to evaluate the student's thinking and an opportunity for
immediate feedback on discrepancies and "missing links" (King & Shell, 2002).
Group Activity
Concept mapping can also be used as a group activity. Initially, it may be more effective if
the instructor demonstrates the development of a concept map from raw data and asks
students as a group to make links, associations, and conclusions while emphasizing the
dynamic nature of the concept map as new or changing data is added.
King and Shell (2002) the use of concept mapping as a teaching tool in clinical conferences.
Using actual client data, the students are instructed to analyze and synthesize diagnoses, sign,
symptoms, health needs, ethical/legal concerns, leadership/management issues, as well as
nursing interventions that included assessment, planning, client teaching needs, and
evaluation. Discussions allowed students to make connections not previously appreciated.
This exercise offers the opportunity for increasing knowledge of client situations and
practicing clinical decision making.
In the 1960s, Joseph D. Novak (1993) at Cornell University began to study the concept
mapping technique. His work was based on the theories of David Ausubel (1968), who
stressed the importance of prior knowledge in being able to learn about new concepts. Novak
concluded that "Meaningful learning involves the assimilation of new concepts and
propositions into existing cognitive structures." A concept map is a graphical representation
where nodes (points or vertices) represent concepts, and links (arcs or lines) represent the
relationships between concepts. The concepts, and sometimes the links, are labeled on the
concept map. The links between the concepts can be one-way, two-way, or non-directional.
The concepts and the links may be categorized, and the concept map may show temporal or
causal relationships between concepts.
PURPOSE OF CONCEPT MAPPING
Concept mapping is a type of knowledge representation. Jonassen & Grabowski (1993, p.
433) state that structural knowledge may be seen as a separate type of knowledge. "Structural
knowledge provides the conceptual basis for why. It describes how prior knowledge is
interconnected....Structural knowledge is most often depicted in terms of some sort of
concept map that visually describes the relationships between ideas in a knowledge domain."
Representing knowledge in the visual format of a concept map allows one to gain an
overview of a domain of knowledge. Because the nodes contain only a keyword or a short
sentence, more interpretation is required of the reader, but this may be positive. Concept
mapping can be used for several purposes:
--To generate ideas (brainstorming);
ADVANTAGES OF CONCEPT MAPPING
Visual representation has several advantages:
--Visual symbols are quickly and easily recognized;
--Minimum use of text makes it easy to scan for a word, phrase, or the general idea; and
31
--Visual representation allows for development of a holistic understanding that words alone cannot
convey.
APPLICATIONS OF CONCEPT MAPPING
(1) Creativity Tool: Drawing a concept map can be compared to participating in a

brainstorming session. As one puts ideas down on paper without criticism, the ideas become
clearer and the mind becomes free to receive new ideas. These new ideas may be linked to
ideas already on the paper, and they may also trigger new associations leading to new ideas.
(2) Hypertext Design Tool: As the World Wide Web becomes an increasingly powerful and
ubiquitous medium for disseminating information, writers must move from texttext in linear
fashion to creating hypertext documents with links to other documents. The structural
correspondence between hypertext design and concept maps makes concept mapping a
suitable tool for designing the conceptual structure of hypertext. The structure of both a
hypertext document and a concept map can be seen as a directed graph or a knowledge graph
(Conklin, 1987). A concept map placed on the Web in hypertext may also serve as a Web
navigational tool if there are clickable areas on the concept map that take the user
immediately to indicated parts of the hypertext document.
Designing hypertext is an activity with inherent problems. Botafogo, Rivlin & Schneiderman
(1992) describe a dilemma faced by designers of hypertext authoring systems. In order to
stimulate authors to write clearly structured hypertext (usually hierarchical), they have to
decide when to force authors to reflect upon the structure of their work. Imposing a
hierarchical structure from the beginning may result in too many restrictions for the author,
while any effort to stimulate hierarchy afterwards is too late, and it may even be impossible
for authors to restructure the jungle of nodes and relationships. Concept mapping may be a
good intermediate step for authors to use to reflect upon their work when developing
hypermedia. (3) Communication Tool: A concept map produced by one person represents
one possible way to structure information or ideas. This is something that can be shared with
others. A concept map produced by a group of people represents the ideas of the group. In
either case, concept mapping can be used as a communication tool for people to use to
discuss concepts and the relationships between the concepts. They may try to agree on a
common structure to use as a basis for further action.
(4) Learning Tool: Novak's original work with concept mapping dealt with learning.
Constructivist learning theory argues that new knowledge should be integrated into existing
structures in order to be remembered and receive meaning. Concept mapping stimulates this
process by making it explicit and requiring the learner to pay attention to the relationship
between concepts. Jonassen (1996) argues that students show some of their best thinking
when they try to represent something graphically, and thinking is a necessary condition for
learning. Experiments have shown that subjects using concept mapping outperform non-
concept mappers in longer term retention tests (Novak, et al, 1983).
Concept mapping is also gaining inroads as a tool for problem-solving in education. Concept
mapping may be used to enhance the problem-solving phases of generating alternative
solutions and options. Since problem-solving in education is usually done in small groups,
learning should also benefit from the communication enhancing properties of concept
mapping.
(5) Assessment Tool: Concept maps can also be used as assessment tools. The research team
around Joseph Novak at Cornell found that an important by-product of concept mapping is its
32
ability to detect or illustrate the "misconceptions" learners may have as explanations of
content matter. The conceptions students may have are often incomplete and deficient leading
to misunderstanding of instruction. Concept maps drawn by students express their
conceptions (or their misconceptions) and can help the instructor diagnose the
misconceptions that make the instruction ineffective (Ross & Munby, 1991).
3.3 Generalization and testing the limits
What is Generalization?
Generalization is an essential component of the wider scientific process. In an ideal world, to
test a hypothesis, you would sample an entire population.
You would use every possible variation of an independent variable. In the vast majority of
cases, this is not feasible, so a representative group is chosen to reflect the whole population.
For any experiment, you may be criticized for your generalizations about sample, time and
size.
 You must ensure that the sample group is as truly representative of the whole population as
possible.
 For many experiments, time is critical as the behaviors can change yearly, monthly or even
by the hour.
 The size of the group must allow the statistics to be safely extrapolated to an entire
population.
 In reality, it is not possible to sample the whole population, due to budget, time and
feasibility. (There are however some regional large scale-studies such as the HUNT-
study or the Decode Genetics of Iceland-study)
 For example, you may want to test a hypothesis about the effect of an educational
program on schoolchildren in the US.
 For the perfect experiment, you would test every single child using the program,
against a control group. If this number runs into the millions, this may not be possible
without a huge number of researchers and a bottomless pit of money.
 Thus, you need to generalize and try to select a sample group that is representative of
the whole population.
 A high budget research project might take a smaller sample from every school in the
country; a lower budget operation may have to concentrate upon one city or even a
single school.
 The key to generalization is to understand how much your results can be applied
backwards to represent the group of children, as a whole. The first example, using
every school, would be a strong representation, because the range and number of
33
samples is high. Testing one school makes generalization difficult and affects the
external validity.
 You might find that the individual school tested generates better results for children
using that particular educational program.
 However, a school in the next town might contain children who do not like the
system. The students may be from a completely different socioeconomic background
or culture. Critics of your results will pounce upon such discrepancies and question
your entire experimental design.
 Most statistical tests contain an inbuilt mechanism to take into account sample sizes
with larger groups and numbers, leading to results that are more significant.
 The problem is that they cannot distinguish the validity of the results, and determine
whether your generalization systems are correct. This is something that must be taken
into account when generating a hypothesis and designing the experiment.
 The other option, if the sample groups are small, is to use proximal similarity and
restrict your generalization. This is where you accept that a limited sample group
cannot represent all of the population.
 If you sampled children from one town, it is dangerous to assume that it represents all
children. It is, however, reasonable to assume that the results should apply to a similar
sized town with a similar socioeconomic class. This is not perfect, but certainly
contains more external validity and would be an acceptable generalization.
Limits on generalization (Reisberg, Methods, ch. 9)
In laboratory procedures, we study a particular group of participants doing a particular task

with a particular stimulus. As we've discussed, though, we obviously hope that our results are
generalizable - revealing patterns that will also apply to other participants, other tasks, and
other stimuli.
The need for generalizability is important throughout psychology, but especially so in the
study of concepts. That's because research in this area is aimed at developing theories about
conceptual knowledge itself, rather than theories about how the knowledge happens to be
used for some particular task. It's crucial, therefore, that our data patterns generalize across
tasks, so that we obtain similar results no matter what the task is. That's why researchers
interested in conceptual knowledge seek what the textbook chapter calls convergent data-data
from diverse paradigms that all point toward (and so "converge on") the same theoretical
claims.
However, having emphasized the importance of generalization, let's also note that limitations
on a result's generality can be informative. For example, Chapter 9 of the textbook describes
the many ways in which the use of conceptual knowledge is influenced by typicality. More
typical members of a category are remembered more easily, verified more quickly, and so on.
Thus, the effects of typicality do generalize across tasks. But as the chapter discusses, there
are limits on these effects-so that some tasks seem not to be influenced by typicality. This is
crucial information for us, because it indicates that people sometimes rely on other sorts of
34
conceptual knowledge in addition to typicality.
In short, then, if we find no generalization from a result (so that the result only emerges with
one specific procedure, or just one stimulus), then the result is not very interesting. But if a
result does generalize, and then we find boundaries on that generalization, this provides
useful information, indicating that our theory needs to include another mechanism or process.
In addition, sometimes our hypothesis predicts boundaries on generalization, and so we need

to demonstrate those boundaries in order to confirm the hypothesis. For example, imagine
that we found a patient who had suffered brain damage and who had difficulty in, say,
judging which was a more typical animal-a dog or an ibex, a mouse or a unicorn. We might
hypothesize that this patient had trouble with judging typicality, but how would we test this
hypothesis? First, we would expect the patient to have difficulty with other tasks that also
hinge on typicality. In other words, we'd expect the initial observation with this patient to
generalize to other tasks. But, second, we would expect this patient to behave normally in
tasks that don't involve typicality. Thus, we would expect limits on the generalization, and
finding those limits would assure us that our evaluation of this patient was correct.
To put this differently, our hypothesis for this patient was not that he or she was disrupted in
some global way. Instead, our hypothesis was that a particular process was disrupted, and to
test this, we need to show both that tasks relying on the process were impaired, and that tasks
not relying on the process weren't impaired. This would show us that the deficit was
selective, just as our hypothesis suggested, and, in this way, a failure of generalization is a
crucial part of testing our hypothesis.
3.4 VENN DIAGRAM
A Venn diagram (also called a set diagram or logic diagram) is a diagram that shows all
possible logical relations between a finite collection of different sets. These diagrams depict
elements as points in the plane, and sets as regions inside closed curves. A Venn diagram
consists of multiple overlapping closed curves, usually circles, each representing a set. The
points inside a curve labelled S represent elements of the set S, while points outside the
boundary represent elements not in the set S. Thus, for example, the set of all elements that
are members of both sets S and T, S∩T, is represented visually by the area of overlap of the
regions S and T. In Venn diagrams the curves are overlapped in every possible way, showing
all possible relations between the sets. They are thus a special case of Euler diagrams, which
do not necessarily show all relations. Venn diagrams were conceived around 1880 by John
Venn. They are used to teach elementary set theory, as well as illustrate simple set
relationships in probability, logic, statistics, linguistics and computer science.
A Venn diagram in which in addition the area of each shape is proportional to the number of
elements it contains is called an area-proportional or scaled Venn diagram.
Example
35
Sets A (creatures with two legs) and B (creatures that can fly)
This example involves two sets, A and B, represented here as coloured circles. The orange
circle, set A, represents all living creatures that are two-legged. The blue circle, set B,
represents the living creatures that can fly. Each separate type of creature can be imagined as
a point somewhere in the diagram. Living creatures that both can fly and have two legs—for
example, parrots—are then in both sets, so they correspond to points in the region where the
blue and orange circles overlap. That region contains all such and only such living creatures.
Humans and penguins are bipedal, and so are then in the orange circle, but since they cannot
fly they appear in the left part of the orange circle, where it does not overlap with the blue
circle. Mosquitoes have six legs, and fly, so the point for mosquitoes is in the part of the blue
circle that does not overlap with the orange one. Creatures that are not two-legged and cannot
fly (for example, whales and spiders) would all be represented by points outside both circles.
The combined region of sets A and B is called the union of A and B, denoted by A ∪ B. The
union in this case contains all living creatures that are either two-legged or that can fly (or
both).
The region in both A and B, where the two sets overlap, is called the intersection of A and B,
denoted by A ∩ B. For example, the intersection of the two sets is not empty, because there
are points that represent creatures that are in both the orange and blue circles.
Venn diagrams were developed by the logician John Venn. They represent an easy way to
identify structures or relationships among organisations and how they are perceived in a
community. Venn diagrams can be useful tools for analysis or support the decision making
process in a sanitation and water management intervention.
The concept of the Venn diagram was surveyed by John Venn, as the name of the diagram
suggests. He introduced the diagram in 1880, and since then, the Venn diagram became very
popular because it is very easy to understand and to use (RUSKEY & WESTON 2005).
Sometimes, the Venn diagram is also called Chapati diagram (Chapatis are a round, flat type
of bread eaten in India and South Asia).
Use and Applications of Venn Diagrams
The different sizes of circles indicate the importance of each organisation to the community.
The next step would be to show the relationships amongst the participators. Source: NCCSAP
(n. y.)
This use of the Venn diagrams can be very helpful for organisations because it allows the
illustration of the extent to which individuals, organisations or projects interact with each
other or overlap. By the size of the circle, you can show the importance of an organisation or
36
projects. The bigger a circle is, the more important is a project. The proximity of the circles
illustrates how much interaction between the players is ongoing. Overlapping circles
represent interacting organisations (see stakeholder analysis). There is also the possibility of a
subset. This means that a small circle is placed within a larger circle. The small circle stands
for a component in a big organisation or project which is symbolised by a big circle. If there
are several groups which draw Venn diagrams on the same topic, it could be useful to
combine or compare the different diagrams (see also group works). A discussion allows to
see differences or similarities in perception, as mentioned above. A further discussion could
lead to conflict resolution or organisational capacity building (MSP n.y.).
Steps to Create a Venn Diagram
A Venn diagram, of a group analysing the stakeholders for a water and sanitation
intervention of a university campus in the Philippines. Here the focus is on the
strength/importance of relations between the stakeholders (see also stakeholder importance
and influence). Source: KROPAC (2010)
The Venn diagram can be used in many different ways, so this guidance has to be
contemplated as a general one.
 Individually or in a group, define a “central figure”.

 As the participants draw the diagram, the size of the circle can equal the importance
or physical size of the institution; a larger circle is more important than a smaller
circle.
 The closeness between circles indicates the strength of interactions. An intersection of
circles means a strong relationship between the organisations.
 Possible lines between circles can also show the frequency of contact or the
importance of the institutions/organisations.
There are many more possible applications of Venn diagrams. It can help to find out how
major institutions or organisations are perceived in a community (UT 2006). It can be used to
develop a social map which shows the social structure (FAO 2003). There is also the
possibility of classify things after certain criteria (see also problem tree analysis).
Applicability
The Venn diagrams can be extremely helpful if you want to explore the relative importance
of different influences on a process. It also helps you to prepare a map that show a particular
organization locates itself in relation to others or to a social community
(CANERGIEUKTRUST 2010). But a use of many circles is going to be complicated because
the growing complexity of intersecting or linking the circles makes it difficult to draw them
accurately (RUSKEY & WESTON 2005).
Venn Diagram: visual representation of the similarities between two ideas, people, solutions
Advantages
 G ood for visual learners

 Usually requires higher-order thinking
 Quick way to illustrate a complicated issue
 Appeals to math people
37
 Good to use when concepts overlap
Disadvantages
 May limit response (space factor)

 Difficult to do with new ideas
 Requires a knowledge base
 Has limited use - compare/contrast
4.5 Logical reasoning
Logical reasoning is the process of using a rational, systematic series of steps based on
sound mathematical procedures and given statements to arrive at a conclusion.
Informally, two kinds of logical reasoning can be distinguished in addition to formal

deduction: induction and abduction. Given a precondition or premise, a conclusion or logical
consequence and a rule or material conditional that implies the conclusion given the
precondition, one can explain that:
 Deductive reasoning determines whether the truth of a conclusion can be determined for that
rule, based solely on the truth of the premises. Example: "When it rains, things outside get
wet. The grass is outside, therefore: when it rains, the grass gets wet." Mathematical logic and
philosophical logic are commonly associated with this type of reasoning.
 Inductive reasoning attempts to support a determination of the rule. It hypothesizes a rule
after numerous examples are taken to be a conclusion that follows from a precondition in
terms of such a rule. Example: "The grass got wet numerous times when it rained, therefore:
the grass always gets wet when it rains." While they may be persuasive, these arguments are
not deductively valid, see the problem of induction. Science is associated with this type of
reasoning.
 Inductive-creative reasoning this term has been coined by D. Iosif to combine the
specificity of the observation set from the inductive arena and the creativity (and intuition)
element from the abductive arena therefore providing a cogent view of the future. This
methodology will result in grounded creative thinking and can be used in strategy planning to
generate future as-yet unobserved phenomena. One example would be: "we observed a large
number of white swans on all continents and hypothesize that we need to protect by law all
swans that are white but also black (in existence but unobserved) and red (possibly to be re-
engineered in a distant future)". While inductive reasoning cannot yield an absolutely certain
conclusion, it can actually increase human knowledge (it is ampliative).
 Abductive reasoning, aka inference to the best explanation, selects a cogent set of
preconditions. Given a true conclusion and a rule, it attempts to select some possible
premises that, if true also, can support the conclusion, though not uniquely. Example: "When
it rains, the grass gets wet. The grass is wet. Therefore, it might have rained." This kind of
reasoning can be used to develop a hypothesis, which in turn can be tested by additional
reasoning or data. Diagnosticians, detectives, and scientists often use this type of reasoning.
3.6 Definition of Reflective Teaching
Reflective teaching is a process where teachers think over their teaching practices, analyzing
how something was taught and how the practice might be improved or changed for better
38
learning outcomes. Some points of consideration in the reflection process might be what is
currently being done, why it's being done and how well students are learning. You can use
reflection as way to simply learn more about your own practice, improve a certain practice
(small groups and cooperative learning, for example) or to focus on a problem students are
having. Let's discuss some methods of reflective teaching now.
Method 1: Keep a Journal
After each class, take some notes about what was taught and how students responded,
positive or negative. Did they understand the material? Do you need more prep time to
effectively teach the lesson? Reflect on this information at the end of the day. Use a journal,
noting what you could do differently or what worked well.
Method 2: Get Feedback
After a lesson or activity or at the end of the class, ask students to briefly and honestly
describe what they learned and what, if anything, didn't work well in the lesson. Allow them
to provide the feedback anonymously. Collect the responses and take notes in your journal
on their observations for improving or changing your teaching practices. You can also ask a
colleague whose teaching standards you admire to come into your classroom and observe a
session. Ask for honest feedback, and let your colleague know that your goal is to improve.
The Process of Reflection
Connecting self-reflection to effective teaching is a process. The first step is to figure out
what you want to reflect upon—are you looking at a particular feature of your teaching or is
this reflection in response to a specific problem in your classroom? Whatever the case may
be, you should start by collecting information.
Here are a few ways that you can do this:
 Self-Reflective Journal: A journal is an easy way to reflect upon what just happened
during your instruction. After each lesson, simply jot down a few notes describing your
reactions and feelings and then follow up with any observations you have about your
students. If it helps, you can break up your journal into concrete sections, such lesson
objective, materials, classroom management, students, teacher, etc. In this way, you can be
consistent with how you measure your assessments time after time. You can find specific
questions to ask yourself below.
 Video Recording: A video recording of your teaching is valuable because it provides
an unaltered and unbiased vantage point for how effective your lesson may be from both a
teacher and student perspective. Additionally, a video may act as an additional set of eyes to
catch errant behavior that you hadn’t spotted at the time. Many colleges actually use this
method to teach up and coming teachers the value of self-reflection.
 Student Observation: Students are very observant and love to give feedback. You
can hand out a simple survey or questionnaire after your lesson to get students’ perspectives
about how the lesson went. Think critically about what questions you’d like to ask and
encourage your children to express their thoughts thoroughly. It’ll not only be a learning
experience for you, but also an indirect exercise in textfor them.
 Peer Observation: Invite a colleague to come into your classroom and observe your
teaching. Now this is much different than when you have your principal come in and watch
you—it’s much more casual and devoid of darting eyes. As a result, you’ll be able to teach
39
more naturally and give your colleague an honest perspective of your instruction methods.
To help him frame your lesson critique more clearly, create a questionnaire (you can use
some of the questions below) for your colleague to fill out as they observe. Afterward, make
some time to sit down with him so he can more accurately convey what he saw.
5.7 MAJOR TECHNIQUES AND STRATEGIES
Effective Teaching Strategies
A teaching strategy comprises the principles and methods used for instruction. The choice of
teaching strategy or strategies to be used depends largely on the information or Method that is
being taught, and it may also be influenced by the learning style, aptitude, Methods, and
enthusiasm of the students.
Lecture
Lecture is the process of teaching by giving spoken explanations of the subject that is to be
learned. Lecturing is often accompanied by visual aids to help students visualize an object or
problem.
Demonstration
Demonstrating is the process of teaching through examples or experiments. For example, a
science teacher may teach an idea by performing an experiment for students. A demonstration
may be used to prove a fact through a combination of visual evidence and associated
reasoning.
Demonstrations are similar to written storytelling and examples in that they allow students to
personally relate to the presented information. Memorization of a list of facts is a detached
and impersonal experience, whereas the same information, conveyed through demonstration,
becomes personally relatable. Demonstrations help to raise student interest and reinforce
memory retention because they provide connections between facts and real-world
applications of those facts. Lectures, on the other hand, are often geared more towards factual
presentation than connective learning.
Collaboration
Collaboration allows students to actively participate in the learning process by talking with
each other and listening to other points of view. Collaboration establishes a personal
connection between students and the topic of study and it helps students think in a less
personally biased way. Group projects and discussions are examples of this teaching method.
Teachers may employ collaboration to assess student's abilities to work as a team, leadership
Methods, or presentation abilities.
Collaborative discussions can take a variety of forms, such as fishbowl discussions or group
projects. After some preparation and with clearly defined roles, a discussion may constitute
most of a lesson, with the teacher only giving short feedback at the end or in the following
lesson.
40
3.7.1 What is a 'critical incident'?
A critical incident need not be a dramatic event: usually it is an incident which has
significance for you. It is often an event which made you stop and think, or one that raised
questions for you. It may have made you question an aspect of your beliefs, values, attitude
or behaviour. It is an incident which in some way has had a significant impact on your
personal and professional learning.
In the university setting, a critical incident might include:
an aspect of your project or group work that went particularly well
an aspect of your project or group work that proved difficult
a piece of work that you found particularly demanding
a piece of work which increased your awareness, or challenged your understanding, of

social justice issues; or
an incident involving conflict, hostility, aggression or criticism (Fook & Cooper, 2003).
In the clinical setting, a critical incident might include:
a medical emergency
an unusual condition
a difficult situation
a communication problem (eg. with a patient or colleague)
an interaction with a patient which made an impression on you (either positive or negative)
an incident that made you feel inadequate in some way
a time when you felt confronted; or
an incident which made you think differently, or caused you to question your assumptions
or beliefs.
Critical incidents may relate to issues of communication, knowledge, treatment, culture,

relationships, emotions or beliefs.
Critical Incident Analysis
A critical incident is something that happens, either positively or negatively, that may cause
someone to reflect on what has happened and maybe rethink the events. Critical Incident
41
Analysis can help to facilitate reflective practice or reflective learning by enabling nurses to
explore their feelings on a certain subject. It is a valuable learning tool that can be used as a
starting point for evidence based practice. It can also be included within a professional
portfolio.
A critical incident could be a medication error, an interaction between a patient and staff
member, or the circumstances surrounding a patient’s death. The critical incident may only
be significant for the individual(s) involved or it may affect the whole team.
Critical incident analysis involves focusing on an event, including analysing the

circumstances surrounding it, the actions of those involved, responses to the event and the
outcomes. The result should be a better understanding of how practice can be improved.
3.7.2 Keeping a reflective journal
A reflective journal is useful for understanding and learning from a longer experience such as
a course, a placement or time abroad. It lets you chart your development step by step and also
look back across the whole period.
It will provide a lot of useful material, supporting evidence and examples if you need to write
a report about what you have learned from your experience.
To get most benefit from reflection, it’s helpful to distance ourselves from our immediate
impressions and try to be objective. One way to do this is to keep a ‘split’ journal where you
record what is going on shortly after it happens and then return to reflect and comment on it a
little while later. ● University of Edinburgh ● IAD www.ed.ac.uk/iad/undergraduate At the
time Later reflection
What is a Reflective Journal?
In a career that not only requires you to look at things scientifically and critically, but
reflectively(1)(2)(*) too, it can often be helpful in terms of career and personal development,
to keep some kind of journal of your thoughts and reflections, ideas and new bits of
knowledge gained. This can be used throughout your career – from that first Support Worker
job, to working as an Assistant Psychologist, to Clinical training and beyond.
A reflective journal may include what you have done, what you have learnt and how you
have found your day or week. Maybe you can include the thoughts of the experiences that
you are having, the things that you have enjoyed, the things that you have done well and the
things that you could have done better - which you can then reflect on.
How to go about text a reflective journal:
Your journal is your own private space to write whatever you want, so it is hard for someone
else to give you guidance because it is about what works for you – which only you know.
Perhaps you need to think about why you are textit in the first place – or maybe you just need
to start textand you’ll figure out what your motivation is along the way (which you can reflect
on and write in your journal!).
If you are really struggling to know where to start, you might benefit from a little bit of
structure and some ideas, to help you begin:
42
•You might want to set a time slot free everyday (or week) with the sole purpose of making a
journal entry.
•You may want to start of with specific categories which can be used to organise your
thoughts, then expand on these, generating new categories as you get the hang of it.
•You may want to start out being more descriptive (merely noting things like what you are
doing in your new role and how it makes you feel – without trying to interpret it), until you
get into the reflective flow.
•Instead of, or as well as writing, you could draw - scrapbook style, if you find this easier
(and you don’t have to be an artist, to do so!).
•It may be worth establishing boundaries to what you want to write: Are you going to write in
your journal just for work related stuff, or for life in general (or perhaps both, since the two
can often interrelate and affect each other).
•You might want to ask yourself:
-What characteristics do I have that could prevent me from making the most out of this
job/course/interview etc?
-What do I want from the course/job?
-How do I feel right now?
-What do I expect?
-What do I fear?
-What is the worse that could happen to me?
-What Strengths (or Methods, such as: Mindfulness, Reflexivity…) do I have that could
prevent me from sabotaging myself?
-What qualities do I possess that which will help me in my goals?
-If reflecting on something that someone else said or did – towards you or someone else (say,
if you’ve read something worth a closer look), you might want to reserve your immediate
judgments or reactions, by trying to gain some perspective on yourself and others and how
you interact with one another. Ask yourself why you/another person might be
saying/thinking/feeling that…? This of course can be done reflexively (at the time) or later,
on reflection (which can help your reflexivity Methods.
-What have I learnt, today – what knowledge (academic or otherwise) have I gained?
3.7.3 Peer coaching
Peer coaching is a confidential process through which two or more professional colleagues
work together to reflect on current practices; expand, refine, and build new Methods; share
ideas; teach one another; conduct classroom research; or solve problems in the workplace.
Peer coaching can be a great way to work through whatever is troubling you at work,
bounce ideas off a trusted thinking partner, and overcome isolation on the job. (Click here
to read more about why aid and development workers can benefit from peer coaching and
a case of how it’s being used by two aid workers in Asia.)
If you’d like to get started with peer coaching, here are 10 tips:
1. Identify a partner you trust. Your peer coach could be someone in another office,
someone in your field who works for another organization, a fellow consultant. One
critical factor: whoever you choose, you must trust him/her to maintain
confidentiality.
43
2. Invite them to partner with you as your peer coach. Tell them what you’d like to
get out of peer coaching, and why you think the two of you would work well
together. If you like, share this blog post and last week’s to help flesh out what peer
coaching is about.
3. Schedule a time to meet via Skype. Face-to-face meetings can be great, but don’t let
geographic barriers stop you: Skype video or audio-only calls can also be highly
effective. (In fact, as a professional coach a large portion of my coaching is via
Skype, with development and aid workers in various countries – my clients will tell
you it works!)
4. During your coaching call, you’ll each take equal time as the coach and as the
coachee. I think that 30 minutes each (for a total of one hour) can work well.
However, one proponent of peer coaching suggests 10 minutes each (for a total of 20
minutes). While this seems short to me, if you are pressed for time, even a brief
session can be effective. The point is, being short on time should not be an excuse to
forego peer coaching. As you and your peer coach work together, you will find the
timing that works best for both of you.
5. When it’s your turn to be the coachee, identify your area of focus for the coaching
session and share this with your peer coach. It could be a project you’re working on,
a relationship at work that is driving you crazy, a struggle with work/life balance, you
name it. Think aloud with your peer coach. Feel free to ask him/her for their
perspective, input, and feedback, but focus primarily on generating the solutions
yourself. The answers you come up with yourself will be significantly more powerful
than any advice that someone else – even a Methoded coach – can provide.
6. When it’s your turn to be the peer coach, give your partner your full attention
while he or she thinks out loud about whatever they choose to focus on. This may not
sound like much, but as one of my favorite books says, “the quality of a person’s
attention determines the quality of other people’s thinking.” Provide feedback as
needed, but encourage your partner to come up with their own answers.
7. Focus on the positive, and what action you can take in the future. Don’t let your
peer coaching sessions turn into a gripe session. It’s okay to let off a bit of steam, but
limit the complaining if you want the time you invest in peer coaching to be
productive and helpful.
8. Two questions can help bring closure and forward momentum to each session.
At the end of coaching conversations, I often ask, “What is your main insight or take-
away from this coaching session?” and “What action will you take next?”
9. Set goals and hold each other accountable. If you close each session by identifying
your next action, then it’s natural to share with your peer coach in your next peer
coaching session what you accomplished (or where you got stuck). As you get started
with your peer coach, tell him/her how you would like to be held accountable for the
“next actions” you’ve committed to during coaching conversations.
10. At the end of each peer coaching session, schedule the next one. This will help
you sustain momentum. Besides, if you don’t set up your next session right away,
scheduling it will just become another item on your lengthy To Do list.
3.7.4 Action Research
Educational research is action research. In the words of S.M. Corey, “A useful

definition of action research is the research a person conducts in order to enable him to
achieve his purpose more effectively” Action research is focused on immediate application,
not on the development of theory or on generalization of applications. It has placed it’s
44
emphasis on a problem here and now in a local setting. It’s findings are to be evaluated in
terms of local applicability, not universal validity. It’s purpose is to improve school practices
and at the same time to improve those who try to improve the practices to combine the
research process, habits of thinking, ability to work harmoniously with others and with
professional spirit.
It is important to realize that research may be carried on at various levels of complexity.
Respectable research studies may be the simple descriptive fact – finding variety that lead to
useful generalizations. Actually many of the early studies in the behavior sciences were
useful in providing needed generalization about the behaviour or characteristics of individual
and group. Although these studies did not explain the factors underlying in various aspects of
educational fields, they did provide many hypotheses investigated later by more sophisticated
experimental methods.
UNIT 4
APPLICATION OF METHODS AND APPROACHES TO REFLECTION
4.1 systematic reflection throughout the course work
Reflection is an important competency for designers in general (e.g. Schön, 1983) and for
instructional or educational designers in particular (e.g. Rowland, 1993). Moreover, in the
process towards formulating instructionaldesign competencies, expert designers viewed
reflection as an “essential element of successful design for all designers, novice and expert”
(Richey, Fields, & Foxon, 2000, p.72). Since it is such an important competency, reflection
should be a clear component in the education of designers (e.g. Rowland, Fixl & Young,
1992; Shambaugh & Magliaro, 2001).
Reflection can be regarded as an element of academic competence. Therefore, in higher and
university education, teachers regularly ask students to reflect on their work (e.g. Boud &
Walker, 1998; Boud, Keogh & Walker, 1985; Korthagen & Vasalos, 2002). In a number of
cases, teachers provide guiding questions to steer the students’ reflection. These guiding
questions frequently are based on a logic of improvement: What was wrong in your project,
what are the causes of it, how can you learn to do it better a next time? In line with these
questions, however, more than occasionally the student papers turn out to be rather an
expression of a negative self-evaluation, than of real reflection. Not only can this approach be
demotivating since students need to start with the idea ‘I did not do my work well’, but it also
leads to superficial professional and academic growth, resulting in a mastery of explaining
their failures in terms of external circumstances, and at best to only technical clues for how to
45
improve their work. Some teachers might approve this as good reflective work, others will
not. It thus shows that the concept of reflection is vague, meaning different things for
different persons, and that students have difficulty in doing it. This observation has resulted
in a collaborative endeavor of a philosopher and an ID expert , being the authors of this
paper, to develop a distinct course on systematic reflection for students in the field of
instructional design and educational technology at the University of Twente. In this course,
students, who are in the third year of their study, learn four modes of reflection that originate
in the work of the philosopher Kant. The course has been taught to 7 groups of students since
2002-2003. The student study load for this course is 5 European Credits, equaling 140 hours.
The Nature Of Reflection
According to John Dewey (1916, 1933), by many authors perceived as the founding father of
reflection in education, reflection starts with experience, not with theory. “An ounce of
experience is better than a ton of theory, simply because it is only in experience that any
theory has viral and verifiable significance” (Dewey, 1916, p. 44).Dewey distinguishes
between two types of experience. The first is trial and error, leading to rules of thumb without
insights into acting and outcomes. The other is reflective experience, meant to get insights
into relations between causes and effects both in theory and in acting. Dewey’s model for
reflective experience can be viewed as a circle, consisting of the steps: sense of a problem,
the observation of conditions, the formation and rational elaboration of a suggested
hypothesis, and the active experimental testing. This approach to reflection can be
characterized as a process in which the student acts as a problem solver (or in a metaphor: as
an engineer) and grows through learning from his or her own mistakes. One key
characteristic of Dewey’s model, and a lot of models stemming from this tradition, is that it is
aimed at improvement. Although the wish to improve one’s performance is instrumental to
professional growth, this approach has, as already said, a serious drawback: the learner must
take a negative view towards his or her previous experiences. As such, reflection has the
nature of a (negative) self evaluation (‘I did not do well’), often resulting in excuses and good
intentions (‘I will do better next time’). Also, students often stick to giving explanations of
why something did not go well. This way, they do hardly get any new and deeper insights.
4.2 identify key question for their role as novice teacher
General Strategies for Asking Questions
 When planning questions, keep in mind your course goals. For example, do you
want students to master core concepts? To develop their critical thinking Methods?
The questions you ask should help them practice these Methods, as well as
communicate to them the facts, ideas, and ways of thinking that are important to their
learning in your course. (For more information about course goals, see Designing a
Course).
 Avoid asking “leading questions.” A leading question is phrased in such a way that
it suggests its own answer and therefore discourages students from thinking on their
own.
 Follow a “yes-or- no” question with an additional question. For example, follow
up by asking students to explain why they answered the way they did, to provide
evidence or an example, or to respond to a yes-or-no answer given by another student.
 Aim for direct, clear, specific questions. During class discussions, rather than
beginning with a single question that is multilayered and complex, use a sequence of
46
questions to build depth and complexity. Essay questions on exams or paper
assignments, on other hand, often provide an appropriate opportunity to ask multi-
layered questions. If your exam will include multi-layered questions, use questions
during class time to walk students through the process of answering multi-layered
questions.
In class discussions, do not ask more than one question at once. When you ask more than
one question, students often do not respond because they are unsure which question you want
them to answer.
When you plan each class session, include notes of when you will pause to ask and answer
questions. Asking questions throughout the class will not only make the class more
interactive, but also help you measure and improve student learning. Do not save the last two
minutes of class for questions. Students are unlikely to ask questions when they know that
only a few minutes remain. (See Increasing Student Participation and Teaching with
Lectures.)
Ask a mix of different types of questions. You should use “closed” questions, or questions
that have a limited number of correct answers, to test students’ comprehension and retention
of important information. You should also ask managerial questions to ensure, for example,
that your students understand an assignment or have access to necessary materials. “Open”
questions, which prompt multiple and sometimes conflicting answers, are often the most
effective in encouraging discussion and active learning in the classroom. For examples of
“open” questions and the purposes they can serve, see below.
Responding Effectively
Wait for students to think and formulate responses. Waiting 5-10 seconds will increase
the number of students who volunteer to answer and will lead to longer, more complex
answers. If students do not volunteer before 5 seconds have passed, refrain from answering
your own question, which will only communicate to students that if they do not answer, you
will do their thinking for them. If the students are unable to answer after sufficient time for
thinking has passed, rephrase the question.
Do not interrupt students’ answers. You may find yourself wanting to interrupt because
you think you know what the student is going to say, or simply because you are passionate
about the material. Resist this temptation. Hearing the students’ full responses will allow you
to give them credit for their ideas and to determine when they have not yet understood the
material.
Show that you are interested in students’ answers, whether right or wrong. Encourage
students when they are offering answers by nodding, looking at them, and using facial
expressions that show you are listening and engaged. Do not look down at your notes while
they are speaking.
Develop responses that keep students thinking. For example, ask the rest of the class to
respond to an idea that one student has just presented, or ask the student who answered to
explain the thinking that led to her answer.
If a student gives an incorrect or weak answer, point out what is incorrect or weak
about the answer, but ask the student a follow-up question that will lead that student,
47
and the class, to the correct or stronger answer. For example, note that the student’s
answer overlooks the most important conclusion of the study you are discussing, then ask that
same student to try to recall what that conclusion is. If he or she does not recall the
conclusion, open this question up to the class.
Why Ask “Open” Questions? Twelve Objectives, with Sample Questions
1. To assess learning.
 What is the most important idea that was generated in today’s discussion?
 Can you explain this concept in your own words?
 Can you draw a diagram to illustrate this idea?
2. To ask a student to clarify a vague comment.
 Could you elaborate on that point?

 Can you explain what you mean?
3. To prompt students to explore attitudes, values, or feelings (when appropriate).
 What are the values or beliefs that inform this argument?

 What is your initial reaction to this argument?
4. To prompt students to see a concept from another perspective.
 How do you think that this issue is viewed by those with whom you disagree?
 How does that concept apply to this new problem?
5. To ask a student to refine a statement or idea.
When does that principle apply? Always? Only under certain conditions?
Would you say, then, that you disagree with the author?
6. To prompt students to support their assertions and interpretations.
 How do you know that?

 Which part of the text led you to that conclusion?
7. To direct students to respond to one another.
 What do you think about the idea just presented by your classmate?
 Do you agree or do you see the issue differently? Explain.
 Can you think of another way to solve that problem?
8. To prompt students to investigate a thought process.
 What are the assumptions that informed the design of this experiment?
 What are the assumptions that these two arguments share?
9. To ask students to predict possible outcomes.

48
 What might happen if this practice were to be outlawed?
 What would be the result if a different set of assumptions were used to set up this
experiment?
 Would you get a different result?
10. To prompt students to connect and organize information.
 How does this article shed light on the concept we studied last week?
 Can you develop a graph or table that organizes this information in a helpful way?
11. To ask students to apply a principle or formula.
 How does this principle apply to the following situation?

 Who can suggest how we might use this new formula to solve the problems we
examined at the start of class today?
 Under what conditions is this equation not valid?
12. To ask students to illustrate a concept with an example.
 Can you think of an example of this phenomenon, drawn from your research?
 Can you point us to a specific part of the novel that led you to that conclusion?
 Can you identify a painting or design that exemplifies that idea?
4.3 Issues of Reflective Practitioners
What are the challenges associated with reflective practice?
Like any other area of work, there can be challenges we face when we use reflective practice.
Kennett (2010: pp73-75) summarizes some of these:
Time
When your time is pressured, which as a front line teacher it often is, can you afford to take
special time to reflect on your practice in the ways suggested here? We would argue that you
will work both more effectively and efficiently if you use reflective practice, because you
will be able to make more clear and informed decisions, be more aware of what is likely to
work and what is not likely to, and more up to date with what works elsewhere. This will all
save time which would be wasted elsewhere.
In order to meet this challenge however you have to find strategies for making time.
Emotions
Reflecting carefully on what you do can be challenging and scary. You may well come to
some conclusions which have major consequences for you as a professional. If you have
doubts about yourself as a person and as a professional, these can appear at times to be
reinforced by reflection.
As you become more proficient both in the techniques of reflective practice, and in your
teaching overall, your fears should be replaced by confidence.
This challenge can be met by developing ways both to understand and make use of your
emotions, and to hold your nerve and stay with your informed decisions.
49
Not being naturally reflective
You may well be someone who doesn’t tend to find reflection something you naturally get
involved in .. you may well be a ‘doer’ rather than a ‘thinker’. This may well be the case with
your students as well. This set of resources provides a wide variety of ways to introduce,
encourage, try out reflection in a variety of ways, and draws together a wide range of tools
and activities to help with that. These should all help you to get the maximum benefits you
can from reflective practice.
It is possible to reflect in highly active, engaged and creative ways. You don't always have to
sit down with your head resting on your hand to be reflective!
The Reflective Practitioner
This book reflective practitioner is considered as a seminal book, in which Shön formulated
his theory about reflective activity, knowing in action and reflection in action. Schön, through
his proposal of the reflective-practice concept, opposed design as rational problem solving
defended by Simon in his Sciences of the Artificial (Simon, 1969/1996). To Shön design is
not problem solving activity in the sense that Problem solving is generally considered as
handling problems as “given,” whereas the process of “problem setting” is neglected. Starting
with problems as “given,” matters of “choice or decision are solved through the selection,
from available means, of the one best suited to established ends. But with this emphasis on
problem solving, we ignore problem setting, the process by which we define the decision to
be made, the ends to be achieved, and the means that may be chosen.
Also he argues that reflection in his words “is susceptible to a kind of rigor that is both like
and unlike the rigor of scholarly research and controlled experiment” (in the preface of the
book ix). For Schön, reflection-in-action was the core of ‘professional artistry’ – a concept
contrasted with the ‘technical-rationality’ demanded by the (still dominant) paradigm where
by problems are solvable through the rigorous application of science.
What Schön says is not anything entirely new. It is Dewey, in 1933 in his book How We
Think. A restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the educative process” who
introduced the concept of “reflective conversation with the situation” a way of looking at an
epistemology of practice based on examining what practitioners do.
In the first two chapters, Shön argues that, technical-rationality failed to resolve the dilemma
of ‘rigour versus relevance’ confronting professionals, which he suggests this dilemma is
somehow the reason of the crisis of confidence in Professional knowledge and expertise. He,
therefore, values the insights that come from experience, from being direct involvement with
the situation. His basic idea is that through reflection-in action which responds to the belief
“that our knowing is in our action, (p. 49) we can gain verifiable insight into our thought
processes.
So what is reflective practice? Schön defines reflective practice as the practice by which
professionals become aware of their implicit knowledge base and learn from their experience.
He talks about reflection in action and reflection action. Reflection in action is to reflect on
behavior as it happens, whereas, Reflection on action reflecting after the event, to review,
analyze, and evaluate the situation. Another term he introduces is “knowing in action” to
describe tacit knowledge.
What is Reflective Practice?

50
Reflective practice is, in its simplest form, thinking about or reflecting on what you do. It is
closely linked to the concept of learning from experience, in that you think about what you
did, and what happened, and decide from that what you would do differently next time.
Thinking about what has happened is part of being human. However, the difference between
casual ‘thinking’ and ‘reflective practice’ is that reflective practice requires a conscious effort
to think about events, and develop insights into them. Once you get into the habit of using
reflective practice, you will probably find it useful both at work and at home.
Reflective Practice as a Method
Various academics have touched on reflective practice and experiential learning to a greater
or lesser extent over the years, including Chris Argyris (the person who coined the term
‘double-loop learning’ to explain the idea that reflection allows you to step outside the ‘single
loop’ of ‘Experience, Reflect, Conceptualise, Apply’ into a second loop to recognise a new
paradigm and reframe your ideas in order to change what you do).
They all seem to agree that reflective practice is a Method which can be learned and honed,
which is good news for most of us.
UNIT 5
Critical thinking and art of questioning
5.1 Critical thinking and Socratic questioning

The Art of Socratic Questioning
The art of Socratic questioning is important for the critical thinker because the art of
questioning is important to excellence of thought. What the word ‘Socratic’ adds is
“systematicity”, “depth”, and a keen interest in assessing the truth or plausibility of things.
There is a special relationship between critical thinking and Socratic Questioning because
both share a common end. Critical thinking gives one a comprehensive view of how the mind
functions (in its pursuit of meaning and truth), and Socratic Questioning takes advantage of
that overview to frame questions essential to the quality of that pursuit.
The goal of critical thinking is to establish a disciplined “executive” level of thinking to our
thinking, a powerful inner voice of reason, to monitor, assess, and re-constitute — in a more
rational direction — our thinking, feeling, and action. Socratic discussion cultivates that inner
voice by providing a public model for it.
51
The Spirit and Principles of Socratic Questioning
While there are numerous ways in which Socratic Questioning can be effectively executed in
the classroom, there are a set of principles, which guide a Socratic dialog. In this section,
these principles are laid out in the form of directives.
Teachers Engaged in a Socratic Dialog Should:
 Respond to all answers with a further question (that calls upon the respondent to
develop his/her thinking in a fuller and deeper way)
 Seek to understand–where possible–the ultimate foundations for what is said or

believed and follow the implications of those foundations through further questions
 Treat all assertions as a connecting point to further thoughts
 Treat all thoughts as in need of development
 Recognize that any thought can only exist fully in a network of connected thoughts.
Stimulate students — through your questions — to pursue those connections
 Recognize that all questions presuppose prior questions and all thinking presupposes
prior thinking. When raising questions, be open to the questions they presuppose. (See
the section on logically-prior questions.)
Teachers engaged in Socratic dialog should systematically raise questions based on the
following recognitions and assumptions:
Focusing on The Elements of Thought
 Recognize that all thought reflects an agenda. Assume that you do not fully
understand the thought until you understand the agenda behind it. (What are you
trying to accomplish in saying this? What is your central aim in this line of thought?)
 Recognize that all thoughts presuppose an information base. Assume that you do not
fully understand the thought until you understand the background information that
supports or informs it. (What information are you basing that comment on? What
experience convinced you of this? How do we know this information is accurate?)
 Recognize that all thought requires the making of inferences, the drawing of
conclusions, the creation of meaning. Assume that you do not fully understand a
thought until you understand the inferences that have shaped it. (How did you reach
that conclusion? Could you explain your reasoning? Is there an alternative plausible
conclusion?)
 Recognize that all thought involves the application of concepts. Assume that you do
not fully understand a thought until you understand the concepts that define and shape
it. (What is the main idea you are putting forth? Could you explain that idea?)
52
 Recognize that all thought rests upon other thoughts (which are taken for granted or
assumed). Assume that you do not fully understand a thought until you understand
what it takes for granted. (What exactly are you taking for granted here? Why are you
assuming that?)
 Recognize that all thought is headed in a direction. It not only rests upon something
(assumptions), it is also going somewhere (implications and consequences). Assume
that you do not fully understand a thought unless you know the implications and
consequences that follow from it. (What are you implying when you say that? Are
you implying that . . . ?)
 Recognize that all thought takes place within a point of view or frame of reference.
Assume that you do not fully understand a thought until you understand the point of
view or frame of reference which places it on an intellectual map. (From what point of
view are you looking at this? Is there another point of view we should consider?)
 Recognize that all thought is responsive to a question. Assume that you do not fully
understand the thought until you understand the question that gives rise to it. (I am not
sure exactly what question you are raising. Could you explain it?)
THE SIX TYPES OF SOCRATIC QUESTIONS
Due to the rapid addition of new information and the advancement of science and technology
that occur almost daily, an engineer must constantly expand his or her horizons beyond
simple gathering information and relying on the basic engineering principles.
A number of homework problems have been included that are designed to enhance critical
thinking Methods. Critical thinking is the process we use to reflect on, access and judge the
assumptions underlying our own and others ideas and actions.
Socratic questioning is at the heart of critical thinking and a number of homework problems
draw from R.W. Paul's six types of Socratic questions:
1. Questions for clarification:  Why do you say that?

 How does this relate to our discussion?
 "Are you going to include diffusion in your
mole balance equations?"
2. Questions that probe  What could we assume instead?

assumptions:  How can you verify or disapprove that
assumption?
 "Why are neglecting radial diffusion and
including only axial diffusion?"
3. Questions that probe reasons  What would be an example?

and evidence:  What is....analogous to?
 What do you think causes to happen...? Why:?
 "Do you think that diffusion is responsible for
the lower conversion?"
4. Questions about Viewpoints  What would be an alternative?

53
and Perspectives:  What is another way to look at it?
 Would you explain why it is necessary or
beneficial, and who benefits?
 Why is the best?
 What are the strengths and weaknesses of...?
 How are...and ...similar?
 What is a counterargument for...?
 "With all the bends in the pipe, from an
industrial/practical standpoint, do you think
diffusion will affect the conversion?"
5. Questions that probe  What generalizations can you make?

implications and consequences:  What are the consequences of that assumption?
 What are you implying?
 How does...affect...?
 How does...tie in with what we learned before?
 "How would our results be affected if neglected
diffusion?"
6. Questions about the question:  What was the point of this question?
 Why do you think I asked this question?
 What does...mean?
 How does...apply to everyday life?
 "Why do you think diffusion is important?"
5.2 Teaching students to ask good questions and follow up the implication of
thought
The humble question is an indispensable tool: the spade that helps us dig for truth, or the
flashlight that illuminates surrounding darkness. Questioning helps us learn, explore the
unknown, and adapt to change.
That makes it a most precious “app” today, in a world where everything is changing and so
much is unknown. And yet, we don’t seem to value questioning as much as we should. For
the most part, in our workplaces as well as our classrooms, it is the answers we reward --
while the questions are barely tolerated.
To change that is easier said than done. Working within an answers-based education system,
and in a culture where questioning may be seen as a sign of weakness, teachers must go out
of their way to create conditions conducive to inquiry. Here are some suggestions (based on
input from question-friendly teachers, schools, programs, and organizations) on how to
encourage more questioning in the classroom and hopefully, beyond it.
54
How to Encourage Questioning
1. Make It Safe
Asking a question can be a scary step into the void. It’s also an admission to the world (and
more terrifyingly, to classmates) that one doesn’t know the answer. So teachers must
somehow “flip the script” by creating an environment where questioning becomes a strength;
where it is welcomed and desired. The Right Question Institute, a nonprofit group that
teaches inquiry Methods in low-income schools, encourages teachers to run group exercises
dedicated entirely to formulating questions (no answers allowed!) -- with clear rules and
guidelines to ensure that students’ questions aren’t judged or edited, and that all questions are
written down and respected. There are many variations on this type of exercise. The second-
grade teacher Julie Grimm uses a “10 by 10” exercise, in which kids are encouraged to come
up with 10 great questions about a topic during a 10-minute span. But the bottom line is,
designate some kind of safe haven in the classroom where all students can freely exercise the
“questioning muscle.”
2. Make It “Cool”
This is a tough one. Among many kids, it’s cool to already know -- or to not care. But what if
we could help students understand that the people who ask questions happen to be some of
the coolest people on the planet? As I discovered in the research for my book on inquiry,
questioners thought of many of those whiz-bang gadgets we now love. They’re the ones
breaking new ground in music, movies, the arts. They’re the explorers, the mavericks, the
rebels, making the world a more interesting place -- and having a heck of a time themselves.
How cool is that?
3. Make It Fun
Part of the appeal of “questions-only” exercises is that there’s an element of play involved, as
in: Can you turn that answer/statement into a question? Can you open your closed questions,
and close your open ones? There are countless ways to inject a “game” element into
questioning, but here’s an example borrowed from the business world: Some companies use a
practice called “the 5 whys,” which involves formulating a series of “why” questions to try to
get to the root of a problem. Kids were practically born asking “why” questions, so why not
allow them to use that innate talent within a structured challenge? Or, show them how to use
the “Why/What if/How” sequence of questioning as a fun way to tackle just about any
problem. Whatever the approach, let kids tap into their imaginations and innate question-
asking Methods in ways that make inquiry an engaging part of a larger challenge.
4. Make It Rewarding
Obviously, we must praise and celebrate the questions that are asked -- and not only the on-
target, penetrating ones, but also the more expansive, sometimes-offbeat ones (I found that
seemingly “crazy questions” sometimes result in the biggest breakthroughs). Help create a
path for students to get from a question to a meaningful result. A great question can be the
basis of an ongoing project, a report, an original creation of some kind. The point is to show
that if one is willing to spend time on a question -- to not just Google it but grapple with it,
share it with others, and build on it -- that question can ultimately lead to something
rewarding and worthwhile.
55
5. Make It Stick
If the long-term goal is to create lifelong questioners, then the challenge is to make
questioning a habit -- a part of the way one thinks. RQI’s Dan Rothstein says it’s important to
include a metacognitive stage in question-training exercises wherein kids can reflect on how
they’ve used questioning and articulate what they’ve learned about it, so they can “pave a
new neural pathway” for lifelong inquiry. As for the behavioral habits associated with good
questioning, here are a few: Questioners train themselves to observe everyday surroundings
with “vuja de” eyes that see the familiar in fresh ways; they’re always on the lookout for
assumptions (including their own) that should be questioned; and they’re willing to ask
questions that might be considered “naïve” by others.
So ask yourself this beautiful question: How might I encourage more questioning in my
classroom? And how might I instill the habit of questioning in my students? After all,
knowing the answers may help them in school, but knowing how to question will help them
for life. I look forward to your thougths -- and questions! -- in the comments area.
5.3 TEACHING STUDENTS TO NARRATE, ANALYZE AND EVALUATE THEIR OWN VIEW
POINTS AND OF OTHERS
Teaching students “how to think” may begin by alerting them to the kinds of
questions and problems that interest scholars or professionals in your field. So you may
consider organizing your courses around such questions and problems to stimulate your
students’ intellectual interest. Rather than simply presenting information, be explicit with
your students about how you approach such questions, defining critical thinking in your field
and modeling disciplinary ways of thought.
Background
The critical evaluation of ideas, arguments, and points of view is important for the
development of students as autonomous thinkers (1, 2). It is only through this critical
evaluation that students can distinguish among competing claims for truth and determine
which arguments and points of view they can trust and those of which they should be
skeptical. This work lays the foundation for students’ progressing to staking their own claims
in an intellectually rigorous fashion. Learning how to analyze and critically evaluate
arguments thus helps them to develop a sound framework to test their own arguments and
advance their own points of view.
Objective 11 reflects an important component of the educational process – training students
in the habits of thought in our disciplines. IDEA research has found that it is related to
Objectives #6 through #10 and Objective #12, which all address activities at the upper levels
of cognitive taxonomies, activities requiring application and frequent synthesis and
evaluation of ideas and events (3). Active processing is critical to our students’ long-term
retention of ideas and concepts and their ability to transfer those ideas and concepts to other
contexts.
There is a link between this objective and developing deeper understandings of the self and
the world. By encouraging our students to adopt a critical framework, we prepare them not
only to engage in scholarly conversation and debate in our disciplines, but also to be engaged
citizens in a democratic society. As Patricia King points out,
"a student who appreciates why people approach controversial issues in her discipline
from different perspectives is more likely to see and appreciate the reasons people approach
56
social controversies from different perspectives. By the same token, a student who evaluates
knowledge claims in his major by reference to the strength of the evidence in support of
conflicting hypotheses would also be more inclined to evaluate contradictory claims about
current moral issues by reference to the weight of available evidence (5, p. 23).
The ability to weigh alternatives, make decisions, and evaluate contradictory evidence is
crucial to scholastic endeavors and adult life more generally—to personal happiness,
professional success, and civic engagement.
To achieve this and related objectives, instruction must incorporate intellectual challenge and
activity; opportunities for creative or original work; finding and using information and
translating that information into coherent communication; and opportunities to produce
original work rather than simply recalling information. This is supported by IDEA research
finding that instructors stressing this objective frequently stimulate students to intellectual
effort (#8), introduce stimulating ideas about the subject (#13), ask students to share ideas
(#16), and assign work that requires original or creative thinking (#19). For additional
information about this objective, see IDEA Paper #37 Helping Your Students Develop
Critical Thinking Methods.
Assessment Issues
To teach critical evaluation, we must define critical thinking in general and in the discipline,
model habits of disciplinary thought, engage students in activities that require sophisticated
thinking, and design assessments that call on students to demonstrate thinking Methods.
Instructional assignments and activities that promote critical thinking have to do more than
present information and ask for recall. Rather, they must ask students to demonstrate their
thinking, including their analysis and critical evaluation of ideas, arguments, and points of
view. These assignments ask students to do more than reproduce what they know; they ask
them to produce new knowledge.
Angelo and Cross (7) offer many techniques for assessing critical thinking, problem solving,
analysis, and related Methods. Echoing and expanding on their ideas, we make the following
suggestions:
* Design a textassignment that asks students to test a critic’s ideas (or an everyday
assumption) against a primary text or texts.
* Ask students to apply a theory they’ve learned in a social science class by designing an
experiment to test the theory. Have them carry out the experiment
and document the results.
* Design a textassignment that prompts students to position themselves within a scholarly or
real-life debate.
* Ask students to review a scientific paper, assessing the evidence the authors use and how
they use it.
* Allow students to choose a current political issue relevant to a community to which they are
attached. Have them research both major parties’ point of view
on this issue and critically analyze them. As a textassignment or project, ask students to
agree with one major party’s stand on this issue and justify their choice.
* Have students use a double-entry journal for reflection and self-assessment of this learning
objective, using guided questioning. The journal helps faculty
to assess the affective domain, and helps students through possible “road
blocks” in the process of learning to analyze and critically evaluate ideas, arguments, and
points of view. It also reinforces that this process is
57
ongoing, not just an assignment for a class. Sample guided questions include: What
happened (when you analyzed and critically evaluated ideas, arguments, and points of
view)? What was your reaction as you went through this process? What did you learn about
yourself? How can you apply what you learned to your education or your life?
* Construct a rubric (i.e. scoring guide) to provide guidelines for critical analysis and
evaluation so students know what to expect when they are assessed.
Assessment Issues
To teach critical evaluation, we must define critical thinking in general and in the discipline,
model habits of disciplinary thought, engage students in activities that require sophisticated
thinking, and design assessments that call on students to demonstrate thinking Methods.
Instructional assignments and activities that promote critical thinking have to do more than
present information and ask for recall. Rather, they must ask students to demonstrate their
thinking, including their analysis and critical evaluation of ideas, arguments, and points of
view. These assignments ask students to do more than reproduce what they know; they ask
them to produce new knowledge.
Angelo and Cross (7) offer many techniques for assessing critical thinking, problem solving,
analysis, and related Methods. Echoing and expanding on their ideas, we make the following
suggestions:
* Design a textassignment that asks students to test a critic’s ideas (or an everyday
assumption) against a primary text or texts.
* Ask students to apply a theory they’ve learned in a social science class by designing an
experiment to test the theory. Have them carry out the experiment
and document the results.
* Design a textassignment that prompts students to position themselves within a scholarly or
real-life debate.
* Ask students to review a scientific paper, assessing the evidence the authors use and how
they use it.
* Allow students to choose a current political issue relevant to a community to which they are
attached. Have them research both major parties’ point of view
on this issue and critically analyze them. As a textassignment or project, ask students to
agree with one major party’s stand on this issue and justify their choice.
* Have students use a double-entry journal for reflection and self-assessment of this learning
objective, using guided questioning. The journal helps faculty
to assess the affective domain, and helps students through possible “road
blocks” in the process of learning to analyze and critically evaluate ideas, arguments, and
points of view. It also reinforces that this process is
ongoing, not just an assignment for a class. Sample guided questions include: What
happened (when you analyzed and critically evaluated ideas, arguments, and points of
view)? What was your reaction as you went through this process? What did you learn about
yourself? How can you apply what you learned to your education or your life?
* Construct a rubric (i.e. scoring guide) to provide guidelines for critical analysis and
evaluation so students know what to expect when they are assessed.
5.4 Open and Closed Ended Questions
58
Open-Ended vs. Closed-Ended Questions
Summary: Open-ended questions prompt people to answer with sentences, lists, and stories.
Closed-ended questions limit possible answers.
Introduction
When conducting usability studies or field studies, it’s a great idea to ask lots of open-ended
questions. Typically, researchers ask questions before, during, and after research sessions. It’s
easy to focus on what you want to know rather than on how you ask, but the way you ask
questions matters a lot in terms of what and how much you can discover. You can learn
unexpected and important things with this easy technique.
Definition
Open-ended questions are questions that allow someone to give a free-form answer.
Closed-ended questions can be answered with “Yes” or “No,” or they have a limited set of
possible answers (such as: A, B, C, or All of the Above).
Closed-ended questions are often good for surveys, because you get higher response rates
when users don’t have to type so much. Also, answers to closed-ended questions can easily
be analyzed statistically, which is what you usually want to do with survey data.
However, in one-on-one usability testing, you want to get richer data than what’s provided
from simple yes/no answers. If you test with 5 users, it’s not interesting to report that, say,
60% of users answered “yes” to a certain question. No statistical significance, whatsoever. If
you can get users to talk in depth about a question, however, you can absolutely derive valid
information from 5 users. Not statistical insights, but qualitative insights.
Closed-ended questions stop the conversation and eliminate surprises: What you expect is
what you get. (Choose your favorite ice cream: vanilla, strawberry, or chocolate.) When you
ask closed-ended questions, you may accidentally limit someone’s answers to only the things
you believe to be true. Worse, closed-ended questions can bias people into giving a certain
response. Answers that you suggest can reveal what you are looking for, so people may be
directly or indirectly influenced by the questions. Don’t ask, “Does this make sense?” Ask,
“How does this work?” and listen closely to discover how well the design communicates its
function. Note users’ word choices, because it might help to use their terms in the interface.
Closed questions
Definition
There are two definitions that are used to describe closed questions. A common definition is:
A closed question can be answered with either a single word or a short phrase.
Thus 'How old are you?' and 'Where do you live?' are closed questions. A more limiting
definition that is sometimes used is:
59
A closed question can be answered with either 'yes' or 'no'.
By this definition 'Are you happy?' and 'Is that a knife I see before me?' are closed questions,
whilst 'What time is it?' and 'How old are you?' are not. This causes a problem of how to
classify the short-answer non-yes-or-no questions, which do not fit well with the definition
for open questions. A way of handling this is to define 'yes-no' as a sub-class of the short-
answer closed question.
Using closed questions
Closed questions have the following characteristics:
 They give you facts.

 They are easy to answer.
 They are quick to answer.
 They keep control of the conversation with the questioner.
Open questions
Definition
An open question can be defined thus:
An open question is likely to receive a long answer.
Although any question can receive a long answer, open questions deliberately seek longer
answers, and are the opposite of closed questions.
Using open questions
Open questions have the following characteristics:
 They ask the respondent to think and reflect.

 They will give you opinions and feelings.
 They hand control of the conversation to the respondent.
This makes open questions useful in the following situations:
UNIT 6
CRITICAL THINKING AND ITS APPLICATION
6.1 Interrogating the text
In high school classes, students usually are trained to read for "what the author is saying,"
sometimes pausing to note "symbols," "foreshadowing," "metaphors and similes," and words
that convey "tone." Reading on the college level requires skills to "digest" large amounts of
text into manageable chunks, to extrapolate it, meditate on it, shuttle back and forth between
it and larger contexts.
First, slow down. Students are often deeply surprised by just how slowly it is possible to read
and just how much they discover when they do read slowly. Again, once students discover
the insights that can result from this process, they find it both pleasurable and empowering.
60
The following represents one effective way to break down the close-reading process. These
steps may seem overly mechanical, but they show that reading, at its best, is a recursive
process, a form of discovery that involves going back and back again to the same lines.
1. Paraphrase: This step focuses on what standardized tests call "reading comprehension"
and is intended to make sure that you grasp some basic information about the text at hand.
Who is speaking here, and to whom? What is the setting? What is the topic of the passage
or poem? If a passage is part of a larger text, at what point in the work does it appear?
Especially in works from earlier periods, what forms of grammar or syntax might be
confusing? What words need to be looked up in the dictionary?
2. Observations about language and form: This is where the slowest, closest reading
occurs. It is the step that may be least familiar to you, and many of you may instinctively
try to jump to step three, interpretation. Don't do that. The governing question here is
"How?" How does the passage express or convey meaning? Rather than answer that
question directly, students must first collect observations about language and form. Here
are some details you might look (and listen) for:
o Repetition: Do you recognize any repeated words, phrases, ideas, images, colors, or
sounds? Can you identify any patterns? Does the passage itself repeat something you've
seen elsewhere in the text? What about grammatical and syntactic features (repeated use
of verbs ending in "ing," an abundance of adjectives, mostly short and simple sentences,
lots of long and complex sentences, etc.)?
o Figurative language: Where do you see examples of metaphor, simile, synecdoche,
hyperbole, personification, or other figurative devices? In each case, what gets compared
to what?
o Sound: Read the passage aloud and/or listen to one or more audio versions. Can you hear
any alliteration, rhyme, assonance, consonance? Does the feel of the language change at
any point in the passage and, if so, how?
o Genre: Does the work in question belong to an identifiable genre whose history or
conventions may influence the way we should read it?
o Allusion: Does the passage make reference to another (earlier or contemporary) text, to a
historical event or figure, or to other significant cultural works (paintings, photographs,
etc.)? Timelines and other reference tools may be useful here.
o Ambiguity and difficulty: Are there words or phrases that might be interpreted in a
number of ways, or whose meanings may have changed over time? Does the dictionary
reveal additional meanings or connotations of words that may be relevant? Do you notice
any odd or seemingly irrelevant details (for example, a strange choice of wording, a non
sequitur, or anything else that strikes you as unexpected)? Does your sense of the
meaning change as you move through the passage or poem? Is there anything in the
passage that just doesn't make sense to you?
3. Analysis and interpretation: How does what you observed in Step 2 affect (i.e., deepen,
raise questions about, shift or change) your understanding of the passage? Do you
understand better how the author has conveyed her or his meaning? Do additional
meanings or implications or ambiguities become visible? How about contradictory
meanings – allowing one to begin complicating, even reading against, the overt meaning
of the passage? There are many "right" things to say about a text but also some wrong (or
unsupportable) ones.
4. Generating an analytic or interpretative claim: This step raises the "So what?"
question. Here, you should ask what is the most significant or interesting insight yielded
by the patterns of language and detail you have analyzed? How does that insight change
or enrich your understanding of the passage? By this point, a student should be able to see
61
– and say – something that she didn't see, or saw only partially, the first time through the
passage. If you were to write a paper based on your new interpretative claims, the
evidence used to develop the paper would be drawn from the observations and analysis
generated during Steps 2 and 3.
6.2 Primary and secondary sources
Primary vs. Secondary
For some research projects you may be required to use primary sources. How can you
identify these?
Primary Sources
A primary source provides direct or firsthand evidence about an event, object, person, or
work of art. Primary sources include historical and legal documents, eyewitness accounts,
results of experiments, statistical data, pieces of creative writing, audio and video recordings,
speeches, and art objects. Interviews, surveys, fieldwork, and Internet communications via
email, blogs, listservs, and newsgroups are also primary sources. In the natural and social
sciences, primary sources are often empirical studies—research where an experiment was
performed or a direct observation was made. The results of empirical studies are typically
found in scholarly articles or papers delivered at conferences.
Secondary Sources
Secondary sources describe, discuss, interpret, comment upon, analyze, evaluate, summarize,
and process primary sources. Secondary source materials can be articles in newspapers or
popular magazines, book or movie reviews, or articles found in scholarly journals that discuss
or evaluate someone else's original research.
Primary vs. Secondary Sources
Definitions
Humanities Sciences
Primary  Original, first-hand account of an  Report of scientific
Source event or time period discoveries
 Usually written or made during or  Results of experiments
close to the event or time period  Results of clinical trials
 Original, creative textor works of  Social and political
art science research results
 Factual, not interpretive  Factual, not interpretive
Secondary  Analyzes and interprets primary  Analyzes and interprets

Source sources research results
 Second-hand account of an  Analyzes and interprets
historical event
62
 Interprets creative work scientific discoveries
Examples
Humanities Sciences
Primary  Diaries, journals, and letters  Published results of
Sources  Newspaper and magazine articles research studies
(factual accounts)  Published results of
 Government records (census, scientific experiments
marriage, military)  Published results of clinical
 Photographs, maps, postcards, trials
posters  Proceedings of conferences
 Recorded or transcribed speeches and meetings
 Interviews with participants or
witnesses (e.g., The Civil Right
Movement)
 Interviews with people who lived
during a particular time (e.g.,
genocide in Rwanda)
 Songs, Plays, novels, stories
 Paintings, drawings, and
sculptures
Secondary  Publications about the

 Biographies
Sources significance of research or
 Histories
experiments
 Literary Criticism
 Analysis of a clinical trial
 Book, Art, and Theater Reviews
 Review of the results of
 Newspaper articles that interpret
several experiments or trials
Primary Sources
A primary source provides direct or firsthand evidence about an event, object, person, or
work of art. Primary sources provide the original materials on which other research is based
and enable students and other researchers to get as close as possible to what actually
happened during a particular event or time period. Published materials can be viewed as
primary resources if they come from the time period that is being discussed, and were written
or produced by someone with firsthand experience of the event. Often primary sources
reflect the individual viewpoint of a participant or observer. Primary sources can be written
or non-written (sound, pictures, artifacts, etc.). In scientific research, primary sources present
original thinking, report on discoveries, or share new information.
Examples of primary sources:
 Autobiographies and memoirs

 Diaries, personal letters, and correspondence
 Interviews, surveys, and fieldwork
63
 Internet communications on email, blogs, listservs, and newsgroups
 Photographs, drawings, and posters
 Works of art and literature
 Books, magazine and newspaper articles and ads published at the time
 Public opinion polls
 Speeches and oral histories
 Original documents (birth certificates, property deeds, trial transcripts)
 Research data, such as census statistics
 Official and unofficial records of organizations and government agencies
 Artifacts of all kinds, such as tools, coins, clothing, furniture, etc.
 Audio recordings, DVDs, and video recordings
 Government documents (reports, bills, proclamations, hearings, etc.)
 Patents
 Technical reports
 Scientific journal articles reporting experimental research results
Secondary Sources
Secondary sources describe, discuss, interpret, comment upon, analyze, evaluate, summarize,
and process primary sources. A secondary source is generally one or more steps removed
from the event or time period and are written or produced after the fact with the benefit of
hindsight. Secondary sources often lack the freshness and immediacy of the original
material. On occasion, secondary sources will collect, organize, and repackage primary
source information to increase usability and speed of delivery, such as an online
encyclopedia. Like primary sources, secondary materials can be written or non-written
(sound, pictures, movies, etc.).
Examples of secondary sources:
 Bibliographies
 Biographical works
 Reference books, including dictionaries, encyclopedias, and atlases
 Articles from magazines, journals, and newspapers after the event
 Literature reviews and review articles (e.g., movie reviews, book reviews)
 History books and other popular or scholarly books
 Works of criticism and interpretation
 Commentaries and treatises
 Textbooks
 Indexes and abstracts
The main characteristics of "good academic Text"
What is "academic Text?"
First of all, we must define what "academic Text" is to identify its features. Jordan (1999, p.
8) states that "academic writing" must be written in a proper formal style. Hamp-Lyons and
Poole (2006, p. 16-17) also define "academic writing" in terms of formality. They state that
academic text is a formal piece of paper for which credit has to be given to the writer and that
the work will contain specific grammatical patterns, organization and argument. They outline
the formality of academic text suggesting it comes from its readers who must be academics.
Its contents that must be a serious thought and it should be constructed using a variety of
64
complex grammatical structures which have no errors. The vocabulary utilized should be
varied and of a technical level appropriate to the subject matter. This will be discussed further
in Section 3.
Moreover, Anderson and Poole (2001, p. 9) focus on defining the problem in academic
writing. They assert that the first step must be to define the problem which involves
determining what is being asked in the question or the title.
As mentioned before, I can summarize that Academic text can be defined as the way that we
express our ideas, knowledge and information clearly in terms of discussing an academic
problem. It must address a topic or title clearly. It has some characteristics that must be
addressed in the text such as accuracy, organization, argument, coherence, cohesion,
appropriateness and referencing. These characteristics help the reader to understand the
academic problem in a crucial way by discussing many points of view relating to it.
3. The main characteristics of "good academic writing"
There are many characteristics of "good academic writing". Many researchers such as
Anderson and Poole (2001), Jordan (1986, 1999), Hamp-Lyons and Heasley (2006), Treciak
(2000), Greetham (2001), Brown and Hood (1998) and Carter (1999) discuss those features
in different ways. I have outlined the main characteristics under the following sub-headings:
3.1. Organisation
When we talk about organization in academic writing, we really need to focus on a clear
introduction, body and conclusion. The progression of ideas and paragraphing must be clear
and supported with examples. We also have to present a reasonable number of alternative
points of view and to achieve a sense of argumentation.
Greetham (2001, p. 182-202) focuses on the importance of the introduction, paragraphs and
conclusion that must be clear and coherent. He thinks that the introduction is a key part in
which the writer must interpret the title or question and tell the readers the map that they are
going to follow through the piece of writing.
He also emphasises that the paragraphs, which are in the main body of the academic writing,
must follow the map the writer outlined in the introduction. He recommends that the writer
should have a topic sentence for each paragraph which gives the reader a brief description
about what is going to follow. Regarding conclusions, Greetham (2001 p. 197) says:
"The opinions you express in the conclusion must reflect the strength and balance of the
arguments that have preceded them in the body of the essay."
Anderson and Poole (2001, p. 17) suggest that we should have an introduction, body and
conclusion. They believe that the introduction has to begin with an obvious statement of the
problem and provide the readers with all essential data that is to follow. Anderson and Poole
(2001, p. 17) argue that the body "should be an attempt at a progressive solution to the
problem stated in the introduction". They believe that the conclusion should present the
results of the investigation and provide a solution to the problem that has been set.
Furthermore, the conclusion can be used to suggest further areas of investigation.
65
Although both Greetham (2001) and Anderson and Poole (2001) generally emphasise the
significance of organization in the academic text at the same level, I strongly agree with
Anderson and Poole especially in terms of having an argument in the body. I feel that
academic textis created to have an argument that must be developed throughout the body
especially at postgraduate humanities level. I also believe that examples play an important
role to convince the readers with your point of view.
3.2. Task achievement /Relevanceto Question (title)
In academic writing, your work must be directly relevant to the title. You have to approach
the task in a direct and efficient way. The development of the argument must be relevant,
accurate and appropriate.
Davies (2008) believes that successful academic text must address a topic or title clearly. He
suggests that writers must be careful what information they include in the essay noting that
"interesting information" may not necessarily be orientated towards the question that is being
asked. When doing a final review of your work, it is important to focus on the relationships
between the ideas that have been discussed.
In addition, online resources can be invaluable in order to provide excellent definitions of key
words such as analyse, define, criticize, discuss, describe, explain, justify, illustrate and many
more.
3.3. Accuracy
In accuracy, we have to have high standards of grammar, word choice, vocabulary, spelling
and punctuation.
Brown and Hood (1998, pp. 26-34) believe that spelling and punctuation are textsub-
Methods. Therefore, they provide many examples, exercises and strategies to avoid having
mistakes that generally cause confusion. For example, the use of comma in the following
statements changes the meaning as shown below:
"1.The passengers, who travelled early, were killed in the accident. (It means all passengers)
2. The passengers who travelled early were killed in the accident. (It means only some
passengers)'' (Altakhaineh, 2008, p. 135).
In addition, Jordan (1986, pp. 10-18) also provides many examples and exercises that reveal
the importance of grammar, vocabulary, spelling and punctuation. The misuse of tenses
changes the meaning and spelling mistakes causes confusion. I do not think it is the reader's
job to guess what words the writer chose. He also distinguishes the differences between some
verbs lead to confusion such as ‘lend' and ‘borrow', ‘rise', ‘arise', ‘raise' and ‘increase', ‘make'
and ‘do' and ‘say' and ‘tell' as a part of taking care of word choice and the use of words.
3.4. Range and style
It is important to show a good range of vocabulary and sentence structures and to avoid
repetition. The message should be clear to follow without effort on the part of the reader by
using a good style.
66
In my experience, the use of limited vocabulary and inadequate sentences structures are a
sign of a writer's weakness. In addition, repetition can appear awkward and inappropriate in
English as compared to some other languages such as Arabic.
In terms of style, Davies (2008) mentions five constituents for "good style" which I have
summarized as follows:
 Be explicit: Although the reader may have a general background in the general
subject it is essential to explicitly state the conclusions.
 Use signposts: These help guide the reader through the text.
 Avoid long sentences: Avoid long and over complicated syntactic structures.
 Avoid long paragraphs: Excessively long paragraphs can have a negative impact on
the reader.
 Don't imagine that the reader knows what you mean: Include clear definitions to
avoid ambiguity.
I think these five features are very important in an academic text because it is not written for
a specific individual but for the benefit of many. It should be written in a way which is
accessible and understandable to people in various academic circles.
3.5. Coherence and cohesion
In an academic context, it is necessary to have good use of linking words to join the ideas
within and between sentences and paragraphs, and an excellent usage of ‘signposting words'
to show the development of your argument. This is called cohesion.
Defining coherence, Carter (1999, p.245) states "A text is perceived as coherent when it
makes consistent sense, with or without the help of devices of cohesion". He defines
cohesion as "the demonstrable pattern of the text's integrity, the marks of its ‘hanging
together'". In other words, coherence implies that the text must make sense and cohesion
means that it must be appropriately structured and interlinked by suitable signposts and
linking words. For instance, ‘In the next section we will...' and ‘As we have argued
previously...' are good examples of signposts. Linking words include ‘moreover', ‘however',
‘therefore' and many others.
3.6. Appropriateness and referencing
The language must be appropriate to the given topic within an academic context. The writers
have to make appropriate use of source texts and of direct and indirect quotations too. They
also have to provide adequate references and/or bibliography details.
Jordan (1986, p. 18) points out the most important features in academic writing. He outlines
them as follows stating that written academic English rarely contains the following:
1. Contractions: ( I do not agree…..) would be used instead of ( I don't agree…); (I am

trying..) instead of ( I'm trying…)
2. Hesitation fillers: (er, um, well, you know,… which are common in spoken English)
3. Familiar language that would be inappropriate in the academic texts:
1. Some phrasal verbs are more suitable used informally:
67
6.5 Definition of evidence
1. 1 a : an outward sign : indication b : something that furnishes proof : testimony;

specifically : something legally submitted to a tribunal to ascertain the truth of a
matter
2. 2 : one who bears witness; especially : one who voluntarily confesses a crime and
testifies for the prosecution against his accomplices
Eight Types of Evidence – Strengths and Weaknesses
Overview: The ability to distinguish sources of evidence allows students to better evaluate
and generate information in support of arguments.
Evidence is a huge component of reasoning and argument. Understanding how evidence

works and how it might be questioned, probed, or attacked, significantly boosts students’
reasoning ability. The following material offers a vocabulary that can operate as a toolkit for
use on any task that requires analysis or generation of evidence.
1. Personal Experience – It happened to you. You know what bronchitis feels like because
you had it last year, and it was terrible.
Strengths – Emotionally intense and relevant, collected by your very own senses.
Weaknesses – The way you interpret your own experiences is very personal and based on
your own expectations and biases. Also, your senses have all sorts of flaws, as does your
memory. You remember events and moments that are bizarre, intense, or otherwise of interest
to you, which is a small sliver of the world around you.
2. Personal Observation – You saw or measured the event. You haven’t had a migraine, but
your mom gets them and you have witnessed how painful and awful they can be.
Strengths – Collected by the senses, scientific measurement techniques can carefully and
cleverly isolate the information you are seeking.
Weaknesses – The same as Personal Experience, scientific measurements can be corrupted

by factors you didn’t anticipate.
3. Testimonial – The experience or observation of someone else; a witness. My friend saw a

guy with pink eye yesterday. He said it was pretty gross.
Strengths – They were there, emotional weight of hearing someone’s story or claim. We
want to believe one another because lying is so dangerous to our social fabric.
Weaknesses – The person might be mistaken (see weaknesses of Personal Experience), lying,
or leaving out important details.
4. Appeal to Authority – The experience or observations of a learned and/or respected

person; an expert. My brother is a doctor and treated a guy with a broken arm. He told me
that broken bones don’t always hurt as much as you would expect.
68
Strengths – This person presumably has a lot of access to information, a depth of experience,
and a professional reputation on the line.
Weaknesses – Same as Testimonial, the person’s expertise could be based on a depth of

experience in field separate from the one we’re dealing with. (See Appeal to Questionable
Authority Fallacy).
5. Case Examples – Historical, literary, or other recorded examples. They could be the
statements of witnesses or experts, or they could be more general events that we cite to
support our claim. War is terrible for soldiers on the ground. You can read all about it in
many Civil War diaries.
Strengths – Same data available to everyone, you can carefully seek out and find examples
that support your claim (see Confirmation Bias), emotional weight of vivid examples.
Weaknesses – Examples might be isolated and/or unrepresentative of “normal” experience

(see Hasty Generalization).
6. Research Studies – Large sample of carefully gathered information scrutinized with

statistical tools and peer-reviewed by other experts.
Strengths – Large samples protect against Hasty Generalizations, the same data is available
to everyone.
Weaknesses – There is a long list of potential pitfalls to good research. They include poor
design, poor data gathering, and poor data analysis. There are conflicting studies which cite
different parts of the same data, and there are weak studies published to push a political
agenda.
7. Analogy – Citing a similar circumstance; if it worked in that ugly situation, it will work in
this ugly situation. If cigarettes give mice cancer, they probably give humans cancer.
Strengths – Much of life follows general rules; if something works in one place, there’s a
pretty good chance it will work in another place.
Weaknesses – Places can be different! You have to look at salient details (a.k.a the details
that actually contribute to whatever it is you are looking at). If a flying squirrel can fall from
a tall building and survive, I should be able to do the same thing. We are both mammals! (See
Bad Analogy Fallacy.)
8. Intuition – Your gut feeling, presumably based on years of experience. It feels true. The
inferences that pop into your head first are likely to be based on intuition rather than research
studies or other types of evidence. If you hear a bump in the night, the weight of your
experience will offer a causal inference, and if that inference isn’t dangerous (“it was just the
wind!”), you will likely just go back to sleep.
Strengths – For most issues, our experience is a good guide to life. We have built a pretty
good picture of the world, and we can generally rely on it to stay consistent. Malcolm
Gladwell explains the power of quick inferences in his book Blink, and Daniel Kahneman
describes it as “fast thinking” in his book Thinking, Fast and Slow.
69
Weaknesses – Your experience is personal and unique. Other people have had different
experiences and will therefore have different gut feelings. There is no way to prove that your
intuition is correct. If people trust it, it’s because you have been right many times in the past
and will therefore trust you to be right again (see Appeal to Questionable Authority). All of
the fallacies and biases that lead us to make weak inferences are relevant here.
Again, this list is adapted from Asking the Right Questions by Neil Browne and Stuart
Keeley, which offers a more in-depth look at each type of evidence. I’ve simplified
and adapted their work to serve as an introduction to students new to this approach.
6.5 Author
An author is narrowly defined as the originator of any written work and can thus also be
described as a writer (with any distinction primarily being an implication that an author is a
writer of one or more major works, such as books or plays). More broadly defined, an author
is "the person who originated or gave existence to anything" and whose authorship
determines responsibility for what was created. [1] The more specific phrase published author
refers to an author (especially but not necessarily of books) whose work has been
independently accepted for publication by a reputable publisher [according to whom?], versus a self-
publishing author or an unpublished one[citation needed] .
Legal significance of authorship
In the copyright laws of various jurisdictions, there is a necessity for little flexibility
regarding what constitutes authorship. The United States Copyright Office, for example,
defines copyright as "a form of protection provided by the laws of the United States (title 17,
U.S. Code) to authors of "original works of authorship". [2] Holding the title of "author" over
any "literary, dramatic, musical, artistic, [or] certain other intellectual works" gives rights to
this person, the owner of the copyright, especially the exclusive right to engage in or
authorize any production or distribution of their work. Any person or entity wishing to use
intellectual property held under copyright must receive permission from the copyright holder
to use this work, and often will be asked to pay for the use of copyrighted material. After a
fixed amount of time, the copyright expires on intellectual work and it enters the public
domain, where it can be used without limit. Copyright laws in many jurisdictions – mostly
following the lead of the United States, in which the entertainment and publishing industries
have very strong lobbying power – have been amended repeatedly since their inception, to
extend the length of this fixed period where the work is exclusively controlled by the
copyright holder. However, copyright is merely the legal reassurance that one owns his/her
work. Technically, someone owns their work from the time it's created. An interesting aspect
of authorship emerges with copyright in that, in many jurisdictions, it can be passed down to
another upon one's death. The person who inherits the copyright is not the author, but enjoys
the same legal benefits.
Questions arise as to the application of copyright law. How does it, for example, apply to the
complex issue of fan fiction? If the media agency responsible for the authorized production
allows material from fans, what is the limit before legal constraints from actors, music, and
other considerations, come into play? As well, how does copyright apply to fan-generated
stories for books? What powers do the original authors, as well as the publishers, have in
regulating or even stopping the fan fiction? This particular sort of case also illustrates how
complex intellectual property law can be, since such fiction may also involved trademark law
70
(e.g. for names of characters in media franchises), likeness rights (such as for actors, or even
entirely fictional entities), fair use rights held by the public (including the right to parody or
satirize), and many other interacting complications. Authors may portion out different rights
they old to different parties, at different times, and for different purposes or uses, such as the
right to adapt a plot into a film, but only with different character names, because the
characters have already been optioned by another company for a television series or a video
game. An author may also not have rights when working under contract that they would
otherwise have, such as when creating a work for hire (e.g., hired to write a city tour guide by
a municipal government that totally owns the copyright to the finished work), or when
writing material using intellectual property owned by others (such as when writing a novel or
screenplay that is a new installment in an already established media franchise).
Philosophical views of the nature of authorship
Mark Twain was a prominent American author in multiple genres including fiction and
journalism during the 19th century.
In literary theory, critics find complications in the term author beyond what constitutes
authorship in a legal setting. In the wake of postmodern literature, critics such as Roland
Barthes and Michel Foucault have examined the role and relevance of authorship to the
meaning or interpretation of a text.
Barthes challenges the idea that a text can be attributed to any single author. He writes, in his
essay "Death of the Author" (1968), that "it is language which speaks, not the author". [3] The
words and language of a text itself determine and expose meaning for Barthes, and not
someone possessing legal responsibility for the process of its production. Every line of
written text is a mere reflection of references from any of a multitude of traditions, or, as
Barthes puts it, "the text is a tissue of quotations drawn from the innumerable centres of
culture"; it is never original.[3] With this, the perspective of the author is removed from the
text, and the limits formerly imposed by the idea of one authorial voice, one ultimate and
universal meaning, are destroyed. The explanation and meaning of a work does not have to
be sought in the one who produced it, "as if it were always in the end, through the more or
less transparent allegory of the fiction, the voice of a single person, the author 'confiding' in
us".[3] The psyche, culture, fanaticism of an author can be disregarded when interpreting a
text, because the words are rich enough themselves with all of the traditions of language. To
expose meanings in a written work without appealing to the celebrity of an author, their
tastes, passions, vices, is, to Barthes, to allow language to speak, rather than author.
Michel Foucault argues in his essay "What is an author?" (1969) that all authors are writers,
but not all writers are authors. He states that "a private letter may have a signatory—it does
not have an author".[4] For a reader to assign the title of author upon any written work is to
attribute certain standards upon the text which, for Foucault, are working in conjunction with
the idea of "the author function".[4] Foucault's author function is the idea that an author exists
only as a function of a written work, a part of its structure, but not necessarily part of the
interpretive process. The author's name "indicates the status of the discourse within a society
and culture", and at one time was used as an anchor for interpreting a text, a practice which
Barthes would argue is not a particularly relevant or valid endeavor.[4]
Expanding upon Foucault's position, Alexander Nehamas writes that Foucault suggests "an
author [...] is whoever can be understood to have produced a particular text as we interpret
it", not necessarily who penned the text. [5] It is this distinction between producing a written
71
work and producing the interpretation or meaning in a written work that both Barthes and
Foucault are interested in. Foucault warns of the risks of keeping the author's name in mind
during interpretation, because it could affect the value and meaning with which one handles
an interpretation.
Literary critics Barthes and Foucault suggest that readers should not rely on or look for the
notion of one overarching voice when interpreting a written work, because of the
complications inherent with a writer's title of "author". They warn of the dangers
interpretations could suffer from when associating the subject of inherently meaningful words
and language with the personality of one authorial voice. Instead, readers should allow a text
to be interpreted in terms of the language as "author".
Relationship with publisher
The author of a work may receive a percentage calculated on a wholesale or a specific price
or a fixed amount on each book sold. Publishers, at times, reduced the risk of this type of
arrangement, by agreeing only to pay this after a certain amount of copies had sold. In
Canada, this practice occurred during the 1890s, but was not commonplace until the 1920s.
Established and successful authors may receive advance payments, set against future
royalties, but this is no longer common practice. Most independent publishers pay royalties as
a percentage of net receipts - how net receipts are calculated varies from publisher to
publisher. Under this arrangement, the author does not pay anything towards the expense of
publication. The costs and financial risk are all carried by the publisher, who will then take
the greatest percentage of the receipts. See Compensation for more.
With commissioned publishing, the publisher makes all the publication arrangements and the
author covers all expenses (today, the practice of authors self-publishing or paying for their
publications is sometimes called vanity publishing, and is looked down upon by many
mainstream publishers, even though it may have been a common and accepted practice in the
past). This type of publisher normally charges a flat fee for arranging publication, offers a
platform for selling, and then takes a percentage of the sale of every copy of a book. The
author receives the rest of the money made. An alternative self-publishing method commonly
adopted is to use a third-party print on demand publishing platform, but this type of platform
creates books that are only available through limited outlets and not through mainstream
distributors and bookshops (CreateSpace, for example, is exclusive to its owner Amazon).
72

Critical Thinking 1.5

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Critical Thinking 1.5

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Critical Thinking 1.5

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CRITICAL THINKING AND REFLECTIVE PRACTICES

B. Ed 1st Semester (New B. Ed 1.5)

KHYBER COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION TO CRITICAL THINKING AND REFLECTIVE PRACTICES

Critical thinking: what is it?

1. Identifying issues requiring the application of thinking skills informed by background

Searches for hidden assumptions;

Judges the rationality of those assumptions; and

Tests the accuracy of those assumptions. (p.203)

For many people this is a natural and instinctive activity.

Reflective Practice is mainly concerned with self-development. It enables:

 future personal growth, and addresses

As such, Reflective Practice is a valuable methodology for:

 using insights and learning from our past,

 human relationships - workplace, romance, parenting, etc

As such, 'Reflective Practice' is a theory by which modern and traditional self-improvement

So we are considering a fundamental human concept.

I am grateful to Linda Lawrence-Wilkes, an expert in Reflective Practice, for collaborating

reflective practice definitions

1.2 The importance of ‘reflection’ for teachers

1.3 Fundamental of Critical thinking

Fundamentals of Critical Thinking

Paul and Elder

• King Solomon – 950 BC

• Didascalion – pedagogical guide of the 12th Century

• Father of the Scientific Method

Critical Thinkers and Theorists in Modern Times

• Critical thinking is “reasonable, reflective thinking focused on deciding what to

Ennis - Actions a learner usually must take in order to think critically

• Judge the credibility of sources

Ennis - Actions a learner usually must take in order to think critically

• Ask appropriate clarifying questions

The essential question…

• What do we need to do as educators to encourage critical thinking?

1.4 Why Critical Thinking Methods

Method #2: Analysis

Method #3: Inference

Method #4: Evaluation

What it Means: Being able to evaluate the credibility of statements or descriptions of a

Method #5: Explanation

Method #6: Self-Regulation

1.5 Critical thinking and the process of Analysis

 All reasoning has a purpose

1. All reasoning has a PURPOSE:

FIGURE SOMETHING OUT, TO SETTLE SOME QUESTION, TO SOLVE SOME

o Take time to clearly and precisely state the question at issue

3. All reasoning is based on

4. All reasoning is done from some

o Identify your point of view

5. All reasoning is based on

DATA, INFORMATION and EVIDENCE:

o Restrict your claims to those supported by the data you have

6. All reasoning is expressed through, and shaped by,

CONCEPTS and IDEAS:

o Identify key concepts and explain them clearly

7. All reasoning contains

INFERENCES or INTERPRETATIONS by which we draw

CONCLUSIONS and give meaning to data:

o Infer only what the evidence implies