Avoiding Thermal Runaway in Lithium-Ion Batteries Using Ultrasound Detection of Early Failure Mechanisms
Avoiding Thermal Runaway in Lithium-Ion Batteries Using Ultrasound Detection of Early Failure Mechanisms
Avoiding Thermal Runaway in Lithium-Ion Batteries Using Ultrasound Detection of Early Failure Mechanisms
H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T
A B S T R A C T
Thermal runaway leading to catastrophic failure has slowed the adoption of lithium-ion batteries, highlighting the need for early warning systems. In this work,
ultrasound is used to detect physical changes in 0.950 Ah Li-ion battery cells by inducing conditions associated with thermal runaway. Ultrasound signal features are
extracted as the batteries are cycled under baseline conditions and subsequently subjected to constant current and voltage overcharges. Two conditions identifying
failure are defined: a warning to detect the start of overcharge and an emergency stop (E-stop), to immediately take the battery out of service. Using changes in
ultrasound signal features, consistent warning and stopping classifications are applied to all failure experiments. On average, a warning notification was issued after
15% of the overcharge time, and an E-stop was triggered after 35% of total overcharge duration before failure. Further testing suggests it is possible to avoid thermal
runaway by reacting to intermediate, warning notifications prior to an immediate E-stop. In other words, not only can detection derived by ultrasound identify
battery failure before a catastrophic event, but can also provide early, actionable warnings so that overcharges can be detected and corrected quickly enough so the
battery does not need to be decommissioned.
1. Introduction energy sources (e.g., solar photovoltaic, wind, tidal) and in the
improvement of energy efficiency of the electric grid, stationary energy
A major challenge of the 21st century is the development of efficient storage systems (ESSs) are critical [1]. The automotive industry, a
and sustainable means of energy conversion, distribution, and storage substantial contributor to CO2 emissions, has experienced continued
on a global scale. To enable the widespread integration of renewable pressure from governments and consumers to move toward
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (J.A. Kowalski).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2022.231423
Received 12 January 2022; Received in revised form 2 April 2022; Accepted 4 April 2022
Available online 23 April 2022
0378-7753/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
M.C. Appleberry et al. Journal of Power Sources 535 (2022) 231423
electrification, replacing gasoline powered engines with electric ones that fall into four main categories: algorithms based on BMS parameters,
[2]. measuring mechanical deformation using creep distance and pressure
While a range of energy storage options exist to meet the afore sensors, temperature measurements, and gas detection [8,24,25]. Many
mentioned services, no single technology (e.g., pumped hydro, electro algorithm-based detection methods estimate state-of-charge (SoC) and
chemical storage) is suitable for all applications [1,3,4]. Electrochemical impedance [26–28], while some employ an equivalent-circuit-model to
energy storage technologies, specifically lithium-ion batteries, have a detect battery failure by observing contrary measurements of a voltage
number of desirable characteristics including high power/energy den response [16,29,30], and some leverage both [31]. However, algo
sity, high round-trip efficiency, rapid response time, and portability rithmic methods that rely on existing voltage, current, and temperature
[5–8]. Recently, these batteries have become the dominant choice due to sensors are cost optimized in practice, but rely on the durability of the
their decreasing costs, high cyclability, and technological maturity [3, BMS. In pursuit of additional sensors for detection, Koch et al. [32]
6]. However, one major hindrance of widespread lithium-ion battery reviewed seven sensors including voltage, gas, smoke, creep distance,
adoption is the possibility of a battery/system failure, particularly fires temperature, pressure, and force of a cell within a module and deter
and explosions, and the dangers and publicity associated with them [2, mined that gas, pressure, and force sensors present the most timely
9]. Battery safety is imperative for the widespread adoption of electric detection warnings, whereas the gas sensor method is able to detect a
vehicles (EVs) to protect consumers. New regulations on EV develop thermal runaway event most consistently. However, this work largely
ment in the United Nations Global Technical Regulation on the Electric observed that each sensor has challenges and disadvantages [32], and
Vehicle Safety specify that a battery system must provide either a the optimal solution highly depends on system design. In addition, it is
warning to allow egress or 5 min prior to the presence of a hazardous not practical or possible to add internal thermometers to many batteries
condition that could lead to thermal runaway to be compliant [10]. already in use that could be used for energy storage in the near term (i.e.,
Thermal runaway events, and ensuing fires and explosions, are the second life systems). Moreover, temperature measurements are not
primary cause of catastrophic lithium-ion battery failure [2,11,12]. reliable because many temperature sensing detection methods do not
Elevated ambient temperature (typically above 80 ◦ C) can trigger account for increasing impedance [26] and the natural temperature rise
additional internal cell heating, leading to a positive feedback cycle, due to aging. Gas sensing is widely applied to various electrochemical
resulting in an uncontrollable exothermic reaction [2,8,13]. The pri energy storage solutions, however initial gas release at around 120%
mary trigger for this type of event is the generation of heat and/or gas SoC is anaerobic with increasing pressure but is difficult to detect [24]. It
within the battery cell, commonly through the decomposition of the is not until a cell vents that this hazardous event may be detected. Such
electrode materials and/or dissociation of the liquid electrolyte, which is methods only detect thermal runaway events in progress and therefore
a flammable carbonate. This can be caused by several factors, including could provide a mere 30 s warning, requiring extremely rapid response
internal and external short circuiting, electrolyte degradation, increased that is often not practical.
cell resistance resulting in cell overheating during higher current use Acoustic propagation changes within a battery as its material prop
conditions, and gas generation resulting from either overcharging, erties change due to cycling and aging. Ultrasound has been used by
overheating, or over discharging and subsequent electrolyte electrolysis many disciplines for material characterization, and has recently shown
[11,12,14]. promise as an additional technique for battery measurements [33–37].
In stationary ESSs, EVs, and consumer electronics devices, internal For example, Davies et al. [35] show how changes in SoC may be
and external short circuit hazards tend to be the most prevalent and detected by differences in ultrasound time of flight. More recently,
cause the majority of thermal runaway events [12,14]. However, the Copley et al. [38] created a model to demonstrate how material changes
propensity for internal short circuits to occur cannot be controlled by during cycling affect ultrasound wave reflection and demonstrated how
electronics or detected in advance with existing technology. Although the measurement of time of flight affects measurements of SoC derived
internal short circuits will not immediately cause thermal runaway, it is by ultrasound. Although most work is focused on detecting SoC and
difficult to detect short circuiting until it is happening, therefore it was state-of-health (SoH) changes [35,39,40], there is preliminary explora
not considered in this work. Gas generation and electrolyte degradation tion of failure mechanisms [36,41]. Since faults are known to occur from
present impending danger and allow other means of thermal runaway. dormant defects that worsen through battery use [42], ultrasound is a
During failure, lithium-ion cells move into a hazardous state as they reasonable approach to detect the accumulation of these defects sooner
evolve flammable gases within the battery, which result in internal than existing detection methods for more than SoC and SoH changes.
pressure and swelling [15]. The main component in a lithium-ion bat In this work, we show that this ultrasound methodology can detect
tery pack responsible for minimizing risks associated with operation is potentially dangerous conditions rapidly after they were experimentally
the Battery Management System (BMS) [16]. A typical BMS has inputs of induced, consistent with venting and accidental overcharge in 0.950 Ah
battery current measurements, voltage sensors at each cell, and tem commercial battery cells, demonstrating the feasibility of generating
perature measurements [17]. As exhibited through repeated, historical, actionable alarms, well in advance of a catastrophic failure. In slightly
catastrophic events, presently used BMSs are not sufficient for reliably more detail, it was demonstrated that two types of alarms could be
detecting battery failure [18–22]. In their review of failure mechanisms generated, an early indication that a battery has entered an abnormal
of lithium-ion batteries, Wang et al. [22] identify causes of notable state and an emergency-stop to register that a battery has entered a
failures since 2010. Other than overheating and short circuiting, com condition almost certain to lead to a catastrophic failure. Both types of
mon battery failures include overcharging of the battery due to BMS indications were generated at times earlier than possible with present
failure in applications ranging from electric scooters, EVs, and aircrafts. technologies.
In addition, defects leading to thermal runaway and venting were
deduced as the cause of a large ESS fire in Arizona, USA, leading to an 2. Materials & methods
explosion from accumulated gases [18].
Presently, mechanical safeguards such as a current interrupt device To collect ultrasound data on cell failure, LG1P-531A, 0.950 Ah
(CID) and safety vents (burst safety disks) to release cell pressure as gas batteries were used for experimentation. Each battery was placed and
builds up are installed in most cells to prevent hazards when other safety centered in an in-house-designed experimental fixture which aligns ul
methods fail. In addition, considerable work to reduce risk involves trasound transducers (NDT, CHG014) on either side of the battery and
altering anode, cathode, and electrolyte chemistries and improving provides sufficient contact pressure between the battery and the ultra
technologies that remove flammable electrolyte entirely such as solid- sound sensor. Approximately ten pounds of force were applied to the
state batteries [23]. transducers via a compression spring (McMaster-Carr, 9657K338).
Active areas of research involve means of detecting battery failure Nominally consistent force was ensured by applying consistent
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M.C. Appleberry et al. Journal of Power Sources 535 (2022) 231423
Table 1 Table 2
Reference cycling profile. Step 1 shows voltage limits for CC charging at Battery Failure Experiment List. Nine failure experiments consisting of over
specified current. Step 2 for all experiments is either CC or CV overcharge. charge conditions were explored. Experiment 10 provided reference for com
Step Description Voltage Current
parison for post-mortem results. The high temperature, CV overcharge
experiment was completed 3 times as it resulted in explosion.
1. Baseline Cycling 2.5 V–4.2 V 0.250 A
2. CC overcharge N/A 0.400 A Test Temperature Overcharge Condition
CV overcharge 5.5 V 5.000 A limit 1 RT, ~23 ◦ C CC overcharge
2 RT, ~23 ◦ C CC overcharge
3 RT, ~23 ◦ C CV overcharge
displacement in each fixture. For each setup, two transducers on oppo 4 RT, ~23 ◦ C CV overcharge
site sides of the battery were used such that one transducer transmits an 5 65 ◦ C CV overcharge
ultrasound wave that is received by the opposite transducer, comprising 6 65 ◦ C CV overcharge
7 65 ◦ C CV overcharge
transmission data. To ensure contact between the battery and transducer 8 65 ◦ C CC overcharge
enabling ultrasound transmission, 1/64th inch Viton rubber (McMaster- 9 65 ◦ C CC overcharge
Carr, 1235N11) with 0.0045 inch adhesive (The 3M Company, 9475LE) 10 RT, ~23 ◦ C None, continuous cycling
on one side was used as a couplant between the face of the transducer
and the surface of the battery to facilitate transmission. The adhesive
cycling data and ultrasound data were synchronized such that each ul
was applied between the Viton rubber and the transducer face. A
trasound capture and temperature had a unique voltage, current,
resistance-based temperature sensor board (Microchip, MCP9808) was
maximum cycle capacity, and SoC. State-of-charge was calculated based
placed on the surface of the battery. Temperature sensors and trans
on total half cycle.
ducers were connected to an in-house, purpose-designed circuit board
that can generate a reliable ultrasound pulse autonomously and collect Charge/Discharge capacity [Ah]
SoC = × 100 (1)
resultant data rapidly. A diagram of the fixture assembly illustrating the Total half cycle capacity [Ah]
components, as well as images of the testing equipment is included in
To induce battery failure, batteries were moved to a VMP3 Biologic
the SI (Figs. S1–S3). Transducer cables were 1 m in length. When an
ultrasound pulse is initiated, signal gain is applied to maximize signal potentiostat to complete either a CC overcharge at 0.4 A without an
upper voltage limit or a constant voltage (CV) overcharge at 5.5 V until
input on the analog-to-digital converter (ADC) on the board. An ultra
sound capture is the average response of 16 bipolar square wave pulses the battery vented (Table 2). Each failure experiment was completed at
either room temperature (RT, ~23 ◦ C) or high temperature (~65 ◦ C) in a
(positive first) with a center frequency of 500 kHz and impulse voltage
of 90 V. After a pulse, the response is collected for ~70 μs, and there is a thermal chamber. During each overcharge experiment, ultrasound
captures were collected every 30 s. A full list of experiments is shown in
20 ms rest between each of the 16 pulses. The average of the pulses is
Table 2.
then filtered with a bandpass filter (300 kHz–1.7 MHz) to reduce low
After ultrasound data were collected during the failure, post-mortem
and high frequency noise.
analysis was performed on each of the cells. Scanning electron micro
The failure experiments consisted of 2 steps: 1) cycling cells under
scopy and electron dispersive x-ray spectroscopy were performed to
normal parameters to establish an ultrasound baseline for at least 30 full
examine the anode and cathode of uncycled and failed batteries to
charge/discharge cycles, and 2) introduction of abnormal conditions via
identify failure mechanisms. Data from Experiment 10 was used to
overcharge until the battery experienced complete failure (e.g., battery
compare failure mechanisms from typical signatures of non-failed
venting, battery explosion). To establish a baseline, batteries were
batteries.
cycled on a Neware BTS4000 series 8-channel 5V6A cycler employing a
In addition to the baseline data collected for each failure (Table 1),
constant current (CC) charge and CC discharge following parameters in
baseline data (step 1) was collected for different temperatures to
Table 1. Baseline cycling was collected at ambient temperature. Since
establish an emperically-derived temperature compensation method for
temperature was measured on the surface of the cells, battery temper
ultrasound. The physical setup was the same; however, the temperature
ature ranged from approximately 18-28 ◦ C. The average battery tem
environment varied. The varying temperature test used a CC charge and
perature was 23 ◦ C. Ultrasound captures were collected every 2 min.
a CC discharge at 0.250 A. The temperatures used were 18 ◦ C, 20 ◦ C, and
Koseoglou et al. [43] observed lithium plating at slower rates, some
22 ◦ C, to establish room temperature behavior, and then 35 ◦ C, 40 ◦ C,
times seen at C/2. To ensure no cell breakdown occurred during baseline
45 ◦ C, 50 ◦ C, and 65 ◦ C, each for three cycles. After 45 ◦ C, 50 ◦ C, and
cycling and to avoid the possibility of lithium plating, the batteries were
65 ◦ C, batteries were cycled at 20 ◦ C.
cycled at ~ C/4. For baseline cycling, 0.250 A was used. Similarly, for
The partial overcharge experiment followed the same cycling profile
CC overcharge, current was below C/2 to ensure progression of cell
as Test 2 from Table 2 (CC overcharge at RT). Baseline data were
overcharge was measured with ultrasound and not fast breakdown due
to extreme heat spikes. collected in the same way. However, the overcharge was stopped before
the battery completely failed as indicated by the ultrasound notification
A capture consisted of the transmission ultrasound signals from a
transducer on one side of the battery and received by another transducer condition determined from the other failure experiments. Failure is
defined as the point at which the battery vents or explodes and is no
on the aligned opposite side of the cell, and so the transducers applied
ultrasound waves perpendicular to battery electrodes. Once all baseline longer capable of holding charge. After the overcharge was stopped, the
battery continued to cycle normally following the baseline procedure (i.
data were collected the cells were moved to an explosion chamber,
where failure was induced. Cycler data included a measure of time e., voltage limits of 2.5 V and 4.2 V and CC charge and discharge at 0.250
A).
(timestamp and experimental time), cell voltage, current, and capacity.
Ultrasound data included time (timestamp), a transmission ultrasound
3. Results & discussion
capture for ~70 μs, and a temperature measurement. Ultrasound data
were captured every 30 s and cycler data were captured within a
All experimental data are preprocessed so that data statistics are
voltage, current, or time tolerance, and paired based on the nearest
timestamp to be within seconds of each measurement. The currents and examined (e.g., change of SoC while cycling) and outlier signals are
removed (e.g., timing is offset or does not match the other ultrasound
data collection frequency used in this study would lead to a maximum
pulses in the same capture). The ultrasound signals are then examined in
error of 0.1% capacity difference between cycler measurement and ul
the time domain and different transformed domains (i.e., Fourier
trasound signal. Once all data were collected, the timestamps of the
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M.C. Appleberry et al. Journal of Power Sources 535 (2022) 231423
4
M.C. Appleberry et al. Journal of Power Sources 535 (2022) 231423
baseline cycling data. Popp et al. [44] display that temperature differ
ences in ultrasound create different frequency responses between 0 ◦ C
and 45 ◦ C. They observe that temperature often becomes a dominant
effect over frequency shifts due to SoC changes. Temperature differences
can also alter and even reverse the relationships between SoC, ampli
tude, and time of flight. Since temperature impacts ultrasound mea
surements and five failure experiments are performed in a high
temperature chamber, the signal features are corrected such that the
changes in ultrasound features are temperature compensated. To
develop a database to support compensation for high temperature at
some voltages, a cell is cycled for 3 full cycles using baseline cycling
protocol at 18 ◦ C, 20 ◦ C, and 22 ◦ C, and then is moved to an oven to cycle
at five elevated temperatures: 35 ◦ C, 40 ◦ C, 45 ◦ C, 50 ◦ C, and 65 ◦ C. After
45 ◦ C, 50 ◦ C, and 65 ◦ C, the batteries are cycled again at 20 ◦ C to
determine if any degradation occurred during elevated temperature
cycling (Figs. S4 and S5). All batteries reached thermal equilibrium
before cycling. The specific algorithm for temperature correction is
described in the Supplementary Information.
The introduction of abnormal conditions based on the cycler mea
surements of current and voltage is designated as overcharge beginning
and is the earliest time the signal should deviate from normal as a result
of cell degradation. Therefore, to minimize the number of false positive
reports, only feature changes that occur after the beginning of over
charge are considered candidates of failure detection signals. To analyze
the changes in the features, two metrics of the baseline data are
compared to the overcharge data:
1. Deviation from the mean by 3.5 standard deviations: The mean and
standard deviation are calculated for all baseline data prior to
overcharge. Magnitude change of a feature by 3.5 standard de
viations from the mean is outside all reference data and is noted as a
criterion for initial alarm/warning during overcharge (99.98% of
data is within 3.5 standard deviations from the baseline mean).
2. Deviation from the mean by 10 standard deviations: Magnitude
change of a feature by 10 standard deviations from the mean is
outside all baseline data and is noted as a criterion for an emergency
stop during overcharge.
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M.C. Appleberry et al. Journal of Power Sources 535 (2022) 231423
Table 3
Failure Detection Times. Summary of each experiment and the response time for the warning and E-stop compared to the total time of failure. Warning before failure
time indicates the amount of time between catastrophic failure event and ultrasound warning detected. E-stop before failure time indicates the amount of time prior to
catastrophic failure. The Global Technical Regulation on Electric Vehicle Safety requires a 5 min warning of battery failure [10].
Experiment Induced Failure Warning before failure E-Stop before failure Time from overcharge to failure
1 RT(~23 ◦ C), CC-overcharge 124 min (81%) 54 min (35%) 154 min
2 RT(~23 ◦ C), CC-overcharge 90 min (66%) 90 min (66%) 136 min
3 RT(~23 ◦ C), CV-overcharge 93 min (93%) 92 min (92%) 100 min
4 RT(~23 ◦ C), CV-overcharge 348 min (99%) 347 min (99%) 352 min
5 65 ◦ C, CV-overcharge 21 min (84%) 15 min (60%) 25 min
6 65 ◦ C, CV-overcharge 20 min (65%) 19 min (61%) 31 min
7 65 ◦ C, CV-overcharge 12 min (75%) 4 min (25%) 16 min
8 65 ◦ C, CC-overcharge 76 min (50%) 58 min (38%) 151 min
9 65 ◦ C, CC-overcharge 285 min (99%) 139 min (48%) 289 min
During Experiment 5, the signal changes immediately resulting in a overcharge time is much shorter. The E-stop issued for the CV failure at
warning notification 19 min before battery failure. As the battery con high temperature is 60% of the total overcharge time. Table 3 displays
tinues to degrade, the E-stop threshold is reached 10 min before battery all experiment warning and E-stop threshold times. The voltage, tem
failure. The interaction between ultrasound energy and gas generation perature, and three ultrasound features for all other battery failures are
within a cell may be related to that of gas bubbles, well-studied in the shown in the supporting information (Figs. S6–S12).
ultrasound field [45–49]. Bubbles lead to increased time of flight of Overcharge duration is proportionally different for distinct induced
ultrasound across the cell (observed in many failure figures, failure types. For example, 65 ◦ C, CV-overcharge failure experiments
Figs. S6–S12). Gas-induced battery swelling can also lead to an increase occur an order of magnitude faster than RT, CV-overcharge experiments.
in time of flight. However, more overwhelmingly, the presence of gas Still, within similar induced failure types, the time from overcharge to
bubbles causes significant scattering of ultrasound, and the amplitude of failure differs between cells. Since cells were cycled under similar con
the signals is significantly reduced [45,46]. The scattering and attenu ditions, the disparity is likely due to manufacturing differences. Despite
ation may increase due to bubble resonance [49] as bubbles increase in the difference in overall overcharge time, the ultrasound detection
size, which can explain the rapid decline in signal amplitude observed as consistently identified failure conditions.
batteries approach catastrophic failure. Post-mortem analyses are performed on baseline cycled batteries and
High temperature, CV overcharge is the only method that leads to an failed batteries to evaluate the difference in physical states caused by
explosion in this work. Although the detection time for the CV failure is induced failure. The results are compared with those found in ESS fail
much closer to the failure event compared to the RT failures, the total ures, as both are believed to be caused by electrolyte decomposition.
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M.C. Appleberry et al. Journal of Power Sources 535 (2022) 231423
Fig. 5. SEM Baseline Comparison to Overcharge. SEM images of the anode (top) and cathode (bottom) of cells before (left) and after (right) a battery failure. The
anode (A) and cathode (C) of a battery only undergo baseline operation, 30 cycles of a constant current charge/discharge at 0.250 A without overcharging
(Experiment 10), compared to the anode after a CV overcharge (B, Experiment 6) and the cathode after a CC overcharge (D, Experiment 8).
Fig. 6. EDX Baseline Comparison to Overcharge. Fluorine (top) and oxygen (bottom) content as determined by EDX of cells before (left) and after (right) a battery
failure. The fluorine (A) and oxygen (C) content of the anode after baseline cycling (Experiment 10) compared to the fluorine (B) and oxygen (D) content of the anode
of a cell after a CV overcharge (Experiment 6).
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M.C. Appleberry et al. Journal of Power Sources 535 (2022) 231423
These comparisons demonstrate strong similarities and suggest that the [53], coats the conductive graphite throughout the sample, showing
experiments are a good model for the in-field failures. Specifically, physical indication of cell failure compared to the baseline cycled
scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is used to view surface morphology sample. Clear cracking on the cathode between Fig. 5C and D show the
of the electrodes and solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) deposition, and impact of swift swelling as the battery outgassed quickly [51]. The
energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) is used to determine amount of decomposition products deposited on the surface of the failed
changes in the elemental components on the anode and cathode due to electrodes is significant for the amount of total cycling time, indicating a
electrolyte decomposition. Samples for SEM imaging are taken from the rapid failure for both cathode and anode materials.
center of unrolled electrodes for both new and failed batteries. It is The formation of the SEI layer is further explored through EDX im
assumed that electrodes are uniform for unused batteries, which is ages. Fig. 6 shows the elemental mapping of the anodes after baseline
supported by SEM images across many samples and locations. cycling and after battery failure. Fig. 6A and C are the corresponding
In all experiments, batteries swelled and released gas or swelled elemental compositions for the anode shown in Figs. 5A, 6B and D
before they exploded. Large amounts of swelling are caused by elec correspond to the anode in Fig. 5B. The comparison of the two condi
trolyte degradation leading to gas formation. It is expected that as the tions show evidence of increased deposition of fluorine and oxygen after
battery fails, the pressure caused by swelling due to outgassing leave the overcharge event. Prior to battery failure fluorine (Fig. 6A) and
fractures visible on the cathode [11,15,50,51]. This phenomenon may oxygen (Fig. 6C) mapping is inhomogeneous, but much less dense than
be observed in the differences between SEM images of the electrodes. concentration after CV overcharge (Fig. 6B and D, respectively). Spe
Fig. 5A and C were collected prior to cell failure but after baseline cifically, the spectrum of the new cell electrolyte consists of 60% carbon,
cycling and Fig. 5B and D were collected after CV and CC overcharge, 10% oxygen, and 15% fluorine. After the battery is failed in the high
respectively. There is clear SEI growth on Fig. 5B when compared to 5A temperature overcharge experiments, the EDX spectrum indicates 57%
shown by a coating on the spherical graphite carbon particles [52]. The fluorine, 20% oxygen, and 13% carbon on the surface of the anode. After
SEI, appearing brighter under the microscope since it is non-conductive the battery failure, the relative fluorine abundance has increased by
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M.C. Appleberry et al. Journal of Power Sources 535 (2022) 231423
4. Conclusion
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M.C. Appleberry et al. Journal of Power Sources 535 (2022) 231423
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