Ana Lec Final Term
Ana Lec Final Term
Ana Lec Final Term
ANA LEC FINAL TERM NOTE: if nodes are stiff, rubbery, or challenging to move.
LESSON: THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM This intricate network of lymphatic vessels and organs works If you have a fever,
Topic 1: The Lymphatic System (Lecture) tirelessly Unaccounted-for weight loss, or
Topic 2: Body Defenses and Homeostatic Imbalances (Laboratory) o to defend the body from harmful invaders, Problems with breathing or swallowing.
o Maintaining a delicate balance between immunity and fluid
Topic 1 objectives: regulation. Major Functions: Lymph Nodes
Identify the functions and importance of the lymphatic system in Understanding the lymphatic system's functions and importance Guards the body from foreign objects.
the human body can provide valuable insights into human health and the body's Aids in blood flow between cells and the body's fluid balance, or
Describe the anatomy of the lymphatic system. defense mechanisms against diseases and infections homeostasis
Name the accessory organs of the lymphatic system. Aids in the digestive system's ability to absorb fats and nutrients
A. THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM that are fat-soluble
Pre-activity Through Lymphatic vessels and Capillaries: The system has unique, tiny vessels known as lacteals. These
The lymphatic system plays a significant role in maintaining fluid The lymphatic system carries a fluid called lymph. allow it to absorb fats and nutrients from the intestines that are
balance in the body The lymphatic system carries a fluid called lymph fat-soluble.
o o They work with the capillaries in the small intestine's
Lymphatic vessels are type of blood vessels that carry lymph What are the organs of the lymphatic system? folded surface membrane.
through the body 1. Lymph
o 2. Lymph veins
3. Lymph nodes
Lymph nodes are small, bean-shaped structures that filter lymph The Two Semi-Independent Parts of the Lymphatic System
4. Tonsils 1. Lymphatic vessels
and remove harmful substances
5. Spleen Return fluids to the blood that have escaped from the blood
o
6. Thymus gland
The spleen is the largest organ of the lymphatic system, and it is vascular system.
7. Peyer’s patches in the intestine make up the system Its job is to collect extra tissue fluid, also known as lymph, which
involved in filtering blood and removing damaged blood cells
o is clear water, and transfer it back to the bloodstream.
How the blood and cardiovascular system are connected with the
The thymus gland is involved in the production of digestive Referred to as lymphatics, this system only allows lymph to travel
lymphatic system? in one direction— toward the heart
enzymes.
Both systems use a network of lymphatic capillaries and
lymphatics, which transport essential fluids throughout the body. 2. Lymphoid Tissues and Organs
INTRODUCTION
Eventually, this lymph returns to the blood from where it came.
The lymphatic system is a vital and often overlooked component Phagocytic cells and lymphocytes, which are crucial for the
Our lymphatic system is crucial to our ability to control and body's defense and disease resistance, are housed in the lymphoid
of the human body, serving as a critical part of the immune system
eradicate a vast number of bacteria that can infect our bodies and organs.
and essential for maintaining overall health
lead to sickness and even death in addition to fluid regulation
Comprising a network of lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and It also has a significant impact on the immunological system,
The lymphatic system consists of four organs, fluid balance, and fat and fat-soluble nutrition absorption
various lymphoid organs, this system plays a crucial role in
filtering harmful substances, fighting infections, and facilitating lymph channels, and lymph nodes. As lymph veins remove fluid from body tissues, foreign
fluid balance within the body The spleen, substances can be transported to lymph nodes where immune
thymus gland, system cells can analyze them
OTHER FUNCTIONS vermiform appendix,
Lymphatic vessels transport lymph, a clear fluid containing Peyer's patches are the organ Facts about the Lymphatic System
immune cells, throughout the body,. Swollen Nodes
collecting excess fluid and waste products from tissues In reaction to infection, the lymph nodes expand as a result of an
and returning them to the bloodstream Two Distinct Components: accumulation of lymph fluid, bacteria, or other organisms, as well
Lymph nodes, small bean-shaped structures distributed along the 1. Lymphatic vessel network that is rambling. as immune system cells.
lymphatic vessels, 2. There are several lymphoid organs and tissues dispersed Lymphadenitis, a condition in which lymph nodes get infected,
o act as filters, trapping and removing pathogens, bacteria, throughout the body. is another possibility.
and other foreign particles to activate the body's immune Fluids that have escaped from the blood vascular system are Visit a doctor if your lymph nodes continue to swell, if your skin
response returned to the blood by the lymphatic vessels. feels hard and rubbery, or if you have other symptoms
The lymphatic system also includes key organs such as the Phagocytic cells and lymphocytes
spleen, thymus gland, tonsils, and adenoids, each contributing to B. ANATOMY OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
specific immune functions. Lymphoid Organs: 1. Lymphatic System
o The spleen The immune system includes it. Additionally, it helps the body Is made up of tissues such as lymph nodes, ducts, and vessels.
filters blood , absorb fats and nutrients with a high fat content. Every day, the cardiovascular system leaks about 2 liters of fluid
removes damaged blood cells, and Involves a vast network of vessels that traverses nearly all of our into bodily tissues.
stores platelets tissues in order to permit the circulation of a fluid known as These fluids, or lymph, are collected by a network of vessels.
o the thymus gland lymph. Blood plasma is the source of lymph, a transparent fluid.
plays a crucial role in the development and maturation Example: person AA
of T-cells, essential immune cells that help protect Anyone with swollen glands ought to visit a physician.
against infections if the swelling persists,
ANA101 ( L E C ) |2
2. The Lymph Vessels Because the B cell lymphocytes of the immune system develop Nevertheless, despite these protections, viruses frequently
Create a branching network that reaches the majority of the body's here, it is thought to be a component of the lymphatic system. manage to infiltrate the body.
tissues. In this instance, our immune system can react appropriately
They function in a manner similar to that of blood vessels. 8. Liver of a Fetus thanks to the lymphatic system.
In order to return fluid from the tissues, the lymph vessels Because it aids in the formation of lymphocytes, a fetus' liver is These microorganisms, or pathogens, can be dangerous and even
collaborate with the veins. viewed as a component of the lymphatic system throughout lethal if the immune system is unable to combat them.
When we utilize our muscles, unlike blood, the lymphatic fluid is gestation.
squeezed through the vessels rather than pumped. 9. Peyer’s Patches 4. Waste Removal
The characteristics of the valves and the wall of the lymph vessel Look like tonsils present in the small intestine's wall. Lymph nodes filter lymph to remove foreign particles, pathogens,
aid in regulating the flow of lymph. However, lymphatic tubes Peyer's patches' macrophages are perfectly situated to seize and and cellular debris. This process helps to cleanse the lymph before
have valves inside them, just like veins, to prevent fluid from eliminate germs. it is returned to the bloodstream.
going backward. The Peyer's patches and tonsils are a subset of the Mucosa-
Lymph Associated Lymphatic Tissue (MALT), a group of the tiny Summary
o Drained progressively towards larger vessels until it reaches lymphoid tissues. The lymphatic system is a crucial part of the body's circulatory and
the two main channels, like the lymphatic ducts in our trunk MALT guards against foreign invaders' relentless assault on the immune systems, working to maintain fluid balance, transport immune
upper respiratory and digestive systems. cells, and remove waste and toxins from tissues. Here's a summary of
3. The Lymph Nodes the key points about the lymphatic system:
Lymph nodes are a juncture where vessels branch. C. MAJOR FUNCTIONS The lymphatic system consists of lymphatic vessels, lymph
Despite frequently being called "glands," these structures are not 1. Fluid Balance nodes, lymphatic organs (spleen, thymus, and tonsils), and
real glands because they are not a member of the endocrine Preserves fluid equilibrium. lymphatic tissue scattered throughout the body. Lymphatic
system. It returns extra fluid and proteins from the tissues that the blood vessels are similar to blood vessels but carry a clear fluid called
Immune cells scan the body for alien substances like bacteria, vessels are unable to return. lymph
viruses, or fungi. The fluid, often referred to as interstitial fluid, is found in cavities
The body's tissues include more than only lymphatic tissues. and tissue gaps around cells. The following functions such as
Including: The tiniest blood and lymph capillaries can access these. Fluid Balance: Lymphatic vessels collect excess tissue fluid
o The tonsils The venous capillaries and veins return around 90% of the plasma (interstitial fluid) that leaks out from blood capillaries. This fluid,
o Spleen from arterial blood capillaries that enters tissues. now called lymph, is returned to the bloodstream, preventing
o Thymus gland are also lymphatic tissues. The lymphatics empty the final 10% back into the body. tissue swelling (edema).
About 2 to 3 liters are returned daily. Large proteins in this fluid Immune Response: The lymphatic system transports immune
4. The Tonsils prevent them from traveling through blood arteries. cells, such as lymphocytes and macrophages, which play a crucial
Situated in the mouth's rear. role in defending the body against infections and diseases.
Create antibodies and lymphocytes, a subset of white blood cells. 2. Absorption Waste Removal: Lymph nodes filter lymph to remove foreign
They are in an advantageous position, dangling from a ring that The lymphatic system has specially modified a portion of the gut particles, pathogens, and cellular debris. This process helps to
forms the intersection of the mouth and throat membrane in the small intestine to receive the majority of the fats cleanse the lymph before it is returned to the bloodstream
Allows them to defend against swallowed and inhaled foreign absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract.
objects. The microscopic lacteal cells that are a component of the villi in
Tonsillitis affects the tissues in the tonsils. this area of the intestine.
Inflammation of the tonsils The microscopic folds in the gut's absorbent surface, known as
the villi, produce these projecting projections that resemble
5. The Spleen fingers.
Although it is a lymphoid tissue, it is not similarly related to the By absorbing lipids and fat-soluble vitamins, lacteals create
lymphatic system as lymph nodes are. chyle, a milky-white fluid.
This contributes to the creation of white blood cells, which are a Emulsified fats, or free fatty acids, and lymph are both present in
component of the immune system. this fluid. When it enters the venous blood circulation, it
Its primary function is to filter the blood, removing bacteria as indirectly distributes nutrients.
well as old, damaged red blood cells and platelets. Blood capillaries directly absorb other nutrients.
3. IMMUNE SYSTEM
6. The Thymus Gland Protect the body from harmful organisms; without this, an illness
An endocrine gland and lymphatic organ located behind the would kill us very quickly.
sternum. Our bodies are continually exposed to microbes that could be
It secretes hormones and plays a key role in immunological T cell dangerous,
development, maturation, and differentiation. o Including diseases.
It participates in the immune system's development from The initial line of defense for the body consists of:
conception through childhood o Natural barriers like the skin.
o Toxic defenses, such as the stomach's acidic contents.
7. The Bone Marrow o "Friendly" microorganisms in the body
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LESSON: THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM o Mouth 5. The food is digested in the small intestine
Topic 1: The Digestive System Overview (lecture) o Esophagus It is dissolved by the juices from the pancreas, liver, and
Topic 2: Functions of the Digestive System (lecture) o Stomach intestines
Topic 3: Anatomy of the Digestive System (Laboratory) o Small intestine The contents of the intestine are mixed nad pushed forward
o Large intestine (Colon and rectum to allow further digestion.
Topic objectives: o Anus
Describe the overview of the digestive system Organs that help with digestion, but are not part of the digestive 6. Last, the digested nutrients are absorbed through the intestinal
Explain the digestive work process tract: walls
Name the organs of the digestive tract and other organs that aid
o Tongue The waste products, including undigested parts of the food
o Glands in the mouth that make saliva (fiber) and older cells that have been shed from the lining of
in digestion
o Pancreas the intestine (mucosa) move into the colon.
o Liver Waste products in the colon often remain for a day or two
INTRODUCTION
o Gall bladder until the feces are expelled by a bowel movement
The Digestive System
The organs of the Digestive System can be separated into two main Parts of other organ systems, such as nerves and blood, also play
groups: a major role in the digestive process. The process of food digestion
Forming the alimentary canal
HOW DOES FOOD MOVE THROUGH THE DIGESTIVE
Accessory organs
SYSTEM?
Muscles propel food and liquid along the digestive tract in a
THE ALIMENTARY CANAL
wave-like movement.
Performs the whole menu of digestive functions:
This movement is called peristalsis.
o Ingestion
o Digestion In general there are 6 steps in the process of moving food and
o Absorption liquid through the digestive system:
o Defecation
The accessory organs assist the process of digestive breakdown THE 6 STEPS OF FOOD AND LIQUID MOVED THROUGH
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM:
in various ways:
1. the first step in the digestive process in the mouth
o Teeth
o Tongue this is where food is chewed and broken down into a size
o Several large digestive glands that can be safely swallowed
the start of swallowing food or liquid is voluntary
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM: AN OVERVIEW But once it begins, the process becomes involuntary and
What is digestion? continues under the control of the nerves.
Food and drink must be changed into smaller molecules of
nutrients to be absorbed into the blood and carried to cells 2. The esophagus connects the throat above with the stomach below
throughout the body. It is the first organ into which the swallowed food goes.
It is the process by which food and liquid are broken down into
smaller parts. 3. The esophagus and stomach join. There is a ring-like valve that
The body can then use them to build and nourish cells and to make closes the passage between two (2) orgnas
energy. When food nears the closed ring, the surrounding muscles
relax and allow the food to pass into the stomach
HOW DOES THE DIGESTIVE PROCESS WORK? Then closes again
Digestion involves:
• The mixing of food 4. the food then enters the stomach
• The movement of food through the digestive tract the stomach completes three (3) mechanical tasks: stores,
• A chemical breakdown of large molecules of food into mixes, and empties
smaller molecules first, the stomach stores the swallowed food and
Digestion begins in the mouth, where food and liquids are taken in. liquid. This needs the muscle of the upper part of the
It is completed in the small intestine. stomach to relax and accept large volumes of
swallowed material
What is included in the Digestive System? second, the lower part of the stomach mixes up the
The digestive system is made up of the digestive tract and other food, liquid, and digestive juices made by the stomach
organs that aid in digestion. through muscle action
The digestive tract is series of hollow organs joined in a long, third, the stomach empties the contents into the small
twisting tube from the mouth to the anus. It consist of the intestines.
following:
ANA101 ( L E C ) |4
LESSON: THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 5. Absorption immune system function. Proper digestion helps maintain
Topic 1: The Digestive System Overview (lecture) Transport of digested end products from the lumen of the a healthy balance of gut microbiota.
Topic 2: Functions of the Digestive System (lecture) GI tract to the blood or lymph is absorption In summary, the proper process of digestion is essential for
Topic 3: Anatomy of the Digestive System (Laboratory) For absorption to occur, the digested foods must first enter nutrient absorption, energy production, cellular repair, immune system
the mucosal cells by active or passive transport processes. support, metabolic regulation, waste elimination, and the prevention of
Topic objectives: The small intestine is the major absorptive site. digestive disorders. A healthy digestive system contributes to overall
Identify the major functions of the digestive system 6. Defecation physical well-being and helps maintain a balanced and functional body.
Explain and describe the major functions of the digestive It is the elimination of the indigestible substances from the
system body via the anus in the form of feces.
LESSON: THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM The body’s hormones arouse or bring about their effects on the 5. Blood glucose control
Topic 1: Functions of the Endocrine (Lecture) body’s cells primarily by altering cellular activity. Regulates blood glucose levels and other nutrient levels in
Topic 2: the major organs of the endocrine system (laboratory) o By increasing or decreasing the rate of a normal, or the blood.
Topic 3: other hormone producing organs and tissues of the endocrine usual, metabolic process rather than by stimulating a 6. Immune system regulation
system (lecture) new one. Helps control the production and functions of immune cells.
The precise changes that follow during binding of the specific 7. Reproductive functions control
Topic objectives: hormone and the target cell type: Controls the development and functions of the reproductive
Name the two major mechanisms of actions of hormones 1. Changes in plasma membrane permeability or systems in males and females
Describes the chemistry of hormones electrical state.
Identify the major functions of the endocrine system 2. Synthesis of proteins or certain regulatory molecules
in the cell. LESSON: THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION 3. Activation or inactivation of enzymes. Topic 1: Functions of the Endocrine (Lecture)
The Endocrine System 4. Stimulation of mitosis Topic 2: the major organs of the endocrine system (laboratory)
Compared to other organs of the body, the organs of the endocrine Topic 3: other hormone producing organs and tissues of the
system are small and unimpressive. 1. Steroidal hormone mechanisms endocrine system (lecture)
Diffuse through the plasma membranes of their target cells
Homeostasis depends on the precise regulation of the organs and
organ systems of the body. Once inside the steroid hormone; enters the nucleus Pre-activity
The nervous and endocrine systems are the two major systems Binds to a specific receptor protein-The hormone –receptor Estrogen and progesterone are hormones primarily produced by
responsible for that regulation. complex the testes in males
The regulatory functions of the nervous and endocrine system Binds to specific sites on the cell’s DNA. False. They are primarily produced by the ovaries in
are similar in some respects, but they differ in other important Activating certain genes to transcribe messenger RNA females
ways. (mRNA) then the tRNA Testosterone is a hormone that play a crucial role in the
The nervous system controls the activity of tissues by sending Translated in the cytoplasm, the resulting in the synthesis development of male reproductive tissues and the maintenance of
action potentials along axons, while the endocrine system of new proteins. male secondary sexual characteristics
releases chemical signals into the circulatory system. 2. Non-steroidal hormone mechanisms True
Together they regulate and coordinate the activity of nearly all Protein and peptide hormones are unable to enter the target cells and Melanin, a hormone responsible for skin pigmentation, is
other body structures. instead bind to receptors situated on the target cell’s plasma membrane produced by the thyroid gland
When these systems fail to function properly, homeostasis is not The hormone binds to the membrane receptor False. Melanin is not a hormone, and skin pigmentation is
maintained. Setting off a series of reactions that activates an enzyme, the not regulated by the thyroid gland
enzyme in turn Oxytocin is a hormone that play a role in social bonding, trust,
Failure of some component of the endocrine system to function
Catalyzes a reaction that produces a second messenger and love, and it is often referred to as the “love hormone” or
can result in diseases such as diabetes mellitus or Addison’s
molecule “cuddle hormone”
disease.
Oversees additional intracellular changes that promote the True
typical response of the target cell to the hormone. Growth hormone (GH) stimulates growth and cell reproduction
MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF THE ENDOCRINE GLANDS
and is primarily produced by the adrenal glands.
The Chemistry of Hormones
False. Growth hormone is produced by the pituitary gland.
The key to the incredible power of the endocrine gland is the
1. Water balance Parathyroid hormone (PTH) increases calcium levels in the blood
hormones they produce and secrete.
The main regulatory functions of the endocrine system by promoting its release from bone and reducing calcium
Hormones are chemical substances secreted by cells into the excretion by the kidneys.
extracellular fluids that regulate the metabolic activity of other The endocrine regulates water balance by controlling the
solute concentration of the blood. True
cells in the body. Thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) are hormones produced
1. Almost all hormones are classified chemically as either amino 2. Uterine contractions and milk release
The endocrine system regulates uterine contractions during by the thyroid gland and play a crucial role in regulating
acid-based molecules (protein, peptides and amines) or steroids. metabolism.
2. Steroid hormones (made from cholesterol) include the sex delivery of the newborn and stimulates milk release from
the breast in lactating females True
hormones made by the gonads (ovaries and testes) and the The thyroid gland primarily produces insulin.
hormones produced by the adrenal cortex. 3. Growth, metabolism, and tissues maturation
False. The thyroid gland produces hormones such as
The endocrine system regulates the growth of many tissues,
thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), but insulin is
A. Mechanism of Hormone Action such as bone and muscle, and the rate of metabolism of
produced by the pancreas.
Although the blood borne hormones circulate to all the organs of many tissues which help maintain a normal body
The thyroid gland primarily produces insulin.
the body, a given hormone affects only certain tissue cells or temperature and normal mental functions.
False. The thyroid gland produces hormones such as
organs, to as its target cells or target organs. Maturation of tissues, which result in the development of
thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), but insulin is
The target specific protein receptors must be present on its plasma adult features and adult behavior are also influences by the
produced by the pancreas.
membrane or in its interior, to which that hormone can attach. endocrine system.
The adrenal glands are located just above the kidneys.
The term hormone comes from a Greek word meaning “to 4. Ion regulation True. The adrenal glands are situated on top of each kidney.
arouse” Regulates sodium and potassium (Na, K, Ca) concentrations The pancreas produces glucagon, which raises blood sugar levels.
in the blood.
ANA101 ( L E C ) |6
True. Glucagon is produced by the pancreas and acts to Erythropoietin the bone marrow that stimulates production The blood carries hormones to their target organs.
increase blood glucose levels. of red blood cells Heartbeat rates and the diameter of blood vessels are controlled
The pineal gland produces melatonin, a hormone involved in 6. Kidney by hormones.
regulating sleep-wake cycles. The Active vitamin D3 stimulates active transport of dietary
True. The pineal gland is responsible for the production of calcium across intestinal cell membranes. Lymphatic System
melatonin. Hormones stimulate the production of T-Lymphocytes.
The thymus gland is more active in adulthood than during DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE ENDOCRINE Hormones are involved in the development of the immune system
childhood. SYSTEM in children.
False. The thymus gland is more active during childhood The Embryonic Development Lymph can be a route for hormone transport.
and tends to atrophy with age. The embryonic development of the endocrine glands varies.
The ovaries produce testosterone in females. The pituitary gland is derived from epithelium of the oral cavity Digestive System
False. While the ovaries do produce small amounts of and a neural tissue projection of the hypothalamus. Glucose levels in the blood are controlled by hormones.
testosterone, they primarily produce estrogen and The pineal gland is composed entirely of neural tissue. Excess glucose is stored in the liver as glycogen and is made
progesterone. Develop as little saclike out pocketing of the epithelial lining of available to cells between meals by the combined actions of
The testes produce estrogen in males. the digestive tract. insulin and glucagon.
True. The testes do produce small amounts of estrogen, in The formation of the gonads and the adrenal and parathyroid Hormones also affect digestive activities such as increased
addition to testosterone. gland is much more complex. appetite during puberty caused by higher rates of metabolism.
Excluding pathological excesses and lack of hormones, efficiency
The primary female sex hormones are estrogen and progesterone,
of the endocrine system remains high until old age. Respiratory System
which means men's primary sex hormone is testosterone. However,
Decreasing function of female ovaries at menopause leads to Low levels of oxygen in the blood stimulate hormonal production
women do produce small amounts of this as well. Similarly, men also
osteoporosis, increased chance of heart disease, and possible of red blood cell formation in bone marrow.
produce small amounts of estrogen and progesterone.
mood changes. Red blood cells transport oxygen from the lungs to body cells and
Efficiency of all endocrine glands gradually decreases with aging, carbon dioxide waste from the cells to the lungs.
INTRODUCTION which leads to a generalized increase in incidence of diabetes
The Endocrine System mellitus, immune system depression, and lower metabolic rate. Urinary System
Accessory structures and tissues within the body releases Hormones control kidney function.
hormones including placenta, kidneys, digestive system, and Body Systems Working Together to Maintain Homeostasis Kidneys control body water levels and balances of the
adipose tissue. Integumentary System electrolytes in the blood.
There are several other organs in the body that secrete hormones Melanocyte production in the skin is caused by melanocyte-
although they are not generally thought of as being part of the stimulating hormone from the anterior pituitary gland. Reproductive System
endocrine system. Melanocytes produce melanin causing a darker pigmentation to The sex hormones cause the development of the reproductive
skin for protection against the harmful rays of the sun. structures.
OTHER HORMONE-PRODUCING TISSUES AND ORGANS Androgens activate sebaceous glands; estrogen increases Sex hormones also cause the development of secondary male and
Organs hydration of the skin female sexual characteristics.
Besides the major endocrine organs, pockets of hormone- Sex hormones cause the development of egg cells and sperm
producing cells are found in the walls of the small intestines, Skeletal System cells.
stomach, kidneys, and heart – organs whose chief functions have Calcium concentration in bone is controlled by the hormones
little to do with hormone production. Calcitonin and Parathyroid hormone.
Nerve cells of the hypothalamus function properly due to proper
1. Placenta calcium ion concentration.
Remarkable organ formed temporarily in the uterus of Bones protect the endocrine glands in the brain, pelvis, and chest.
pregnant women.
Its primarily endocrine role is to produce estrogen and Muscular System
progesterone, which maintain pregnancy and ready , breast Hormones caused increase heartbeat rates, which help to increase
for lactation the amount of blood carrying oxygen and nutrients to exercising
2. Stomach muscle cells.
Gastrin is peptide derivatives in the stomach that stimulate Growth hormones cause muscular development.
glands to release HCL
3. Duodenum of the small intestines Nervous System
Intestinal gastrin that inhibits HCL secretion and Nerve cells of the hypothalamus control the secretions of the
gastrointestinal tract mobility pituitary gland.
4. Duodenum Through negative feedback, hormonal levels control the
Secretin stimulates release of bicarbonate-rich juice and in secretions of the hypothalamus.
the liver it increases the release of bile stomach
5. Bone marrow Cardiovascular System
ANA101 ( L E C ) |7
LESSON: THE BLOOD Blood primary function is to transport ,molecules around When endothelial cells are injured, the clotting factors are
Topic 1: functions of the blood the body to support critical metabolic processes. increased and cause blood to clot.
Topic 2: the classification of Blood cells and the composition of plasma All cells require oxygen and glucose to undergo cellular Circulating platelets in the blood arrive at the injury site and
Topic 3: blood cell anatomy and clotting mechanism respiration. form a mesh and plug to coagulate the blood and stop
Tissue cannot survive very long without these two bleeding
Topic objectives: molecules. Wound healing can only begin after this clotting response
name major functions of the blood Disruption of this process is most dangerous to the brain, occurs
describe the functions of blood performs in the body which can survive only about two (2) minutes without
identify the different blood components oxygen and glucose C. Homeostatic functions
Blood is involved in maintaining homeostasis through several ways:
INTRODUCTION Terms to describe oxygen or blood deficiency to tissues in the 1. Temperature regulation
The Human Blood body Occur in part as a result of dilation and constriction of
Blood is uniquely specialized connective tissue in that it consists 1. Ischemia vessels in the blood
of two components: the formed elements of the blood, or the A reversible condition in which a tissue does not 2. Blood pH
blood cells, and the fluid part of the blood or plasma. receive adequate blood supply, usually from an It is regulated variable of the respiratory system because the
The formed elements of the blood are the red blood cells (RBCs) obstructed or ruptured blood vessel pH of blood is directly proportional to the amount of carbon
or erythrocytes, the white blood cells (WBCs) or leukocytes, and 2. Hypoxia dioxide dissolved in blood.
the platelets or thrombocytes. Plasma, a viscous fluid, accounts A state in which the tissue do not receive adequate This makes blood pH an indicator of respiratory
for about 55% of the blood; formed elements make up about 45% oxygen supply, generally due to decreased oxygen homeostasis
of the total volume of blood intake 3. Blood glucose levels
3. Infraction These are regulated by insulin and glucagon secretion
FUNCTIONS OF THE HUMAN BLOOD A usually irreversible condition in which tissues die 4. Blood Volume and Blood pressure
The functions: as a result of prolonged loss of oxygen or blood Directly proportional, regulated variables that are tied to the
Pumped by the heart and carried by blood vessels throughout the body, supply. activity of the heart and fluid retention of the kidney
blood is a complex liquid that performs a number of critical functions. Note: Most tissues can survive in a hypoxic or
These functions relate to maintaining homeostasis ischemic state for few hours before infarction sets in Note:
If any of these variables are too high or too low, severe problems can
1. Blood transports oxygen from the lungs, where it enters the Heart infarction, which often occurs during heart attack, occur. For that reason, a number of complex negative feedback
RBCs, to all cells of the body. Oxygen is needed by the cells for will cause infarction in other tissues as blood is no longer mechanisms exist to keep all variables within homeostatic range,
cellular metabolism. pumped. despite influences from the internal and external environments.
2. Blood also transports carbon dioxide from the cells, where it In addition, to oxygen and glucose, the blood transport
produced as a waste product of cellular metabolism, to the lungs several other important molecules. LESSON: THE BLOOD
to be expelled from the body Carbon dioxide, which travels through the blood mostly as Topic 1: functions of the blood
3. Blood carries nutrients, ions, and water from the digestive tract to bicarbonate is transported from tissue as waste product of Topic 2: the classification of Blood cells and the composition of
all cells of the body. cellular respiration to the lungs during gas exchange. plasma
4. It also transports waste products from the body’s cells to the sweat Many hormones (chemical messenger) also travel through Topic 3: blood cell anatomy and clotting mechanism
glands and kidneys for excretion. the blood as a form of communication between interrelated
5. Blood transports hormones from endocrine glands to target organs, which are involved in homeostatic control. Topic objectives:
organs in the body. Differentiate among the blood components of erythrocytes,
6. It also transports enzymes to body cells to regulate chemical B. Immune system functions leukocytes, and thrombocytes
processes and chemical reactions. White blood cells and antibodies circulate through the blood Describe the physical characteristics and volume of blood in
7. Helps to regulate the water content of cells through its dissolved and destroy any foreign invaders (pathogens) that they adults
sodium ions; thus it plays a role in the process of osmosis. encounter. Describe the specific function of the different classifications of
8. Finally, plays a vital role in protecting the body against foreign Inflammation occurs in blood vessels due to the release of blood cells and the plasma
microorganisms and toxins through its special combat unit cells, inflammatory mediators in the blood.
the leukocytes. This causes vasodilation and redness as other white blood INTRODUCTION
cells are drawn to the region through the bloodstream to The Blood Components
OTHER CRITICAL FUNCTIONS OF THE BLOOD: destroy infectious pathogens Blood contains plasms and blood cells, some of which have
Blood performs many functions critical for sustaining metabolic They may also find molecular markers of pathogens called hemoglobin that makes blood red.
physiologic processes in complex organisms. antigens and take them to lymphatic organs to stimulate The average blood volume in adult is five liters.
It is involved in everything from gas exchange to nutrient powerful adaptive immune system responses. Blood is a fluid technically considered a connective tissue.
transport to immune system and homeostatic functions. The blood also has the ability to undergo clotting in Blood contains red blood cells (RBCs), white blood cells
response to vascular injury such as bleeding. (WBCs), platelets, and other cell fragments, molecules and debris
A. Oxygen and glucose transport Normally a series of clotting and anti-clotting factors are Albumin is the main protein found in plasma, and it functions to
kept in balance through the blood so that no clotting occurs. regulate the colloidal osmotic pressure of blood.
ANA101 ( L E C ) |8
regulating physiological function in the gut and acting It is the thrombin that catalyzes the reaction that fragments
as a neurotransmitter for the brain, spinal cord, and fibrinogen into fibrin.
uterus. Fibrin forms the threads of the clot, which enmesh the blood
Serotonin is the key hormone that stabilizes our cells and platelets seeping from the wound and the bleeding
mood, feelings of well-being, and happiness. stops
This impacts your entire body.
Enables brain cells and other nervous system cells to Tightening of the clot (clot retraction) or syneresis occurs and
communicate with each other hemorrhaging ceases.
8. Lymphocytes After the tissues are repaired, dissolution of the clot or
These are non-granular leukocytes that produce antibodies fibrinolysis occurs.
and are involved in the immune response. Thrombosis these are unwanted clotting caused by masses of
The two common lymphocytes are the T-lymphocytes and cholesterol known as plaque in an unbroken blood vessel.
the B lymphocytes. The clot is called thrombus.
T Lymphocytes Embolus is a piece of blood clot transported by the blood stream
These are responsible for providing cellular can get lodge in a vessel and block off circulation.
immunity, which is effective against intracellular This condition is known as embolism
viruses, fungi, parasites, cancer cells, and foreign
tissue implants.
B Lymphocytes
Produce antibodies and provide humoral immunity,
which is effective against circulating bacterial and
viral infections
9. Thrombocytes or Platelets
These are very small disk-shaped, cellular fragments with a
nucleus.
These are responsible for the clotting mechanism.