Applied Mec - Co.zw

Chapter 1: GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF STATICS
Statics is the study of forces on bodies at rest or in a steady motion. The fundamental principle
of statics is a state of EQUILIBRIUM.
Scalars & Vectors
Quantities used in engineering and science can be divided into two groups:
• Scalar: quantities have a size (or magnitude) only and need no other information to
specify them. Thus, 10 centimetres, 50 seconds, 7 litres and 3 kilograms are all
examples of scalar quantities. Examples of Scalars: Distance, area, volume, speed,
time, mass, energy, power, temperature, electric potential
• Vector: quantities have both a size or magnitude and a direction, called the line of
action of the quantity. Thus, a velocity of 50 kilometres per hour due east, an
acceleration of 9.81 metres per second squared vertically downwards and a force of 15
Newton at an angle of 30 degrees are all examples of vector quantities. Examples of
Vectors: Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, momentum, electric field strength,
magnetic field strength
Forces
A force is simply a push or a pull and may be measured by its effect on a body. A force may
change or tend to change the shape or size of a body; if applied to a body at rest the force will
move or tend to move it; if applied to a body already moving the force will change the motion.
Proper specification of a force requires knowledge of three quantities:
• Its magnitude
• Its point of application
• Its direction (line of action and sense)
When forces are all acting in the same plane, they are called coplanar forces. When forces act
at the same time and at the same point, they are called concurrent forces.
Adding vectors to find the resultant vector
Vectors which act in the same direction or whose directions are exactly opposite to each other
are easy to add together but you must take account of their directions.
Example 1. Two 5N forces acting to the right add together to give a 10N force acting to the
right.
Example 2. A 10N force acting to the right and a 5N force acting to the left add together to give
a 5N force to the right.
Adding vectors which act at 90o to each other
The parallelogram of forces method
A simple procedure for the parallelogram of forces method of vector addition is as follows:
(i) Draw a vector representing one of the forces, using an appropriate scale and in the direction
of its line of action.
(ii) From the tail of this vector and using the same scale draw a vector representing the second
force in the direction of its line of action.
(iii) Complete the parallelogram using the two vectors drawn in (i) and (ii) as two sides of the
parallelogram.
(iv) The resultant force is represented in both magnitude and direction by the vector
corresponding to the diagonal of the parallelogram drawn from the tail of the vectors in (i) and
(ii).
(v) We then use Pythagoras’ theorem and trigonometry to find the resultant of the vectors and
the direction it is acting in.
Example: Two forces of 41N and 60N act at 90o to each other.
STEP 1 – calculate the resultant force R STEP 2 – calculate the angle
Resolving Vectors or resolution of forces
We can resolve a vector into two components at 90o to each other.
For example, we may wish to resolve a velocity of 110 ms -1 acting at an angle of 33o to the
horizontal into its horizontal and vertical components.
Horizontal component (x) Vertical component (y)

• Equilibrium: this is simply defined as a condition of balance.
Conditions for Equilibrium
There are two conditions for equilibrium:

(i) The sum of the forces acting vertically downwards must be equal to the sum of the forces
acting vertically upwards
(ii) The total moment of the forces acting on a beam must be zero; for the total moment to be
zero:
The sum of the clockwise moments about any point must be equal to the sum of the
anticlockwise, or counter-clockwise, moments about that point. This statement is known as the
principle of moments.
Thus, an object is in equilibrium if;
• The resultant force acting on the object is zero.

• The sum of the moments acting on an object must be zero.
Triangle of forces
When an object is in equilibrium the forces acting on it will form a closed triangle.
Example 1) A point (P) upon which all the forces are in equilibrium. We take the three forces
above and keeping the size and direction the same redraw them placing them head to tail with
each other. If the forces are in equilibrium the head of the last forces will meet the tail of the
first forming a closed triangle, see the example below.
Example 2) A point (P) upon which the forces are not in equilibrium. When the forces above are
laid head to tail the head of the last force does not meet back at the tail of the first and so these
forces are not in equilibrium. See below.
These problems can also be solved by resolving any forces acting at an angle into their
horizontal and vertical components. Once you have done this if the forces are in equilibrium
then the sum of all the horizontal forces must equal zero and the sum of all the vertical forces
must also equal zero.
Example 3) A box having a mass of 100 kg is suspended in the air by means of ropes fastened
to the same point on the box. One rope makes an angle of 300 and another rope makes an
angle of 450 with the horizontal. Using triangle of forces principles, find the tension in each
rope.
Force Horizontal component Vertical component
981 981 Cos 270o 981 Sin 270o
T1 T1 Cos 135o T1 Sin 135o
T2 T2 Cos 30o T2 Sin 30o
∑Horizontal components = 0 ∑Vertical components = 0
0 + (- 0.707106T1) + 0.866T2 = 0 … … … (i)
(-981) + 0.707106T1 + 0.5T2 = 0 … … (ii)
Solving simultaneously and substituting for T2 in equation (i)
1.366T2 = 981
(0.866 x 718.16) = 0.707106T1
T2 = = 718.16 N
T1 = = 879.53 N
Summary
(a) To determine the resultant of two coplanar forces acting at a point, four methods are
commonly used. They are: by drawing:
(1) Triangle of forces method, and
(2) Parallelogram of forces method, and by calculation:
(3) Use of cosine and sine rules, and
(4) Resolution of forces
(b) To determine the resultant of more than two coplanar forces acting at a point, two
methods are commonly used. They are: by drawing:
(1) Polygon of forces method, and by calculation:
(2) Resolution of forces
Examples
1.The following coplanar forces are acting at a point, the given angles being measured from the
horizontal: 100 N at 30°, 200 N at 80°, 40 N at −150°, 120 N at −100° and 70 N at −60°.
Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant of the five forces.
2. Four horizontal wires are attached to a telephone pole and exert tensions of 30 N to the
south, 20 N to the east, 50 N to the north-east and 40 N to the north-west. Determine the
resultant force on the pole and its direction. [43.18 N at 38.82° east of north]
3. Four coplanar forces act at a point as shown below. Determine the value and direction of the
resultant.
Total horizontal component,
H = 4 cos 90° + 5 cos 180° + 8 cos 225° + 7 cos 315° = -5.7071
Total vertical component,
V = 4 sin 90° + 5 sin 180° + 8 sin 225° + 7 sin 315° = -6.6066
Hence, resultant,
R= = 8.73 N and θ = tan-1 = tan-1 = 229.18°
4. The following coplanar-concurrent forces act upon a pin joint. 70 kN due East, 100 kN at
450 NE, 400 kN due North, 20 kN at 200 NW and 500 kN at 300 SW. Find analytically the
magnitude and direction of the Resultant of these forces.
5. The equilibrium of the co-planar forces shown in the figure below is maintained by the
unknown forces x and y acting in the plane as shown.
Calculate the magnitude and direction of the forces x and y for the system to remain in
equilibrium
Assuming that all force are directed away from the point of concurrence
Sum of horizontal components: y cos 25 + 100 cos 60 + x cos 100 + 80 cos 170 + 90 cos 230 =
0
y = 95.7 + 0.192 x … … … … (i)
Sum of vertical components: y sin 25 + 100 sin 60 + x sin 100 + 80 sin 170 + 90 sin 230 = 0
y = - 74.8 – 2.33 x … … (ii)
Therefore, 95.7 + 0.192 x = - 74.8 – 2.33 x
x = - 67.6 N (its direction means is pointing towards the point of concurrence)
y = - 74.8 – (2.33 x - 67.6)
= 82.7 N (its direction means is pointing away from the point of concurrence)
6. Four members of a frame structure meet at a joint as shown below. If the joint is in
equilibrium, determine the magnitude of the forces x and y in the members shown.
: 900 Cos 180 + 220 Cos 330 + X Cos 270 + Y Cos 30
190.53 + 0.866Y = 900 …(i)
: 900 Sin 180 + 220 Sin 330 + X Sin 270 + Y Sin 30
0.5Y = 110 + X …(ii)
From the sum of horizontal component
Y= = 819.25 N
Therefore X = = 299.6 N
7. Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant of the vectors shown in Figure.
8. Find the magnitude, direction and position of the resultant of the system of forces shown in
the fig below. The forces act at the four corners of a square of 3 m side.
Force (kN) Vertical component (kN) Moment of vertical component about O (kN m)
20 20 sin 120o = 17.32 0
12 12 sin 270o = -12 0
18 18 sin 315o = -12.73 12.73 x 3 = 38.2
25 25 sin 30o = 12.5 -12.5 x 3 = - 37.5
Totals Y = +5.09 +0.7
Force (kN) Horizontal component (kN) Moment of horizontal component about O (kN m)
20 20 cos 120o = -10 -10 x 3 = -30
12 12 cos 270o = 0 0
18 18 cos 315o = 12.73 0
25 25 cos 30o = 21.65 +21.65 x 3 = 64.95
Totals X = +24.38 +34.95
Therefore R = = = 24.8 kN
tan θ = = = 0.209
θ = tan-1(0.209) = 11o 48’
Thus total moment about O = 0.7 + 34.95 = 35.65 kN m (clockwise). This moment is equal to
that of the resultant force R about O. If d is the perpendicular distance of the line of action of R
from ), then
R x d = total moments = 35.94
i.e d = = 1.44 m
9. Calculate the resultant force on the gusset plate shown in the fig below and the angle made
by its line of action with the vertical. (227 kN; 5o 24’)
10. For the system of forces shown below, calculate (a) the resultant force (b) the angle which
the line of action of the resultant makes with the Ox – axis (c) the total moment about O (d) the point at
which the resultant cuts the Ox-axis. The figure is marked off in 1 m squares. (24.4 kN; 28o 36’; 85.2 kN m; 7.3 m to
the right of O).
11. ABCD is a square, each side being 20 cm and E is the middle point of AB. Forces of 7, 8,
12, 5, 9 and 6 kN act on the lines of directions AB, EC, BC, BD, CA and DE respectively. Find
the magnitude, direction and position of the resultant force.
Solution. The system of the given forces is shown in Fig. 3.13
Magnitude of resultant force
Let ∠BEC = α
We know that
Resolving all the forces horizontally,
ΣH = 8 sin α + 12 + 5 sin 45° – 9 sin 45° – 6 sin α
= (8 × 0.894) + (12) + (5 × 0.707) – (9 × 0.707) – (6 × 0.894) kN
= 10.96 kN ...(i)
And now resolving all the forces vertically,
ΣV = 7 + 8 cos α – 5 cos 45° – 9 cos 45° + 6 cos α
= 7 + (8 × 0.447) – (5 × 0.707) – (9 × 0.707) + (6 × 0.447) kN
= 3.36 kN ...(ii)
We know that magnitude of the resultant force,
Direction of the resultant force
Let θ = Angle, which the resultant force makes with BC i.e., with the horizontal.
Note: Since both the values of ΣH and ΣV are + ve, therefore resultant actual angle of the
resultant force lies between 0° and 90°.
Position of the resultant force
Let x = Perpendicular distance between the point E and the line of action of the resultant force.
Taking moments about *E and equating the same,
11.46 x = (7 × 0) + (8 × 0) + (12 × 10) + (5 × 0.707) + (9 × 0.707) + (6 × 0)
= 129.9
• Moment of a force
The moment (or (Torque)) of a force about a turning point is the force multiplied by the
perpendicular distance to the force from the turning point.
Moments are measured in newton metres (Nm).
Moment = F d, where
• F = the force in Newton (N)

• d = perpendicular distance in metres (m)
Example; A 10N force acts at a perpendicular distance of 0.50m from the turning point. What
is the moment of the force?
Moment = Fd = 10 x 0.50 = 5.0 Nm
The principle of moments
“When an object is in equilibrium the sum of the anticlockwise moments about a turning point
must be equal to the sum of the clockwise moments.”
Sum of anticlockwise moments = sum clockwise moments
Example;
OR
F1 x d1 = F2 x d2 F1 x d1 = (F2 x d2) + (F3 x d3)
Couples
A couple is two equal forces which act in opposite directs on an object but not through the
same point so they produce a turning effect.
The moment (or torque) of a couple is calculated by multiplying the size of one of the force (F)
by the perpendicular distance between the two forces (s).
Examples:
OR
Moment of Couple = Fs
Examples on moments
1. A beam carries a dead load of 200 kg as shown below and it is subject to a vertical force of 2
kN and to an inclined force of 1 kN acting at points shown in the diagram below. The beam is
encastre, i.e. built in to the wall, at each end, and due to the fixing there are moments of 2 kN
m and 1.6 kN m acting in the directions shown. Find the reactions R, L, and H.
Considering the horizontal forces acting on the beam, H = 1 x Cos 60 0 = 0.5 kN
The weight of the 200 kg mass = 1962 N
Taking moments about the right-hand end and equating clockwise moments to anticlockwise
moments.
L x 8 + 1600 = (1000 x Sin600 x 2) + (2000 x 3) + (1962 x 6) + 2000
8L = 21 504.05081 – 1600 = 19 904.05081 N

L = = 2486.5 N = 2.49 kN.
Similarly, taking moments about the left hand end:
R x 8 + 2000 = (1962 x 2) + (2000 x 5) + (1000 x Sin 60 0 x 6) + 1600
8R = 20 720.15242 – 2000 = 18720.15242
R= = 2340.019053 N = 2.34 kN
2. A uniform steel bridge 40 m long and weighing 1.5 MN crosses a river in a single span and is
supported by piers at its ends. A train consisting of locomotives and trucks is crossing the
bridge. The locomotive weighs 850 kN, and is 10 m long and has its center of gravity midway
along its length. The trucks are of total weight 410 kN and extend for 16 m and have their
centre of gravity midway along their length. Find the thrust exerted by each support if the front
of the locomotive is 5 m from the pier it is approaching.
3. A lever ABCD shown below is pivoted at B. if the forces act at A and C as shown, calculate
the value of the force F required to keep the lever in equilibrium.
Vertical component of 100 N = 100 sin 45o = 70.710 678 12

Taking moments about RB
(F sin 60o x 3) = (100 sin 45o x 1.5) + (60 x 1)
(0.866F x 3) = (70.710 678 12 x 1.5) + (60 x 1)
2.598F = 106.066 017 2 + 60 = 166.066 017 2
F= = 64N
4. A bus chassis, 5.4 m long consists of two side members and a number of cross members.
Each side member can be considered as a beam, simply supported at two points A and B, 3. 6
m apart; point A being positioned 0.9 m from the front end of the frame and subjected to the
following concentrated loads.
Engine support (front) 2 kN, engine support (rear) 2.5 kN, gearbox support 0.5 kN and the body
W kN. The distances of these loads from the front end of the frame are 0.6 m, 1.8 m, 2.4 m and
3 m respectively. If the reaction at A is 8.5 kN, determine the magnitude of the support reaction
at B.
Taking moments about RB;
Clockwise moments = anticlockwise moments
(Working in kN)
(8.5 x 3.6) = (W x 1.5) + (0.5 x 2.1) + (2.5 x 2.7) + (2 x 3.9)
30.6 = 1.5 W + 1.05 + 6.75 + 7.8
W = = 10 kN
For equilibrium, sum of upward forces = sum of downward forces
RA + RB = 2 + 2.5 + 0.5 + 10 = 15
RB = 15 – 8.5 = 6.5 kN
5. Calculate the reaction at the support if the beam shown below weighs 650 N and is simply
supported at A and B.
UDL = 129 x 3= 387 N @ 1.5 m from the left hand end.

Taking moments about RA
Clockwise moments = Anti-clockwise moments
(300 x 1.0) + (650 x 3.0) + (700 x 4.0) + (1 300 x 7.0) = (387 x 0.5) + (500 x 2.0) + (R B x
5.0)
300 + 1 950 + 2 800 + 9 100 = 193.5 + 1 000 + 5R B
5RB = 14 150 – 1 193.5
RB = = 2 591.3 N
Equating upward forces to downward forces
RA + RB = 500 + 387 + 300 + 650 + 700 + 1 300
RA = 3 837 – 2 591.3 = 1 245.7 N
6. A beam 10 m long is simply supported 2.5 m from the left hand end and 1.5 m from its right
hand end. Forces of 40 KN and 60 KN are applied at the left and right hand ends respectively
and a uniformly distributed load of 20 KN is applied between the supports. Calculate the
reactions at the supports if the mass of the beam is 10 kg.
UDL = 20 KN x 6 = 120 KN Weight = mg = 10 x 9.81 = 98.1 N
Taking moments about RA, Clockwise moments = anticlockwise moments
(0.0981 x 2.5) + (120 x 3) + (60 x 7.5) = (40 x 2.5) + (R B x 6)
810.245 25 = 100 + 6RB
RB = = 118.3742083 KN = 118.374 KN
Upward forces = downward forces

RA + RB = (40 + 0.0981 + 120 + 60) KN
RA = 220.0981 – 118.3742083 = 101.7238917 KN = 101.724 KN
7. The figure below shows the four main forces L, W, T and D, maintaining a Cessna aircraft in
equilibrium when cruising at a steady speed in straight level flight. There is also a small
vertical force P at the tail plane, sense unknown. If W = 60 kN and T = 10 kN, both acting
through G and the lines of action of L and W are a distance x apart, find the force P required
for equilibrium when x = 100 mm. the forces T and D are opposite and parallel. What value of x
would result in zero tail plane load?
For balance of horizontal and vertical forces (assuming P to act downwards), we have
T = D = 10 x 103 N and L=W+P
Taking moments about G, thereby eliminating T and w, then
Lxx = D x 0.36 + P x 7.8
i.e. (W + P) x 0.1 = 0.36 D + 7.8 P
i.e. (60 x 103 + P) x 0.1 = 0.36 x 10 x 103 + 7.8 P
Therefore P = 312 N
P is positive; therefore, its sense is downwards as assumed. If P is to be zero, then L = w and

the two opposite and parallel forces form a couple. Also, the equal and opposite parallel forces
T and D form a couple causing a nose-up pitching moment on the plane. For balance therefore
the forces L and W must produce a nose-down moment and hence the line of action of L must
lie behind that of W as shown below.
Thus, equating pitching moments
L x x = D x 0.36
i.e. 60 x 103 x x = 10 x 103 x 0.36
Therefore x = 0.06 m or 60 mm
8. The forces which keep an air craft in steady level flight are as shown below; i.e. (i) the weight
W acting at the centre of gravity, G; (ii) the lift L acting vertically upwards through the centre of
pressure, C, 200 mm behind the centre of gravity; (iii) the thrust T acting horizontally forwards;
(iv) the drag or resisting force D acting horizontally backwards, its line of action 800 mm below
that of the thrust; (v) a small vertical balancing force at the tailplane, its line of action being 9
m behind the centre of gravity. In a particular case when W = 12g kN and D = 15 kN, find the
tailplane load in magnitude and direction and the magnitude of the lift. Assuming the position
of the centre of gravity to be fixed, find the tailplane load (a) when the centre of pressure and
centre of gravity coincide, (b) when the line of action of the lift is 200 mm in front of the centre
of gravity. (4.04 kN downwards, 121.64 kN; 1.33 kN downwards; 1.25 kN upwards).
9. Analysis of the loading on a beam shows that it is subject to couples of 5, 10 and 20 kN m
acting in the planes shown below. The beam carries a mass of I Mg which may be assumed to
be supported at a single point 2 m from the right-hand end, and is also subjected to a force of
2 kN inclined at 450 to the beam as shown. Find the vertical force, L, and the magnitude and
directions of the vertical and horizontal forces required at the right-hand end to maintain
equilibrium. (L = 2.71 kN; vertical force = 8.505 kN, and horizontal force = 1.414 kN to the left)
10. The beam shown below is supported by a smooth pin-joint at one end and by a smooth
roller at the other end. There are two-point loads as shown and the loading over a length of 6 m
varies uniformly from 0.2 to 0.4 t/m. neglecting the weight of the beam, find the reactions at
each support. (Pin, 9.4 kN vertically upwards, 1 kN horizontally to the left; Roller, 10.37 kN
vertically upwards)
11. A horizontal line PQRS is 12 m long, where PQ = QR = RS = 4 m. Forces of 1000 N, 1500 N,
1000 N and 500 N act at P, Q, R and S respectively with downward direction. The lines of
action of these forces make angles of 90°, 60°, 45° and 30° respectively with PS. Find the
magnitude, direction and position of the resultant force.
Magnitude of the resultant force
Resolving all the forces horizontally,
ΣH = 1000 cos 90° + 1500 cos 60° + 1000 cos 45° + 500 cos 30° N
= (1000 × 0) + (1500 × 0.5) + (1000 × 0.707) + (500 × 0.866) N
= 1890 N ...(i)
and now resolving all the forces vertically,
ΣV = 1000 sin 90° + 1500 sin 60° + 1000 sin 45° + 500 sin 30° N
= (1000 × 1.0) + (1500 × 0.866) + (1000 × 0.707) + (500 × 0.5) N

= 3256 N ...(ii)
We know that magnitude of the resultant force,
Direction of the resultant force
Let θ = Angle, which the resultant force makes with PS.
Note. Since both the values of ΣH and ΣV are +ve. Therefore, resultant lies between 0° and 90°.
Position of the resultant force
Let x = Distance between P and the line of action of the resultant force.
Now taking moments* of the vertical components of the forces and the resultant force about P,
and equating the same,
3256 x = (1000 × 0) + (1500 × 0.866) 4 + (1000 × 0.707)8 + (500 × 0.5)12
= 13 852
Topic 2: STATICS OF BEAMS: Shear Forces and Bending Moments in Beams
Definition of a Beam
A beam is a bar subject to forces or couples that lie in a plane containing the longitudinal section
of the bar. According to determinacy, a beam may be determinate or indeterminate.
Statically Determinate Beams
Statically determinate beams are those beams in which the reactions of the supports may be
determined by the use of the equations of static equilibrium. The beams shown below are
examples of statically determinate beams.
Statically Indeterminate Beams
If the number of reactions exerted upon a beam exceeds the number of equations in static
equilibrium, the beam is said to be statically indeterminate. In order to solve the reactions of the
beam, the static equations must be supplemented by equations based upon the elastic
deformations of the beam.
Types of Loading
Loads applied to the beam may consist of a concentrated load (load applied at a point), uniform
load, uniformly varying load, or an applied couple or moment. These loads are shown in the
following figures.
CALCULATION OF BEAM SUPORT REACTIONS
SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAMS
Example 1: A beam is loaded as shown in. Determine (a) the force acting on the beam
support at B, (b) the force acting on the beam support at A, neglecting the mass of the
beam.
(a) Taking moments about point A and applying the principle of moments gives:
Clockwise moments = anticlockwise moments
(2 × 0.2) + (7 × 0.5) + (3 × 0.8) kN m = RB × 1.0 m, where RB is the force supporting the
beam at B,
Thus (0.4 + 3.5 + 2.4) kN m=RB × 1.0 m.
RB = = 6.3 kN
(b) For the beam to be in equilibrium, the forces acting upwards must be equal to the forces
acting downwards, thus RA + RB = (2 + 7 + 3) kN = 12 kN
RB = 6.3 kN, thus RA = 12 − 6.3 = 5.7 kN
Example 2: For the beam shown calculate (a) the force acting on support A, (b) distance d,
neglecting any forces arising from the mass of the beam.
(a) From (the forces acting in an upward direction) = (the forces acting in a downward direction)
Hence (RA + 40) N = (10 + 15 + 30) N
RA = 10 + 15 + 30 – 40 = 15 N
(b) Taking moments about the left-hand end of the beam and applying the principle of moments
gives: clockwise moments = anticlockwise moments
(10 × 0.5) + (15 × 2.0) N m+ 30 N × d = (15 × 1.0) + (40 × 2.5) N m i.e. 35 N m + 30 N × d =
115 N m from which, distance, d = (115 − 35) N m/30 N = 2.67 m
SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAMS WITH COUPLES

The procedure adopted here is a simple extension to but it must be remembered that the units of a
couple are in: N m, N mm, kN m, etc., unlike that of a force. The method of calculating reactions
on beams due to couples will now be explained with the aid of worked problems.
Example 1: Determine the end reactions for the simply supported beam of below, which is
subjected to an anti-clockwise couple of 5 N m applied at mid-span.
Taking moments about B:

Now the reaction RA exerts a clockwise moment about B given by: RA × 3 m. Additionally, the
couple of 5 kN m is anti-clockwise and its moment is 5 kN m regardless of where it is placed.
Clockwise moments about B = anti-clockwise moments about B i.e. RA ×3 m = 5 kN m from
which, RA = or RA = 1.667 kN
Resolving forces vertically gives:

Upward forces = downward forces i.e. RA + RB = 0
It should be noted that in the above equation the 5 kN m couple does not appear; this is because
it is a couple and not a force.
RB = −RA = −1.667 kN i.e. RB acts in the opposite direction to RA, so that RB and RA also form
a couple that resists the 5 kN m couple.
Example 2: Determine the end reactions for the simply supported beam of which are
subjected to an anti-clockwise couple of 5 kN m at the point C.
Taking moments about B gives:

RA ×3 m = 5 kN m from which, RA = or RA = 1.667 kN

i.e. RA + RB = 0 from which, RB = −RA = −1.667 kN It should be noted that the answers for the
reactions are the same for Problems 11 and 12, thereby proving by induction that the position of
a couple on a beam, simply supported at its ends, does not affect the values of the reactions.
Example 3: Determine the reactions for the simply supported beam below
Taking moments about B gives:
RA ×4 m+ 8 kN m = 10 kN m + 6 kN m i.e. 4RA = 10 + 6 − 8 = 8 from which, RA = 8/4 = 2 kN

RA + RB = 0 from which, RB = −RA = −2 kN
SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAMS WITH UDL

Example 1: Consider now the simply supported beam carrying a u.d.1. w = 25 kN/m across
the complete span.
Each reaction will therefore take half the applied load, i.e.
R A = R s = = 150 kN
COMBINED CONCENTRATED AND UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOADS

Example 4: Consider the beam loaded with a combination of concentrated loads and
u.d.1.s.
Taking moments about E

(RA x 8) + (40 x 2) = (10 x 2 x 7) + (20 x 6) + (20 x 3) + (10 x 1) + (20 x 3 x 1.5)
8RA + 80 = 420
R A = 42.5 kN ( = S.F. at A)
Now RA + RE = (10 x 2) + 20 + 20 + 10 + (20 x 3) + 40 = 170
RE = 127.5 kN
SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS
Consider a simple beam shown of length L that carries a uniform load of w (N/m) throughout its
length and is held in equilibrium by reactions R1 and R2. Assume that the beam is cut at point C a
distance of x from he left support and the portion of the beam to the right of C be removed. The
portion removed must then be replaced by vertical shearing force V together with a couple M to
hold the left portion of the bar in equilibrium under the action of R1 and Wx.
The couple M is called the resisting moment or moment and the force V is called the resisting
shear or shear. The sign of V and M are taken to be positive if they have the senses indicated
above.
Sign convention for shear forces and bending moments
The shear force at any section is taken as positive if the right-hand side tends to slide
downwards relative to the left-hand side (portion). A negative shear force tends to cause the
right-hand portion to slide upwards relative to the left.
If several loads act on the beam to the right-hand of section C, the shear force at C is the
RESULTANT of these loads. Thus the shear force at any section of a loaded beam is the
algebraic sum of the loads to one side of the section. It does not matter which side of the section
is considered provided all loads on that side are taken into account-including the forces exerted
by fixings and props.
The bending moment/effect at any section X of a concentrated load W at D is measured by the
applied moment Wx, where x is the perpendicular distance of the line of action of W from section
X. this moment is called the bending moment M and is balanced by an equal and opposite
moment exerted by the material of the beam at X, called the moment of resistance.
A bending moment is taken as positive if its effect is to tend to make the beam sag at the section
considered. If the moment tends to make the beam bend upwards (hog) at the section, it is
negative. When more than one load acts on the beam, the bending moment at any section is the
algebraic sum of the moments due to all loads on one side of the section. It does not matter
which side of the section is considered but all loads to that side must be taken into account,
including any moments exerted by fixings.
SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS CASE STUDIES
Write shear and moment equations for the beams in the following problems. In each problem, let
x be the distance measured from left end of the beam. Neglect the mass of the beam in each
problem.
SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAMS
Example 1: Consider the simply supported beam shown below; draw the shear force and
bending moment diagrams, specifying values at all change of loading positions and at
points of zero shear.
The values of the reactions at the ends of the beam may be calculated by applying normal
equilibrium conditions, i.e. by taking moments about F.
Thus RA x 12 = (10 x 10) + (20 x 6) + (30 x 2) - (20 x 8) = 120
RA = 10 kN
For vertical equilibrium, total force up = total load down

RA+RF = 10 + 20 + 30 - 20 = 40
RF= 30kN
At this stage it is advisable to check the value of RF by taking moments about A. Summing up
the forces on either side of X-X we have the result shown below. Using the sign convention listed
above, the shear force at X-X is therefore +20kN, i.e. the resultant force at X-X tending to shear
the beam is 20 kN.
Similarly, Fig. below shows the summation of the moments of the forces at X-X, the resultant
B.M. being 40 kNm.
B.M. at A = 0
B.M. at B = + (10 x 2) = +20kNm
B.M.at C= + (10 x 4) - (10 x 2) = +20kNm
B.M. at D = + (10 x 6) + (20 x 2) - (10 x 4) = +60kNm
B.M. at E = + (30 x 2) = +60kNm
B.M. at F = 0
It may be observed at this stage that the S.F. diagram can be obtained very quickly when
working from the left-hand side, since after plotting the S.F. value at the support all subsequent
steps are in the direction of and equal in magnitude to the applied loads, e.g. 10 kN up at A,
down 10 kN at B, up 20 kN at C, etc., with horizontal lines joining the steps to show that the S.F.
remains constant between points of application of concentrated loads.
OVERHANGING BEAMS
Example 1: Draw the shear force and bending moment diagram for the beam shown below.
From the load diagram:

ΣMB = 0 ΣMD = 0
5RD + 1(30) =3(50) 5RB = 2(50) + 6(30)
RD = 24kN RB = 56kN
Segment AB:
VAB = −30kN MAB = −30xkN⋅m

Segment BC:
VBC = −30+56 MBC= −30x + 56(x−1)
VBC = 26kN MBC = 26x − 56kN⋅m
Segment CD:
VCD = −30 + 56 − 50
VCD = −24kN
MCD = −30x + 56(x − 1) −50(x − 4)
MCD = −30x + 56x − 56 − 50x + 200
MCD = −24x + 144kN⋅m

To draw the Shear Diagram:
• In segment AB, the shear is uniformly distributed over the segment at a magnitude of -30
kN.
• In segment BC, the shear is uniformly distributed at a magnitude of 26 kN.
• In segment CD, the shear is uniformly distributed at a magnitude of -24 kN.
To draw the Moment Diagram:
• The equation MAB = -30x is linear, at x = 0, MAB = 0 and at x = 1 m, MAB = -30 kNm.
• MBC = 26x - 56 is also linear. At x = 1 m, MBC = -30 kNm; at x = 4 m, MBC = 48 kNm.
When MBC = 0, x = 2.154 m, thus the moment is zero at 1.154 m from B.
• MCD = -24x + 144 is again linear. At x = 4 m, MCD = 48 kNm; at x = 6 m, MCD = 0.
Example 2: The beam shown below is simply supported at C and B, and loaded at A and D
by concentrated masses of 1 tonne and 3 tonnes, respectively. Draw the shear force and
bending moment diagrams.
The reaction at B is found by taking moments about C for all loads on the beam i.e. equating
clockwise moments to anticlockwise moments about C. the weight of 1 tonne = 9.8 kN and the
weight of 3 tonnes = 29.4 kN. Thus
(9.8 x 2) + (R x 8) = (29.4 x 6)
R = 19.6 kN
Taking moments about B:

(L x 8) = (29.4 x 2) + (9.8 x 10)
L = 19.6 kN
SIMPLY SUPPOERTED BEAMS WITH UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD
Example 1: the beam shown below carries a UDL over its entire span and is simply
supported at its ends A and C. there is also a point load of 80 kN at B. draw the shear force
and bending moment diagrams for the beam.
ΣMA = 0 ΣMC = 0
10RC = 2(80) + 5[10(10)] 10RA = 8(80) + 5[10(10)]
RC = 66kN RA = 114kN
Segment AB:
VAB =114−10xkN
MAB =114x −10x(x/2)
MAB =114x −5x2kN⋅m
Segment BC:
VBC = 114−80−10x
VBC = 34−10xkN
MBC =114x−80(x − 2)−10x(x/2)
MBC=160 + 34x − 5x2kN⋅m

• For segment AB, VAB = 114 - 10x is linear; at x = 0, VAB = 14 kN; at x = 2 m, VAB = 94
kN.
• VBC = 34 - 10x for segment BC is linear; at x = 2 m, VBC = 14 kN; at x = 10 m, VBC = -66
kN. When VBC = 0, x = 3.4 m thus VBC = 0 at 1.4 m from B.
• MAB = 114x - 5x2 is a second degree curve for segment AB; at x = 0, MAB = 0; at x = 2 m,
MAB = 208 kN·m.
• The moment diagram is also a second degree curve for segment BC given by M BC = 160
+ 34x - 5x2; at x = 2 m, MBC = 208 kN·m; at x = 10 m, MBC = 0.
• Note that the maximum moment occurs at point of zero shear. Thus, at x = 3.4 m, M BC =
217.8 kN·m.
Example 2: ABCD is a simply supported beam with a UDL of 30 kN/m between BC. Draw
the shear force and bending moment diagrams for the beam
ΣMA=0 ΣMD=0
6RD=4[2(30)] 6RA=2[2(30)]
RD=40kN RA=20kN
Segment AB:
VAB=20kN
MAB=20xkN⋅m
Segment BC:
VBC=20−30(x−3)
VBC=110−30xkN
MBC=20x−30(x−3)(x−3)/2
MBC=20x−15(x−3)2kN⋅m
Segment CD:
VCD=20−30(2) MCD=20x−30(2)(x−4)
VCD=−40kN MCD=20x−60(x−4)kN⋅m
• For segment AB, the shear is uniformly distributed at 20 kN.

• VBC = 110 - 30x for segment BC; at x = 3 m, VBC = 20 kN; at x = 5 m, VBC = -40 kN. For
VBC = 0, x = 3.67 m or 0.67 m from B.
• The shear for segment CD is uniformly distributed at -40 kN.
• For AB, MAB = 20x; at x = 0, MAB = 0; at x = 3 m, MAB = 60 kN·m.

• MBC = 20x - 15(x - 3)2 for segment BC is second degree curve; at x = 3 m, MBC = 60
kN·m; at x = 5 m, MBC = 40 kN·m. Note that maximum moment occurred at zero shear;
at x = 3.67 m, MBC = 66.67 kN·m.
• MCD = 20x - 60(x - 4) for segment BC is linear; at x = 5 m, MCD = 40 kN·m; at x = 6 m,
MCD = 0.
Example 3: A beam is loaded with two separate UDLas shown below. Draw the shear
forces and bending moment diagrams for the loading.
ΣMA=0 ΣMD = 0
6RD =1[2(50)] + 5[2(20)] 6RA = 5[2(50)] + 1[2(20)]
RD =50kN RA = 90kN
Segment AB:
VAB=90−50xkN
MAB=90x−50x(x/2)
MAB=90x−25x2kN⋅m
Segment BC:
VBC = 90−50(2)
VBC = −10kN
MBC = 90x−2(50)(x −1)
MBC = −10x + 100kN⋅m
Segment CD:
VCD = 90−2(50)−20(x−4) VCD=−20x+70kN
MCD=90x−2(50)(x−1)−20(x−4)(x−4)/2
MCD=90x −100(x−1)−10(x−4)2
MCD=−10x2+ 70x−60kN⋅m
• VAB = 90 - 50x is linear; at x = 0, VBC = 90 kN; at x = 2 m, VBC = -10 kN. When VAB = 0,
x = 1.8 m.
• VBC = -10 kN along segment BC.
• VCD = -20x + 70 is linear; at x = 4 m, VCD = -10 kN; at x = 6 m, VCD = -50 kN.
• MAB = 90x - 25x2 is second degree; at x = 0, MAB = 0; at x = 1.8 m, MAB = 81 kN·m; at x

= 2 m, MAB = 80 kN·m.
• MBC = -10x + 100 is linear; at x = 2 m, MBC = 80 kN·m; at x = 4 m, MBC = 60 kN·m.
• MCD = -10x2 + 70x - 60; at x = 4 m, MCD = 60 kN·m; at x = 6 m, MCD = 0.
CANTILEVERS BEAMS
Example 1: Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams for the cantilever beam
loaded as shown below. The vertical load of 2 kN at C is partly supported by the force of 3
kN at the prop B. state (a) the reaction at the built-in. (b) the greatest bending moment and
where it occurs (c) where the bending moment is zero.
The net external load = 3 – 2 = 1 upwards. For balance therefore, the vertical reaction at the
built-in end is 1 kN downwards
The bending moment diagram is drawn by making use of the fact that on unloaded portions of
the beam the BM is represented by straight lines. The BM is therefore calculated at the load and
reaction points; the corresponding points on the diagram are then joined by straight lines.
At B, bending moment = -2 x 0.25 = -0.5 kNm
At A, bending moment = -2 x 0.95 + 3 x 0.7 = 0.2 kNm
At C, bending moment = 0 (at the free end)

Example 2: Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams for the cantilever shown
in the diagram below, state the maximum shear force and bending moment. Find also the
positions of the points of contra-flexure.
Topic 3: STATICS OF TRUSSES
A TRUSS is that it is a frame where the joints are assumed to be frictionless and pin-jointed, and
that all external loads are applied to the pin joints as shown below.
A FRAMEWORK is an assembly of bars connected by hinged or pinned joints and intended to
carry loads at the joints only. Examples are bridges, roof trusses and crane gantries etc.
Each hinge joint is assumed to rotate freely without friction; hence all the bars in the frame exert
direct forces only and therefore in tension or compression.
A tensile force is taken as positive and a member carrying tensile load is a TIE.
A compressive load is negative and a member in compression is called a STRUT.
The internal resisting forces in the ties and struts will act in the opposite direction to the
externally applied loads, as shown
Reactions at the supports
Frameworks are generally supported on:
• Roller supports: The line of action of a roller support will be at right angles to the base.
• Hinged supports: The reaction of the hinge can be in any direction but must be governed
by the condition required to maintain the whole structure in equilibrium. If the external
loads are vertical, and the roller reaction is vertical, then the hinge reaction will be
vertical. If the resultant of all the external loads is inclined, then the line of action of the
hinge reaction must pass through the point of intersection of this resultant and the line of
action of the reaction at the roller support.
Determinacy of trusses
• Statically determinate structures are trusses in which reactions and internal forces can
be determined solely by the three static equilibrium equations i.e.
ΣFx = 0 and ΣFy = 0 and ΣM =0
• Statically indeterminate structures are those in which forces in the members cannot be
determined by the methods of static equilibrium alone
NOTE: to determine whether the truss is statically determinate or not we use the following
relationships and calculations
Let J = total number of joints
i = total number of links (bars)
r = minimum number of reactions required for external determinacy/ stability
If i + r = 2J (stable and internally determinate)
i + r > 2J (stable and internally indeterminate)
i + r < 2J (unstable)
METHOD OF JOINTS (A MATHEMATICAL METHOD)

Assumptions
• In this method, all unknown internal member forces are initially assumed to be in tension.
• Next, an imaginary cut is made around a joint that has two or less unknown forces, so
that a free body diagram is obtained for this joint.
• Next, by resolving forces in respective vertical and horizontal directions at the joint, the
unknown forces can be calculated.. Recall that only two equilibrium equations can be
written
ΣFx=0 and ΣFy=0
• To continue the analysis, another joint is selected with two or less unknowns and the
process repeated, remembering that this may only be possible because some of the
unknown member forces have been previously calculated.
• By selecting, in turn, other joints where there are two or less unknown forces, the entire
framework can be analysed.
Example: Solve by the method of joints
Firstly, assuming all unknown members are in tension

Next, make imaginary cuts around the joints, as shown by the circles
Joint 1
Resolving forces horizontally at joint (1): Resolving forces vertically at joint
(1):
Forces to the left = forces to the right Upward forces = downward forces
i.e. F1 cos 30° = F2 cos 60° i.e. 0 = 3 kN+ F1 sin 30° + F2 sin
60°
i.e. 0.866 F1 = 0.5 F2 from which, i.e. 0 = 3 + 0.5 F1 + 0.866 F2
eqn 2
i.e. F1 = 0.577 F2 eqn1
Substituting equation (1) into equation (2) gives:

0 = 3 + 0.5 (0.577 F2) + 0.866 F2
i.e. −3 = 1.1545 F2 from which, i.e. F2 = −2.6 kN (compressive) eqn3
F1 = 0.577(−2.6)
i.e. F1 = −1.5 kN (compressive)
Consider next joint (2), as it now has two or less unknown forces
Resolving horizontally:
Forces to the left = forces to the right i.e. 0 = F1 cos 30° + F3
However, F1 = −1.5 kN, hence, 0 = −1.5 × 0.866 + F3 from which, F3 = 1.30 kN (tensile)
Joint 1
Resolving forces horizontally: Resolving forces vertically:

F1 cos 30° = 4 kN+ F2 cos 60° 0 = F1 sin 30° + F2 sin 60°
i.e. 0.866 F1 = 4 + 0.5 F2 i.e. 0 = 0.5 F1 + 0.866 F2
F1 = 4.619 kN + 0.577 F2 (eqn1) F1 = −1.732 F2 (eqn2)
Equating equations (1) and (2) gives:

4.619 kN + 0.577 F2 = −1.732 F2
i.e. 4.619 = −1.732 F2 − 0.577 F2 = −2.309 F2
Hence F2 =
i.e. F2 = −2 kN (compressive) (eqn3)
F1 = −1.732 × (−2)
i.e. F1 = 3.465 kN (eqn4)
Consider next joint (2), as this joint now has two or less unknown forces
Resolving forces vertically: Resolving forces horizontally:
R1 + F1 sin 30° = 0 or R1 = −F1 sin 30° (eqn5) 0 = F1 cos 30° + F3 or F3 = −F1 cos 30°
(eqn6)
Substituting equation (4) into equation (5) gives: Substituting equation (4) into equation (6)
gives:
R1 = −3.465 × 0.5 F3 = −3.465 × 0.866
i.e. R1 = −1.733 kN (acting downwards) i.e. F3 = −3 kN (compressive) (eqn7)
Consider next joint 3

F2 sin 60° + R2 = 0 F3 + F2 cos 60° + H2 = 0
i.e. R2 = −F2 sin 60° (8) i.e. H2 = −F3 − F2 × 0.5 (4.12)
Substituting equation (3) into equation (8) gives: Substituting eqns (3) and (7) into eqn (9)
gives:
R2 = − (−2) × 0.866 H2 = − (−3) – (−2) × 0.5
i.e. R2 = 1.732 kN (acting upwards) i.e. H2 = 4 kN

As there are no joints with two or less unknown forces, it will be necessary to calculate the
unknown reactions R1 and R2 prior to using the method of joints.
To determine R1, take moments about joint (2):

Clockwise moments about joint (2) = counter-clockwise (or anti-clockwise) moments about joint
(2)
i.e. R1 × 8 m = 4 kN × 6 m+ 3 kN × 4 m + 5 kN×2 m
= 24 + 12 + 10 = 46 kN m
Therefore, R1 = = 5.75 kN
Resolving forces vertically:
Upward forces = downward forces i.e. R1 + R2 = 4 + 3 + 5 = 12 kN
However, R1 = 5.75 kN, from above, hence, 5.75 kN + R2 = 12 kN from which,
R2 = 12 − 5.75 = 6.25 kN
Joint 1

5.75 + F1 sin 30° = 0 0 = F2 + F1 cos 30° i.e. F2 = −F1 cos 30° (eqn11)
i.e. F1 sin 30° = −5.75 Substituting equation (10) into equation (11) gives:
or 0.5 F1 = −5.75 F2 = −F1 cos 30° = −(−11.5) × 0.866
i.e. F1 = −11.5 kN (compressive)(eqn10) i.e. F2 = 9.96 kN (tensile)
Consider joint (2)

R2 + F4 sin 30° = 0 F3 + F4 cos 30° = 0
i.e. R2 + 0.5 F4 = 0 i.e. F3 = −F4 cos 30° (eqn14)
or F4 = (eqn12) Substituting equation (13) into equation (14) gives:
Since R2 = 6.25, F4 = F3 = − (−12.5) × 0.866
i.e. F4 = −12.5 kN (compressive) (eqn13) i.e. F3 = 10.83 kN (tensile)
Consider joint (3)

F6 sin 30° = F1 sin 30° + F5 sin 30° + 4 F1 cos 30° = F5 cos 30° + F6 cos 30°
i.e. F6 = F1 + F5 + 4 (eqn15) i.e. F1 = F5 + F6 (eqn17)
Substituting equation (10) into equation (15) gives: Substituting equation (10) into eqn (17)
gives:
F6 = −11.5 + F5 + 8 (eqn16) −11.5 = F5 + F6 or F6 = −11.5 − F5
(eqn18)
Equating equations (16) and (18) gives:

−11.5 + F5 + 8 = −11.5 − F5 or F5 + F5 = −11.5 + 11.5 – 8 i.e. 2 F5 = −8 from which,
F5 = −4 kN (compressive) (eqn19)

F6 = −11.5 − (−4) i.e. F6 = −7.5 kN (compressive) (eqn20)
Consider joint (4)
Resolving forces horizontally: Resolving forces vertically:

F6 cos 30° = F8 cos 30° 0 = 3 + F6 sin 30° + F7 + F8 sin 30°
i.e. F6 = F8 but from equation (eqn20), i.e. 0 = 3 + 0.5 F6 + F7 + 0.5 F8 (eqn22)
F6 = −7.5 kN Substituting eqns (20) & (21) into eqn (22)
gives:
Hence, F8 = −7.5 kN (compressive) (eqn21) 0 = 3 + 0.5×−7.5 + F7 + 0.5×−7.5
or F7 = −3 + 0.5 × 7.5 + 0.5 × 7.5 = −3 +
7.5 from which, F7 = 4.5 kN (tensile)
(eqn23)
Consider joint (5)
Resolving forces horizontally:

F8 cos 30° + F9 cos 30° = F4 cos 30°
i.e. F8 + F9 = F4 (eqn24)
Substituting equations (21) and (13) into equation (24) gives:
−7.5 + F9 = −12.5
i.e. F9 = −12.5 + 7.5
i.e. F9 = −5 kN (compressive
Example: Find the force acting in all members of the truss shown in Figure T-01.
ΣMD=0 ΣFH=0 ΣMA=0
3AV+50(1) =80(0.75) AH=80 kN 3RD=50(2)+80(0.75)
AV=3.33 kN RD=53.33 kN
At joint A
ΣFV=0 ΣFH=0
3/5FAB=3.33 FAE + 4/5FAB = 80
FAB =5.56 kN tension FAE+4/5(5.56) = 80
FAE=75.56 kN tension
At joint B
ΣFH=0 ΣFV=0
FBC=4/5FAB FBE=3/5FAB
FBC=4/5(5.56) FBE=3/5(5.56)
FBC=4.45 kN tension FBE=3.34 kN compression
At joint E
ΣFV=0 ΣFH=0
3/5FCE=FAE FFE+4/5FCE=FAE
3/5FCE=3.34 FFE+4/5(5.57)=75.56
FCE=5.57 kN tension FFE=71.11 kN tension
At joint F
ΣFV=0 ΣFH=0
FCF=50 kN tension FDF=FFE
FDF=71.11 kN tension
At joint C
+ΣFH=0 ΣFV=0
4/5FCD + 4/5FCE + FBC=80 3/5FCD = 35FCE+FCF
4/5FCD + 4/5(5.57) + 4.45 = 80 3/5(88.87) = 3/5(5.57) + 50
FCD = 88.87 kN compression 53.3=53.3 check
At joint D
ΣFH = 0 ΣFV = 0
4/5FCD = FDF RD = 3/5FCD
4/5(88.87) = 71.11 53.33 = 3/5(88.87)
71.1=71.1 check 53.3=53.3 check
Summary
FAB=5.56 kN tension FAE=75.56 kN tension FBC=4.45 kN

tension
FBE=3.34 kN compression FCD=88.87 kN compression FCE=5.57 kN

tension
FCF=50 kN tension FDF=71.11 kN tension FFE=71.11 kN

tension
Example: Determine the forces in the members of the roof truss shown in Fig. P-404.
ΣMD=0 ΣMA=0 ΣFH=0
2xRA=450x 2xVD=450x+(450sin30∘)(2x) HD=450cos30∘=389.71N
RA=225N VD=450N
At Joint A
ΣFV=0 ΣFH=0
FABsin30∘=225 FAC=FABcos30∘=450cos30∘
FAB=450N FAC=389.71N
At Joint C
ΣFV=0 ΣFH=0
FBC=450N FCD=389.71N
At Joint B
ΣFH = 0 ΣFV=0
FBDcos30∘ = 450cos30∘+450cos30∘ FBDsin30∘+450sin30∘=450+450sin30∘
FBD = 900N FBD=900N Check!
At Joint D
ΣFV=0 ΣFH=0
450=900sin30∘ 900cos30∘=389.71+389.71
450=450 Check! 779.42=779.42 Check!
Summary
AB = 450 N compression
AC = 389.71 N tension
BC = 450 N tension
BD = 900 N compression
CD = 389.71 N tension
Example: Determine the force in members AB, BD, BE, and DE of the Howe roof truss
shown in Fig. P-409.
ΣMH=0
12RA=9(2.7)+6(4.5)+3(1.8)
RA=4.725kN
At Joint A
ΣFV=0
FABsin30∘=4.725
FAB= 9.45kN compression answer
At Joint C
By inspection
FBC=2.7kN tension
At Joint B
By inspection
FBE=2.7kN compression answer
ΣFx=0
FBD+FBEcos60∘+2.7cos60∘=9.45
FBD+2.7cos60∘+2.7cos60∘=9.45
FBD=6.75kN compression answer
At Joint D
By inspection
FDF=6.75kN compression
ΣFV=0
FDE=FDFsin30∘+6.75sin30∘
FDE=6.75sin30∘+6.75sin30∘
FDE=6.75kN tension answer
Example: The cantilever truss in Fig. P-406 is hinged at D and E. Find the force in each
member.
At Joint A
ΣFV=0
FABsin30∘=1000
FAB=2000N tension
ΣFH=0
FAC=FABcos30∘
FAC=2000cos30∘
FAC=1732.05N compression
At Joint B
ΣFy=0
FBC=1000cos30∘
FBC=866.02N compression
ΣFx=0
FBD=1000sin30∘+2000
FBD=2500N tension
At Joint C
ΣFV=0
FCDsin60∘=866.02sin60∘+1000
FCD=2020.72N tension
ΣFH=0
FCE=FCDcos60∘+866.02cos60∘+1732.05
FCE=2020.72cos60∘+866.02cos60∘+1732.05
FCE=3175.42N compression
Summary
AB = 2000 N tension
AC = 1732.05 N compression
BC = 866.02 N compression
BD = 2500 N tension
CD = 2020.72 N tension
CE = 3175.42 N compression
THE METHOD OF SECTIONS (A MATHEMATICAL METHOD)

In this method, an imaginary cut is made through the framework and the equilibrium of this part
of the structure is considered through a free body diagram. No more than three unknown forces
can be determined through any cut section, as only three equilibrium considerations can be made,
namely
(a) Resolve forces horizontally ΣFH=0
(b) Resolve forces vertically ΣFV=0
(c) Take moments about a convenient point. ΣMO=0
NB: Because we can only solve up to three unknowns, it is important not to cut more than three
members of the truss. Depending on the type of truss and which members to solve, one may have
to repeat Method of Sections more than once to determine all the desired forces.
Example: From the truss in Fig. T-01, determine the force in members BC, CE, and EF.
ΣMA=0
3RD=50(2)+80(0.75)
RD=53.33 kN
From the FBD of the section through a-a

ΣME=0
0.75FBC+2RD=0.75(80)+1(50)
0.75FBC+2(53.33)=60+50
FBC=4.45 kN tension answer
ΣMC=0
0.75FEF=1(RD)
0.75FEF=53.33
FEF=71.11 kN tension answer
ΣFV=0
3/5FCE+50=RD
3/5FCE+50=53.33
FCE=5.55 kN tension answer
Example: Using the method of sections, determine the force in members BD, CD, and CE
of the roof truss shown in Fig. P-417.
ΣMF=0
12RA=4(360)
RA=120kN
ΣMC=0
3FBD=4(120)
FBD=160kN compression answer
ΣFV=0
3/5FCD=120
FCD=200kN compression answer
ΣMD=0
3FCE=8(120)
FCE=320kN tension answer
Example: The Warren truss loaded as shown in Fig. P-418 is supported by a roller at C
and a hinge at G. By the method of sections, compute the force in the members BC, DF,
and CE.
ΣMG=0
12RC+6(60)=6(100)+9(80)+18(40)
RC=140 kN
At section through M-M
ΣFV=0
25√FBC=40
FBC=44.721 kN compression answer
At section through N-N
ΣMD=0
6FCE+9(40)=3(140)
FCE=10 kN tension answer
ΣME=0
6FDF+3(80)+12(40)=6(140)+6(60)
FDF=80 kN compression answer
Example Use the method of sections to determine the force acting in members DF, EF, and
EG of the Howe truss described in Problem 409.
ΣMA=0
12RH=3(2.7)+6(4.5)+9(1.8)
RH=4.275 kN
From the section to the right of M-N

ΣME=0
6(FDFsin30∘)+3(1.8)=6(4.275)
FDF=6.75 kN compression answer
ΣMH=0
6(FEFsin30∘)=3(1.8)
FEF=1.8 kN compression answer
y=3tan30∘=3–√
ΣMF=0
yFEG=3(4.275)
3–√FEG=3(4.275)
FEG=7.404 kN tension answer
Use the method of sections to determine the force in members DF, FG, and GI of the
triangular Howe truss shown in Fig. P-428.
ΣML=0
12RA+1(20sinθ)+2(20sinθ)=10(20cosθ)+8(20cosθ)
12RA+1(20)(15√)+2(20)(15√)=10(20)(25√)+8(20)(25√)
12RA=6605√
RA=115–√ kN
By inspection:
At joint K, JK=0
At joint J, IJ=0
At joint I, HI=0
At joint H, GH=0
ΣMG=0
6FDF(15√)+6(115–√)+1(20)(15√)+2(20)(15√)=4(20)(25√)+2(20)(25√)
65√FDF=−305–√
FDF=−25 kN=25 kN compression answer

ΣMA=0
6FFG=5–√(20)+25–√(20)
6FFG=605–√
FFG=105–√ kN=22.36 kN tension answer
ΣMF=0
3FGI+25–√(20)+5–√(20)=6(115–√)
3FGI=65–√
FGI=25–√ kN=4.47 kN tension Answer

Use the method of sections to compute the force in members AB, AD, BC, and BD of the
truss shown in Fig. P-432.
ΣMF=0
16RA=12(24)+8(36)
RA=36 kN
ΣMD=0
3FBC+8(36)=4(24)
FBC=−64 kN
FBC=64 kN compression answer
ΣME=0
8(35FBD)+8(24)=12(36)
FBD=50 kN tension answer
ΣMB=0
3(45FAD)+4(35FAD)=4(36)
245FAD=144
FAD=30 kN tension answer

ΣFV=0
997√FAB+35FAD+36=0
997√FAB+35(30)+36=0
FAB=−59.09 kN
FAB=59.09 kN compression Answer
Example: Determine the unknown member forces F2, F5 and F6 by the method of Sections
Firstly, all members will be assumed to be in tension and an imaginary cut will be made through
the framework, as shown
Taking moments about B

Clockwise moments = anti-clockwise moments
Hence, 5.75 kN ×2 m = F2 × 1.155 m where 2 tan 30° = 1.155 m
i.e. F2 = = 9.96 kN (tensile) (eqn 1)

5.75 kN + F6 sin 30° = F5 sin 30° + 4 kN 0 = F2 + F5 cos 30° + F6 cos 30°
i.e. F5 = F6 + − from which, F5 cos 30° = −F2 − F6 cos 30°
i.e. F5 = F6 + 3.5 (eqn 2) and F5 = − − F6 (eqn 3)
Substituting eqn (1) into eqn (3) gives: Equating eqn (2) to eqn (4) gives:
F5 = − − F6 F6 + 3.5 = −11.5 − F6
or F5 = −11.5 − F6 (eqn 4) from which, 2 F6 = −11.5 − 3.5 = −15
and F6 = − = −7.5 kN (compressive) (eqn
5)
Substituting eqn (5) into eqn (4) gives:

F5 = −11.5 − (−7.5)
= −4 kN (compressive) (eqn 6)
i.e. F2 = 9.96 kN,F5 = −4 kN and F6 = −7.5 kN

Graphical means
Example: Determine the internal forces in the pin-jointed truss
In this case, there are more than two unknowns at every joint; hence it will first be necessary to
calculate the unknown reactions R1 and R2.
To determine R1, take moments about joint (2):
Clockwise moments about joint (2) = counter-clockwise (or anti-clockwise) moments about joint
(2)
i.e. R1 × 8 m = 4 kN × 6 m+ 3 kN × 4 m + 5 kN×2 m
= 24 + 12 + 10 = 46 kN m
Therefore, R1 = = 5.75 kN
Resolving forces vertically:
Upward forces = downward forces i.e. R1 + R2 = 4 + 3 + 5 = 12 kN
However, R1 = 5.75 kN, from above, hence, 5.75 kN + R2 = 12 kN from which,
R2 = 12 − 5.75 = 6.25 kN
Examples
Determine the internal forces in the following pin-jointed trusses using a graphical method:
R1 = 3.0 kN, R2 = 1.0 kN, R1 = −2.6 kN, R2 = 2.6 kN,
1–2, 1.7 kN, 1–3, −3.5 kN, H2 = 6.0 kN, 1–2, −1.5 kN,
2–3, −2.0 kN 1–3, 3.0 kN, 2–3, −5.2 kN
R1 = 5.0 kN, R2 = 1.0 kN, R1 = 5.0 kN, R2 = 7.0 kN, 1–3, −10.0 kN, 1–6,
−8.7 kN,
H1 = 4.0 kN 1–2, 1.0 kN, 3–4, −8.0 kN, 3–6, −2.0 kN, 4–6, 4.0 kN, 4–5, 8.0
kN,
1–3, −7.1 kN, 2–3, −1.4 kN 5–6, −6.0 kN, 5–2, −14.0 kN, 6–2, 12.1 kN
Chapter 4: FRICTION
Friction is the contact resistance exerted by one body when the second body moves or tends to
move past the first body.
Friction is a retarding force that always acts opposite to the motion or to the tendency to move.
A force may be applied to the block, which is insufficient to move it. In this case, the force
resisting motion is called the static friction or stiction.
Thus there are two categories into which a frictional force may be split:
(i) Dynamic or sliding friction force which occurs when motion is taking place, and
(ii) Static friction force which occurs before motion takes place.
Dry friction, occurs when unlubricated surfaces of two solids are in contact and slide or tend to
slide from each other. If lubricant separates these two surfaces, the friction created is called
lubricated friction
There are three factors that affect the size and direction of frictional forces.
(i) The size of the frictional force depends on the type of surface (a block of wood slides more
easily on a polished metal surface than on a rough concrete surface).
(ii) The size of the frictional force depends on the size of the force acting at right angles to the
surfaces in contact, called the normal force; thus, if the weight of a block of wood is doubled,
the frictional force is doubled when it is sliding on the same surface
(iii) The direction of the frictional force is always opposite to the direction of motion. Thus the
frictional force opposes motion, as shown
Applications of friction
In some applications, a low coefficient of friction is desirable, for example, in bearings, pistons
moving within cylinders, on ski runs, and so on. However, for such applications as force being
transmitted by belt drives and braking systems, a high value of coefficient is necessary.
Instances where frictional forces are an advantage include:

(i) Almost all fastening devices rely on frictional forces to keep them in place once secured,
examples being screws, nails, nuts, clips and clamps.
(ii) Satisfactory operation of brakes and clutches rely on frictional forces being present.
(iii) In the absence of frictional forces, most accelerations along a horizontal surface are
impossible; for example, a person’s shoes just slip when walking is attempted and the tyres of a
car just rotate with no forward motion of the car being experienced.
Disadvantages of frictional forces include:

(i) Energy is wasted in the bearings associated with shafts, axles and gears due to heat being
generated.
(ii) Wear is caused by friction, for example, in shoes, brake lining materials and bearings.
(iii) Energy is wasted when motion through air occurs (it is much easier to cycle with the wind
rather than against it).
ELEMENTS OF DRY FRICTION ON A HORIZONTAL PLANE

N = Total reaction perpendicular to the contact surface
F = Friction force
μ = Coefficient of friction
R = Resultant of F and N
ϕ = angle of friction
Angle of friction (ϕ)
This is the angle of an inclined plane, at which a body just begins to slide down the plane. This is
also equal to the angle, which the normal reaction makes with the vertical.
Coefficient of friction (μ)
The coefficient of friction, μ, is a measure of the amount of friction existing between two
surfaces. A low value of coefficient of friction indicates that the force required for sliding to
occur is less than the force required when the coefficient of friction is high.
It is the ratio of limiting friction to the normal reaction, between the two bodies, and is generally
denoted by μ.
Mathematically, the value of the coefficient of friction is given by:
` μ=
Normal reaction (N)

It has been experienced that whenever a body, lying on a horizontal or an inclined surface, is in
equilibrium, its weight acts vertically downwards through its centre of gravity. The surface, in
turn, exerts an upward reaction on the body. This reaction, which is taken to act perpendicular to
the plane, is called normal reaction and is, generally, denoted by N. It will be interesting to know
that the term ‘normal reaction’ is very important in the field of friction, as the force of friction is
directly proportional to it.
Resultant reaction (R)

This the resultant reaction between F and N. the direction in which R must be drawn is
determined by the fact that its tangential component F must oppose the motion of the body, that
is, R is always drawn backwards to the direction of motion. R acts only at the angle ϕ to N for
limiting friction. If R lies inside the angle of friction ϕ, the force of friction is less than the
limiting value and slipping cannot take place. When N and F are replaced by R, the forces P, W
and R form three forces in equilibrium and the triangle of forces can then be drawn.
Laws of static friction

1. The force of friction always acts in a direction, opposite to that in which the body tends to
move, if the force of friction would have been absent.
2. The magnitude of the force of friction is exactly equal to the force, which tends to move the
body.
3. The magnitude of the limiting friction bears a constant ratio to the normal reaction between
the two surfaces.
4. The force of friction is independent of the area of contact between the two surfaces.
5. The force of friction depends upon the roughness of the surfaces.
Laws of kinetic or dynamic friction

1. The force of friction always acts in a direction, opposite to that in which the body is moving.
2. The magnitude of kinetic friction bears a constant ratio to the normal reaction between the two
surfaces. But this ratio is slightly less than that in case of limiting friction.
3. For moderate speeds, the force of friction remains constant. But it decreases slightly with the
increase of speed.
FRICTION ON AN INCLINED PLANE
CASE 1: Angle of repose

This is the angle of an inclined plane, at which a body just about to begin to slide down the plane
i.e. at the point when motion impends.
Consider a mass m lying on an inclined plane, as shown with motion impending downwards
Resolving forces parallel to the plane gives:
Forces up the plane = forces down the plane i.e. F = mg sin θ
Resolving force perpendicular to the plane gives:

Forces ‘up’ = forces ‘down’
i.e. N = mg cos θ
Dividing equations gives: =

= tan θ;
Hence, tan θ = μ
Example: The 10-kN cylinder shown in Fig. P-514 is held at rest on the 30° incline by a
weight P suspended from a cord wrapped around the cylinder. If slipping impends,
determine P and the coefficient of friction.
a =10cos60∘ =5 cm b =10−a = 5 cm
ΣMA = 0
Pb = Wcyla
P (5) = 10 (5) =10 kN answer
ΣMO=0 ΣFy=0
10f=10P N=10cos30∘+Pcos30∘
f=P N=10cos30∘+10cos30∘
f =10 kN N=17.32 kN
f = μN
10 = μ (17.32)
μ = 0.577 answer
CASE 2: Equilibrium of a body on a rough inclined plane subjected to a force acting along
the inclined plane
Example: A trolley of mass 800 kg is about to up a 200 slope because of the pull of a 2 tonne
counterweight guided by a pulley, the tensions in the rope are P and Q as shown below.
(a) Neglecting friction at the trolley wheels, find P.
(b) If μ = 0.2 for the surfaces in contact at the counterweight, find Q.
CASE 3: Equilibrium of a body on a rough inclined plane subjected to a force acting
horizontally
CASE 4: Equilibrium of a body on a rough inclined plane subjected to a force acting at

some angle with the Inclined plane
SCREW FRICTION
The screws, bolts, studs, nuts etc. are widely used in various machines and structures for
fastenings. These fastenings have screw threads, which are made by cutting a continuous helical
groove on a cylindrical surface. If the threads are cut on the outer surface of a solid rod, these are
known as external threads. But if the threads are cut on the internal surface of a hollow rod
these are known as internal threads. The screw threads are mainly of two types viz. V-threads
and square threads. The V-threads are stronger and offer more frictional resistance to motion
than square threads. Moreover, the V-threads have an advantage of preventing the nut from
slackening. It will be interesting to know that the V-threads are used for the purpose of
tightening pieces together (e.g. bolts and nuts etc.). Square threads are used in screw jacks, vice
screws etc. which are used for lifting heavy loads.
The following terms are important for the study of screws:
1. Helix. It is the curve traced by a particle, while describing a circular path at a uniform speed
and advancing in the axial direction at a uniform rate. Or in other words, it is the curve traced by
a particle while moving along a screw thread.
2. Pitch. It is the distance from one point of a thread to the corresponding point on the next
thread. It is measured parallel to the axis of the screw.
3. Lead. It is the distance through which a screw thread advances axially in one turn. (lead =
Pitch for single start threads, but L = np for nth number of starts)
4. Depth of thread. It is the distance between the top and bottom surfaces of a thread (also
known as crest and root of thread).
5. Single-threaded screw. If the lead of a screw is equal to its pitch, it is known as single
threaded screw.
6. Multi-threaded screw. If more than one threads are cut in one lead distance of a screw, it is
known as multi-threaded screw e.g. in a double-threaded screw, two threads are cut in one lead
length. In such cases, all the threads run independently along the length of the rod.
Mathematically,
Lead = Pitch × No. of threads in one lead.
7. Slope of the thread. It is the inclination of the thread with horizontal. Given by θ
The screw nomenclature
Tan θ =
d = (mean diameter)
NB: Turning a screw is equivalent to moving a mass of weight W along an inclined plane by a
horizontal force P. The forces acting on the screw are W, P and R and should be solved under
equilibrium conditions.
Load being raised (Motion up the inclined plane)
From the triangle of forces:
Force P to lift the load
P = W tan (θ + ϕ)
Torque on screws
Torque = force x radius
=Px½D
= ½ WD tan (θ + ϕ)
If P is applied at the end of a spanner of length L;
Applied Torque = PL
That is; P =
Efficiency when load is lifted up
Efficiency of screw =
But and tan
Hence efficiency =
Load being lowered (Motion down the inclined plane)
Case 1
Force P to lower down the load
P = W tan (θ - ϕ)
=Px½D
= ½ WD tan (θ - ϕ)
But and tan
Hence efficiency =
Case 2

P = W tan (ϕ - θ)
=Px½D
= ½ WD tan (ϕ - θ)
But and tan
Hence efficiency =
Example: Determine the Torque necessary to raise a load of 1 000 N by a vertical screw
having two square threads per centimetre (single start) and a mean diameter of 20 mm.
The coefficient of friction for the screw and nut is 0.15. What is the efficiency of the screw
when lifting the load?
Answer
Pitch = = Lead since screw is single start
Tan θ = = = 0.0796; therefore θ = tan-1 (0.0796) = 40 33'

Tan = μ = 0.15, therefore = tan-1 (0.15) = 80 32'
=Px½D
= ½ WD tan (θ + ϕ)
= ½ (1 000) (10) tan (40 33'+ 80 32')

= 2.324 Nm
Efficiency =
= 34.4%
Self-locking screw: A screw is considered self-locking if the lead angle is selected such that in
the absence of a screwing moment (i.e. M = 0) the frictional force will remain less than so
that the threads will not slip relative to each other. This can be studied using the following free-
body diagram. The maximum thread angle for the screw to be self-locking is given by setting
WEDGE FRICTION
A wedge is in general a triangular object which is placed between two objects to either hold them
in place or is used to move one relative to the other. The wedge is an application of an inclined
plane, an example of friction being used to advantage. It is used as a splitting device, to apply a
large force to lift or adjust a heavy load with small displacements, or to change the direction of
an applied force. A wedge raising a load may involve three pairs of friction surfaces and the
tilting of the load against its vertical guides. We should assume that the inclined plane surface of
the wedge is rough, and that the wedge and load are guided by smooth rollers
For example, the following shows a wedge under a block that is supported by the wall.
If the force P is large enough to push the wedge forward, then the block will rise and the
following is an appropriate free-body diagram. Note that for the wedge to move, one needs to
have slip on all three surfaces. The direction of the friction force on each surface will oppose the
slipping.
Since before the wedge can move each surface must overcome the resistance to slipping, one can
assume that
These equations and the equations of equilibrium are combined to solve the problem. If the force
P is not large enough to hold the top block from coming down, then the wedge will be pushed to
the left and the appropriate free-body diagram is the following. Note that the only change is the
direction of the frictional forces. A similar analysis to the above yield the solution to the
problem.
Example: If the coefficient of static friction equals 0.3 for all surfaces of contact, determine
the smallest value of force P necessary to raise the block A. Neglect the weight of the wedge
B.
Example: The block A in Fig. P-539 supports a load W = 100 kN and is to be raised by
forcing the wedge B under it. The angle of friction for all surfaces in contact is 15°. If the
wedge had a weight of 40 kN, what value of P would be required (a) to start the wedge
under the block and (b) to pull the wedge out from under the block?
Case (a) Case (b)
Part (a): P to start the wedge under block A
From the FBD of block A ΣFV=0
ΣFH=0 R2cos35∘=R1sin15∘+100
R1cos15∘=R2sin35∘
R2cos35∘=(0.5938R2)sin15∘+100
R1=0.5938R2 0.6655R2=100
R2=150.27 kN
From FBD of block B
ΣFV=0 ΣFH=0
R3cos15∘=R2cos35∘+40 P=R2sin35∘+R3sin15∘
R3cos15∘=150.27cos35∘+40
P=150.27sin35∘+168.85sin15∘
R3=168.85 kN P=129.89 kN answer
Part (b): P to pull the wedge out from under the block
From FBD of block A ΣFV=0
ΣFH=0 R2cos5∘+R1sin15∘=100
R1cos15∘=R2sin5∘
R2cos5∘+(0.0902R2)sin15∘=100
R1=0.0902R2 1.0195R2=100
R2 = 98.08 kN
From FBD of block B
ΣFV=0 ΣFH=0
R3cos15∘=R2cos5∘+40 P+R2sin5∘=R3sin15∘
R3cos15∘=98.08cos5∘+40 P+98.08sin5∘=142.57sin15∘
R3=142.57 kN P=28.35 kN Answer
Example: Determine the force P required to start the wedge shown in Fig. P-541. The angle
of friction for all surfaces in contact is 15°.
For the block For the wedge
ΣFV=0 ΣFH=0
R1cos150 = R2sin150 + 200 R3cos30∘=R2cos15∘
R1= 0.2679R2 + 207.06 R3cos30∘=115.54cos15∘
R3=128.87 kN
ΣFH = 0 ΣFV=0
R2cos150 =R1sin150+50 P=R2sin15∘+R3sin30∘

R2cos150= (0.2679R2+207.06) sin150+50
P=115.54sin15∘+128.87sin30∘
0.8966R2=103.59 P=94.34 kN Answer
R2 =115.54 kN
Example: To adjust the vertical position of a column supporting 200-kN load, two 5°
wedges are used as shown in Fig. P-543. Determine the force P necessary to start the
wedges if the angle of friction at all contact surfaces is 25°. Neglect friction at the rollers.
From the upper wedge From the lower wedge
ΣFV=0 ΣFV=0 ΣFH=0
R2cos30∘=200 R3cos25∘=R2cos30∘
P=R2sin30∘+R3sin25∘
R2=230.94 kN R3cos25∘=230.94cos30∘
P=230.94sin30∘+220.68sin25∘
R3=220.68 kN
P=208.73 kN Answer
LADDER FRICTION
A ladder 6 m long has a mass of 18 kg and its centre of gravity is 2.4 m from the bottom. The ladder is
placed against a vertical wall so that it makes an angle of 60° with the ground. How far up the ladder can
a 72-kg man climb before the ladder is on the verge of slipping? The angle of friction at all contact
surfaces is 15°.
Coefficient of friction
μ=tanϕ
μ=tan15∘
Amount of friction at contact surfaces

fA=μNA=NAtan15∘
fB=μNB=NBtan15∘
ΣFV=0
NA+fB=18+72
NA=90−fB
NA=90−NBtan15∘
ΣFH=0
fA=NB
NAtan15∘=NB
(90−NBtan15∘)tan15∘=NB
90tan15∘−NBtan215∘=NB
90tan15∘=NB+NBtan215∘
NB(1+tan215∘)=90tan15∘
NB=90tan15∘1+tan215∘
NB=22.5 kg
fB=22.5tan15∘
fB=6.03 kg
ΣMA=0
NB(6sin60∘)+fB(6cos60∘)=18(2.4cos60∘)+72(xcos60∘)
NB(6tan60∘)+6fB=18(2.4)+72x
6(22.5)tan60∘+6(6.03)=43.2+72x
72x=226.81
x=3.15 m answer
Example: A uniform bar AB, weighing 424 N, is fastened by a frictionless pin to a block
weighing 200 N as shown in Fig. P-533. At the vertical wall, μ = 0.268 while under the
block, μ = 0.20. Determine the force P needed to start motion to the right.
ΣMA=0
NB(2x)=424x+fB(2x)
2NB=424+2fB
2NB=424+2(0.268NB)
1.464NB=424
NB=289.62 N
fB=0.268(289.62)
fB=77.62 N
ΣFV=0
NA=fB+200+424
NA=77.62+200+424
NA=701.62 N
fA=0.20(701.62)
fA=140.32 N
ΣFH=0
P=fA+NB
P=140.32+289.62
P=429.94 N answer
Bottom of Form
BELT FRICTION
When the driver rotates, it carries the belt due to grip between its surface and the belt. The belt,
in turn, carries the driven pulley which starts rotating. The grip between the pulley and the belt is
obtained by friction, which arises from the pressure between the belt and the pulleys. The friction
grip, if required, is increased by tightening the belt. Though there are many types of belts used
these days, yet the following are important from the subject point of view:
1. Flat belt. The flat belt is mostly used in the factories and workshops, where a moderate
amount of power is to be transmitted, from one pulley to another, when the two pulleys are not
more than 10 m apart.
2. V-belt. The V-belt is mostly used in the factories and workshops where a great amount of
power is to be transmitted, from one pulley to another, when the two pulleys are very near to
each other.
3. Circular belt or rope. The circular belt or rope is mostly used in the factories and workshops,
where a great amount of power is to be transmitted, from one pulley to another, when the two
pulleys are more than 5 m apart.
Velocity ratio of a belt drive
Consider a simple belt drive (i.e. one driver and one follower)
Let d1 = Diameter of the driver, N1 = Speed of the driver in r.p.m., and
d2, N2 = Corresponding values for the follower.
Velocity ration = =
Types of belt drives
The power, from one pulley to another, may be transmitted by any one of the following two
types of belt drives:
• Open belt drive

• Cross belt drive.
Open belt drive
The driver A pulls the belt from one side (RQ in this case) and delivers it to the other side (LM in
this case). Thus the tension in the lower side belt will be more than that in the upper side. The
lower side belt (because of more tension) is known as tight side; whereas the upper side belt
(because of less tension) is known as slack side.
Length of an open belt drive
Let O1 and O2 = Centres of the two pulleys, r1 and r2 = Radii of the larger and smaller pulleys, l
= Distance between O1 and O2.
Length = π (r1 + r2) + 2l +

Sin α =
Power transmitted by a belt
Let T1 = Tension in the tight side
T2 = Tension in the slack side and
v = Velocity of the belt
We know that the effective turning (i.e. driving) force at the circumference of the follower is the
difference between the two tensions (i.e., T1 – T2).
∴ Work done = Force × Distance
= (T1 – T2) × v
∴ Power = (T1 – T2) v J/s
= (T1 – T2) v
Notes: 1. The torque exerted on the driving pulley (T1 – T2) r1
2. Similarly, the torque exerted on the follower = (T1 – T2) r2 where r1 and r2 are in
metres.
Ratio of tensions
Consider a follower (i.e. driven) pulley rotating in the clockwise direction as shown
Now consider a small portion of the belt PQ, subtending an angle δθ at the centre of the pulley as
shown. The belt PQ is in equilibrium under the following forces:
1. Tension T in the belt at P,
2. Tension T + δT in the belt at Q,
3. Normal reaction R, and
4. Frictional force F = μ × R. Where μ is coefficient of friction between belt and pulley.
Resolving all the forces horizontally and equating the same,

Now resolving the forces vertically,
The above expression gives the relation between the tight side and slack side tensions, in terms
of coefficient of friction and the angle of contact.
Notes: 1. In the above expression (θ) is the angle of contact at the smaller pulley.
2. In an open belt drive, the angle of contact, θ = (180° – 2α)
3. In a cross-belt drive, the angle of contact, θ = (180° + 2α)
Example. Find the power transmitted by a belt running over a pulley of 600 mm diameter at
200 r.p.m. The coefficient of friction between the belt and pulley is 0·25, angle of lap 160° and
maximum tension in the belt is 2·5 kN.
Initial tension in the belt
When a belt is wound round the two pulleys (i.e., driver and follower), its two ends are jointed
together; so that the belt may continuously move over the pulleys. Since the motion of the belt
(from the driver) and the follower (from the belt) is governed by a firm grip due to friction
between the belt and the pulleys, therefore the belt is tightened up, in order to keep a proper grip
of the belt over the pulleys.
Initially, even when the pulleys are stationary the belt is subject to some tension, called initial
tension.
Let T0 = Initial tension in the belt,
T1 = Tension in the tight side of the belt,
T2 = Tension in the slack side of the belt, and
μ = Coefficient of increase of the belt length per unit force.
A little consideration will show, that increase of tension in the tight side
= T1 – T0
and increase in the length of the belt on the tight side
= μ (T1 – T0) ... (i)
Similarly, decrease in tension in the slack side

= T0 – T2
and decrease in the length of the belt on the slack side
= μ (T0 – T2) ... (ii)
Assuming the length of the belt to be constant, when it is at rest or in motion, therefore increase
in length on the tight side is equal to decrease in the length on the slack side. Therefore, equating
(i) and (ii),
μ (T1 – T0) = μ (T0 – T2) or T1 – T0 = T0 – T2
∴ T0 =
Example: A steel cable supports a 60 kg mass and is then run a quarter of the way around
a steel cylinder and supported by a pulling force as shown in the diagram below. The static
coefficient of friction between the cable and the steel cylinder is 0.3.
• What is the minimum pulling force required to lift the mass up

• What is the minimum pulling force required to keep the mass from falling
Example: A flat belt is being used to transfer power from a motor to an alternator as
shown in the diagram below. The coefficient of friction between the belt material and the
pulley is .5. If we require a power of 100 Watts (Nm/s) while the input is rotating at a rate
of 1000 rpm and the output is rotating at a rate of 1428.6 rpm, what is the required resting
tension in the belt? (Assume contact angles of approximately 180 degrees)
Chapter 5: HYDROSTATICS
Pressure of Liquids
We shall now be concerned with the pressure of liquids on immersed surfaces such as the sides
of tanks, or lock gates, or sluice gates for controlling the flow of water into a hydraulic turbine
plant. The solution to problems of this type is dependent upon three experimentally established
facts relating to the pressure of liquids.
• The pressure exerted by a liquid is always perpendicular to the surface of the containing
vessel.
• The pressure of a liquid inside a closed vessel is constant throughout the vessel. (This
statement assumes that we are neglecting the variation of pressure which there will be
with the depth of liquid in the vessel; in any case’ this may be small compared with the
pressure applied by external forces.)
• The pressure exerted by the liquid is dependent upon the head of the liquid, or the
vertical distance from the point considered to the surface of the liquid.
The pressure exerted by a liquid on a plane surface can mean the total force exerted by the liquid
on the surface.
Pressure at Any Depth in a Liquid
Consider a vertical cylinder of liquid, of height h, and of cross sectional area δA.
The pressure of the liquid is dependent upon the density of the liquid (ρ), and upon the depth (h)
of the considered point below the free surface of the liquid.
Weight of cylinder of liquid = ρghδA
Let p = the pressure at the point X.
Up thrust at bottom of cylinder = pressure × area = PδA
Equating the up thrust on the base to the weight of the cylinder,
PδA = ρghδA
Therefore pressure (P) = ρgh
If h is in metres, and ρ is in kg/m2, then the pressure p is in N/m2. In questions dealing with
water, the value of ρ will be 1000 kg/m3 for fresh water, and about 1030 kg/m3 for seawater. For
all other liquids the value of ρ will be 1000 × specific gravity, kg/m3.
Force on an immersed plane surface parallel to the free surface
Let h = depth of immersion in m,

A = area of surface in, m2;
ρ = mass of liquid per unit volume, in kg/m3, i.e. density of liquid;
P = pressure, in N/m2.
Note that this pressure will be uniform over the whole area, since every point on the surface is at
the same depth below the free surface of the liquid.
Force on surface = area × intensity of pressure
= A × pgh
= Apgh (N)
Example 1: A rectangular tank, whose base measures 6 m by 4 m, contains water to a depth of 3

m. What is the pressure at the base, and what is the force exerted by the water on the base?
Pressure = pgh
= 1000 x 9.81 × 3
=29 430 N/m2
= 0.2943 bar
Area of base = 6 × 4
=24 m2
Force on base = area × pressure
=24 × 29 430
= 705000 N
Centre of Pressure
The centre of pressure of a surface immersed in a liquid is that point in the surface at which the
whole of the force due to the liquid can be considered to act. It is indicated in fig. below as C. Its
distance from the free surface of the liquid, measured along- the surface area, is shown as
Derivation of centre of pressure

In order to determine the centre of pressure, we will consider the object in terms of small strips
as displayed here in above figure. We will use the concept of “principle of moments” to
determine the centre of pressure.
According to the principle of moments, moment of the resultant force about an axis will be equal
to the sum of the moments of components about the same axis.
As we have shown above in figure, total hydrostatic force F is applied at centre of pressure P
which is at height of h* from the free surface of liquid.
Therefore, let us determine the moment of resultant force F about the free surface of liquid and it
will be determined as F x h*.
As we have considered here the object in terms of small strips as displayed here in above figure
and hence we will determine the moment of force dF acting on small strip about the free surface
of liquid.
Moment of force dF = dF x h
Moment of force dF = ρ g h x b dh x h
Let us sum of all moments of such small forces about the free surface of liquid and it will be
written as mentioned here.
We have already shown above that moment of resultant force F about the free surface of liquid
i.e. F x h* and sum of moments about free surface i.e. ρ g I0
We can also write here
Total pressure and centre of pressure for inclined plane surface immersed in a liquid
Let us consider a plane surface of arbitrary shape immersed in liquid in such a way that the plane
of surface makes an angle θ with the free surface of liquid as displayed here in following figure.
Let us consider that we have following data from above figure.

A = Total area of inclined surface
ħ = Height of centre of gravity of inclined area from free surface
h* = Distance of centre of pressure from free surface of the liquid
θ = Angle made by the surface of inclined plane with free surface of the liquid
Total pressure which is basically defined as the hydrostatic force applied by a static fluid on a
plane or curved surface when fluid will come in contact with the surfaces.
Total pressure for inclined plane surface submerged in liquid will be given by following formula
as mentioned here.
Total pressure = ρ g A ħ
Centre of pressure is basically defined as a single point through which or at which total pressure
or total hydrostatic force will act.
Centre of pressure for inclined plane surface submerged in liquid will be given by following
formula as mentioned here.
For a vertical plane submerged surface, θ = 90
Total hydrostatic force on curved surfaces

Let us consider a curved surface AB sub-merged in a static liquid as displayed here in following
figure.
Let us consider one small strip area dA at a depth of h from free surface of liquid. We have
following data from above figure.
A = Total area of curved surface
ρ = Density of the liquid
g = Acceleration due to gravity
Pressure intensity on small area dA = ρ g h

Hydrostatic force on small area dA will be given by following formula as mentioned here.
dF= ρ g h x dA
Direction of this hydrostatic force will be normal to the curved surface and will vary from point
to point. Therefore, in order to secure the value of total hydrostatic force we will not integrate the
above equation.
We will secure the value or expression for total hydrostatic force on curved surface by resolving
the force dF in its two components or we can say that dF force will be resolved in X direction i.e.
dFx and in Y direction i.e. dFy.
dFx = dF Sin θ = ρ g h x dA Sin θ

dFy = dF Cos θ = ρ g h x dA Cos θ
Total force in X- direction and in Y- direction will be given as mentioned here.
Let us analyze the above equation

FG will be dA Sin θ or vertical projection of area dA. Therefore, the expression for Fx will be
total pressure force on the projected area of the curved surface on the vertical plane.
Fx = Total pressure force on the projected area of the curved surface on the vertical plane
EG will be dA Cos θ or horizontal projection of dA. Therefore, the expression for Fy will be the
weight of the liquid contained between the curved surface extended up to free surface of liquid.
Fy = Weight of the liquid contained between the curved surface extended up to free surface of
liquid
Chapter 6: MOMENT OF INERTIA
CENTROIDS (1st MOMENT OF AREA)

Defining centroid using moments
The centroid of an area is the centre or mean position of all the elements of area making up the
complete area. When we are considering solids rather than areas, the elements of area become
elements of mass, and the centroid is then the centre of gravity.
Let A = total area of the figure

= distance of centroid of figure from OY (is referred to as ’bar x’);
= distance of centroid of figure from OX. (is referred to as ’bar y’);
The first moment of area is defined as the product of the area and the perpendicular distance of
its centroid from a given axis in the plane of the area.
Moment about OY of whole area = A (1)
Moment about OX of whole area = A (2)
= =
Examples
Q1: A uniform lamina shown in the Fig. below consists of a rectangle, a circle and a triangle.
Determine the centroid of the lamina. All dimensions are in mm. (Ans. x = 71.1 mm; y = 32.2
mm)
Q2: A square hole is punched out of circular lamina, the diagonal of the square being the radius
of the circle as shown in Fig below. Find the centroid of the remainder, if r is the radius of the
circle.
• Main circle (ii) Cut out square

Area1 = πr2 x1 = r Area2 = = 0.5 r2 x2 = r + = 1.5
r
Centroid from A =
=
=
= answer
Q3: A semicircle of 90 mm radius is cut out from a trapezium as shown in the Fig Below. Find
the position of the centroid of the figure. (Ans. y = 69.1 mm)
Q4: A circular hole of 50 mm diameter is cut out from a circular disc of 100 mm diameter as
shown in Fig. below. Find the centroid of the section from A. (Ans. x = 41.7 mm)
Q5: A circular part shown in Fig. Q5 of diameter 70 mm is cut from a circular plate of diameter
200 mm. Find the centroid of the remaining part from A.
The first moment of area (centroid) by method of integration
The centre of gravity of a lamina is the point where it balances perfectly, i.e. the lamina’s
centre of moment of mass. When dealing with an area (i.e. a lamina of negligible thickness and
mass) the term centre of moment of area or centroid is used for the point where the centre of
gravity of a lamina of that shape would lie.
Centroid of area between a curve and the x-axis by integration

• Figure below shows an area PQRS bounded by the curve y = f (x), the x-axis and
ordinates x = a and x = b. Let this area be divided into a large number of strips, each
of width δx. A typical strip is shown shaded drawn at point (x, y) on f (x). The area of
the strip is approximately rectangular and is given by yδx. The centroid, C, has
coordinates.
• First moment of area of shaded strip about axis Oy = (yδx) (x) = xyδx. Total first
moment of area PQRS about axis Oy
• First moment of area of shaded strip about axis Ox
Total first moment of area PQRS about axis Ox
• Area of PQRS ;
• Let and be the distances of the centroid of area A about Oy and Ox respectively
then: ()(A) = total first moment of area A about axis Oy
from which,
and () (A) = total moment of area A about axis Ox
from which
Centroid of area between a curve and the y-axis

If and are the distances of the centroid of area EFGH in the Figure below from Oy and Ox
respectively,
then, by similar reasoning as above:

From which
And
From which
Q1: Find the position of the centroid of the area bounded by the curve y = 3x2, the x-axis
and the ordinates x = 0 and x = 2.
If (,) are the co-ordinates of the centroid of the given area then:
MOMENT OF INERTIA
We have already know that the moment of a force (P) about a point, is the product of the force
and perpendicular distance (x) between the point and the line of action of the force (i.e. P.x). This
moment is also called first moment of force (centroid). If this moment is again multiplied by the
perpendicular distance (x) between the point and the line of action of the force i.e. P.x (x) = Px2,
then this quantity is called moment of the moment of a force or second moment of force or
moment of inertia (briefly written as M.I.).
Sometimes, instead of force, area or mass of a figure or body is taken into consideration. Then
the second moment is known as second moment of area or second moment of mass. But all
such second moments are broadly termed as moment of inertia.
MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A PLANE AREA

Consider a plane area, whose moment of inertia is required to be found out. Split up the whole
area into a number of small elements.
Let a1, a2, a3, ... = Areas of small elements, and
r1, r2, r3, ... = Corresponding distances of the elements from the line about which the
moment of inertia is required to be found out.
Now the moment of inertia of the area,
I = a1 + a2 + a3 +...
= Σ a r2 (mm4)
METHODS FOR MOMENT OF INERTIA
The moment of inertia of a plane area (or a body) may be found out by one of the following two
methods:
• By Routh’s rule
Note: The Routh’s Rule is used for finding the moment of inertia of a plane area or a
body of uniform thickness.
• By Integration.
Moment of inertia by Routh’s rule
The Routh’s Rule states, if a body is symmetrical about three mutually perpendicular axes i.e.
the, X-X axis, Y-Y axis and Z-Z axis., then the moment of inertia, about any one axis passing
through its centre of gravity is given by:
I= … (for a square or rectangular lamina)
I= … (for a circular or elliptical lamina)
I= … (for a spherical body)
Where A = area of the plane shape (area)
M = Mass of the body

S = Sum of the squares of the two semi-axis, other than the axis, about which the
moment of inertia is required to be found out.
Moment of inertia of a rectangular section

Consider a rectangular section ABCD as shown below whose moment of inertia is required to be
found out.
IXX = = = =
Moment of inertia by integration
Consider a plane figure, whose moment of inertia is required to be found out about X-X axis and
Y-Y axis as shown below;
Let us divide the whole area into a no. of strips. Consider one of these strips.
Let dA = Area of the strip
x = Distance of the centre of gravity of the strip on X-X axis and

y = Distance of the centre of gravity of the strip on Y-Y axis.
The moment of inertia of the strip about Y-Y axis = dA . x2

Now the moment of inertia of the whole area may be found out by integrating above equation.
i.e.
IYY =. x2 Similarly IXX =. y2
Moment of inertia of a rectangular section
Consider a rectangular section ABCD as shown below whose moment of inertia is required to be
found out.
Consider a strip PQ of thickness dy parallel to X-X axis and at a distance y from it as shown in
the figure
∴ Area of the strip = b.dy
Moment of inertia of the strip about X-X axis = Area × y2 = (b. dy) y2 = b. y2. Dy
Moment of inertia of the whole section may be found out by integrating the above equation for
the whole length of the lamina i.e. from – to ,
Similarly
Parallel and perpendicular axes theorems
These two theorems may be useful in considering problems on moments of inertia.
(a) Parallel axes theorem

The moment of inertia I of a body about any axis is equal to the moment of inertia IG about a
parallel axis through the centre of gravity of the body plus Mb2, where M is the mass of the body
and b is the distance between the two axes. (See Figure 1)
I = IG + Mb2
(b) Perpendicular axes theorem

For any plane body (e.g. a rectangular sheet of metal) the moment of inertia about any axis
perpendicular to the plane is equal to the sum of the moments of inertia about any two
perpendicular axes in the plane of the body which intersect the first axis in the plane.
This theorem is most useful when considering a body which is of regular form (symmetrical)
about two out of the three axes. If the moment of inertia about these axes is known then that
about the third axis may be calculated.
Chapter 7: KINEMATICS OF A PARTICLE
Rectilinear and curvilinear motion
Projectiles
PROJECTILES
A projectile is a particle, moving under the combined effect of vertical and horizontal forces. It may be
noted that the vertical component of the motion is always subjected to gravitational acceleration, whereas
the horizontal component remains constant.
TERMINOLOGY
Trajectory: is the path, traced by a projectile in the space.
Velocity of projection: The velocity, with which a projectile is projected.
Angle of projection: The angle, with the horizontal, at which a projectile is projected.
Time of flight: The total time taken by a projectile, to reach maximum height and to return back to the
ground.
The range: The distance, between the point of projection and the point where the projectile strikes the
ground.
OBLIQUE PROJECTIONS
Motion of a projectile: Components of the initial velocity (velocity of projection)
Vertical component: u sin (is affected by gravity)
Horizontal component: u cos (will remain constant)
Equation of the path of a projectile
Let P = any position of the projectile after some time t sec with X and Y coordinates
From: s = ut
Y = (u sin ) t – ½ gt2 ………… (i)
X = (u cos ) t ………… (ii)
Thus t= ……….. (iii)
Hence equation of the path will be given by: -
Y = (u sin ) – ½ g 2
= -
= x tan - ……….(iv)
Time of flight of a projectile
At A, S = 0, or Y = 0
Therefore 0 = (u sin ) t – ½ gt2
½ gt2 = (u sin ) t
t=
NB: The body (projectile) reaches maximum height in half the time of flight i.e. when:
t=
Maximum height (H)
If t = and Vertical component: = u sin θ, then
S = ut – ½ gt2 becomes
H = (u sin ) – ½ g2
= - =
OR
From average velocity concept
Vertical component = u sin; Horizontal component = 0
Average velocity =
= and t =
Maximum height (H) = average velocity x time
= x
=
Range (R) of a projectile
If Horizontal component = u cos; and total time of flight =
From S = ut
R = u cos x
= but, 2sin cos = Sin 2
=
NB: Maximum range is reached when = 450, thus 2 = 900
Rmax =
=
Velocity of projection (u)

u=
=
Angle of projection ()
tan =
=
Velocity of striking the ground (v)
v=
Where;
H.Component =
V.Component = u – gt (from v = u –gt)
TUTORIALS
Example: A projectile is fired from the ground with a velocity of 120 m/s at 30 0 to the horizontal.
Determine:
• The time of flight
• The range
• The maximum height reached
If the inclination is altered to 600 to the horizontal, with the projection speed remaining as before,
determine the corresponding values of: (a), (b) and (c).
For 1st case

Vertical component of velocity = u sin = 120 sin 30 = 60 m/s
Time of flight is given from s = ut – ½ gt2, (when firing from ground to ground, s = 0)
0 = 60t – ½ x 9.81 x t2
t = = 12.2 seconds
Horizontal component of velocity = u cos = 120 cos 30 = 104 m/s
Range R = ut = 104 x 12.2 =1270 m
Maximum height H is given by; v2 – u2 = -2gs

(But v = 0 at maximum height and u is the vertical component)
H = = = = 184 m
For 2nd case
Vertical component of velocity = u sin = 120 sin 60 = 104 m/s
Time of flight is given from s = ut – ½ gt2, (when firing from ground to ground, s = 0)
0 = 104t – ½ x 9.81 x t2
t = = 21.2 seconds
Horizontal component of velocity = u cos = 120 cos 60 = 60 m/s
Range R = ut = 60 x 21.2 =1270 m
Maximum height H is given by; v2 – u2 = -2gs

(But v = 0 at maximum height and u is the vertical component)
H = = = 550 m
Example: A body is projected from the top of a tower 30 m high, and strikes the ground 10 seconds later
at a point 600 m from the base of the tower. Determine:
• The velocity of projection
• The velocity with which the body strikes the ground. In each case state both the magnitude and
direction which the velocity makes with the horizontal
Let u = velocity of projection, and = inclination of velocity.
a) Velocity of projection
Horizontal component of velocity = u cos
Horizontal distance travelled = u cos x t
600 = u cos x 10
u cos = 60 ……………………(i)
Vertical component of velocity = u cos

Vertical distance travelled = u sin x t – ½ gt2 (s = ut – ½ gt2)
- 30 = 10 u sin – ½ x 9.81 x 102
10 u sin = 490 – 30
u sin = 46 ……………………….(ii)
Velocity of projection =
=
= 75.8 m/s
Inclination tan = = = 0.7667

= 370 28’
b) Velocity on striking the ground

Horizontal component = 60 m/s (This remains constant throughout the flight)
Vertical component v = u – gt = 46 – 10g = - 52.1 m/s
Striking velocity =
=
= 79.5 m/s
Inclination tan = = = 0.8683

= 400 58’
Example: A stone is thrown from the top of a tower which is 11 m high and stands on horizontal ground.
The speed of projection is 12 m/s and the initial direction of motion is at 60o to the downward vertical.
• Find the time taken for the stone to reach the ground
• Find also the direction of motion just before it hit the ground
The origin is at the top of the tower and angle of projection is below the x axis
= - 300 and at the foot of the tower, y = -11
Then
y = u sint – ½ gt2
-11 = (12) (sin 30) t – ½ (9.81) t2
-11 = 12 x (-0.5) t – ½ x 9.81 t2
4.905 t2 + 6 t – 11 = 0
= = 1 or -2.2 seconds
The stone reached the ground after 1 second. Negative indicate time before the projectile is launched the
other side.
Just before the stone hits the ground,

Horizontal component of velocity = u cos = 12 x cos (-30) = 10.4 m/s
Vertical component of velocity = u – gt
= 12 x sin (-30) – (9.81 x 1)
= - 15.81 m/s (i.e. downwards)
tan = = = 1.52
= tan-1 (1.52)
= 57o
Example: A particle is projected from a point which is 2 m above ground level with a velocity of 40 m/s
at an angle of 45o to the horizontal. Find its horizontal distance from the point of projection when it hits
the ground.
Equation of the path is given by: -

y = x tan -
= x tan -
We require the value of x when y = - 2
So -2 =x-
9.81 x2 –1600 x -3200 =0
x = = = 165.1 m
Example: A stone is thrown from the top of a cliff 70 m high at an angle of 30 o below the horizontal and
hits the sea 20 m from the bottom of the cliff. Find the initial speed of the stone and the direction in which
it is moving when it hits the sea.
Let initial velocity be v;

y = x tan -
The stone hits the sea when y = -70 and x = 20
-70 = 20 tan - = - 11.55 -
-58.45 x = - 3924
-87.675 v2 = - 3924
v2 = = 44. 76
v = = 6.7 m/s
= -0.58 -
= - 6.4
Angle = tan-1(-6.4) = 81o to the horizontal.
Example: A particle P is projected from a point O with an initial velocity of 60 m/s at an angle of 30 o to
the horizontal. At the same instant a second particle Q is projected in the opposite direction with initial
speed of 50 m/s from a point level with O and 100 m from O. If the particles collide find the angle of
projection of Q and find when the collision occurs.
If the particles collide they must be at the same point at the same time so, as time is an important
consideration, we do not use the equation of the path..
Let t be the time interval from projection to collision
For P we use O as the origin and the x axis along OA giving
xp = (60 cos 30o)t
yp = (60 sin 30o)t – ½ gt2
For Q we use A as the origin and its x axis along AO giving
xQ = (50 cos α)t
yQ = (50 sin α)t – ½ gt2
But xp + xQ = 100
→ t(30 + 50 cos α) = 100 ……[1]
Also yp = yQ
→ 30 = 50 sin α
→ sin α = 3/5 ……[2]
Hence, from equation [2], cos α = 4/5 → α = 36.9o

Therefore Q is projected at 36.9o to the horizontal.
Then equation [1] gives

t(30 + 50 cos 36.9) = 100
t(30 + 40) = 100
→ t = 1.09 sec
Therefore, the particles collide 1.09 seconds after projection.
Relative motion
DYNAMICS
Newton’s Laws of Motion
1) Newton’s first law
An object continues in a state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless acted on by a
resultant force.
2) Newton’s second law
The rate of change of momentum of an object is directly proportional to the resultant force
applied and is in the direction of the resultant force.
• F = resultant force in Newtons (N)

• m = mass in kilograms (kg)
• a = acceleration in metres per second per second (ms-2)
• F = resultant force in Newtons (N)

• D(mv) = change in momentum in kilogram metres per second (kg ms-1)
• t = change in time in seconds (s)
3) Newton’s third law
When two objects interact they exert equal and opposite forces on each other. To every action
there is an equal and opposite reaction. This means that forces always act in pairs of equal and
opposite forces.
Chapter 8: Work and energy
Forces & Energy
When a force (F) moves and object through a distance (d) then work is done and energy is
transferred.
Work done (W) is measured in joules (J). Energy transferred is measured in joules (J).
Work done = Energy Transferred
Work done = force x distance moved
(joules, J) (newtons, N) (metres, m)
Power
Power (P) is the work done in a given time, it is measured in watts (W). One watt is one joule per
second.
Power = energy transferred

time
Gravitational Potential Energy
This is the energy an object gains when it is lifted up in a gravitational field; it is measured in
joules (J).
Change in GPE = mass x gravitational field strength x change in height
(Joules, J) (Kilogram, kg) (Newtons per kilogram, N/kg) (Metres, m)
Kinetic energy
The kinetic energy of an object depends on its mass and speed; it is measured in joules (J).
Momentum: The quantity of motion possessed by a moving body. It is measured by the product of
the body’s mass m and its velocity v. Thus; the momentum (p) of an object is found by multiplying
the objects mass (m) in kilograms (kg) by its velocity in metres per second (m/s).
Momentum = mass x velocity
P=mxv
Momentum is measured in kilogram metre per second (kg m/s).
Example; A car of mass 2000 kg is travelling at 32 m/s. What is its momentum?

Momentum has magnitude, direction and sense. Therefore it is a vector quantity.
Example: Determine the momentum of a motor vehicle of mass 2 Mg which is travelling with a
uniform velocity of 72 km/h.
Solution
Momentum = mv where: m = 2 and Mg = 2000 kg
V = 72 km/h = = 20 m/s
Therefore Momentum = 2000 x 20 = 40 000 kg m/s
The law of conservation of momentum
When two objects interact the total momentum remains the same provided no external forces are
acting (a closed system).
The momentum before = the momentum after.
Example; A toy car of mass 8 kg is travelling at 20 m/s. It collides with a car of mass 3 kg which
is stationary. The two cars join together and move of as one object, what is the velocity of the
two cars as they move off together?
Example; Two objects are in stationary and in contact with each other. They are pushed apart by
an explosion. The 3 kg toy car moves right with a velocity of 14 m/s and the 8 kg car moves left.
What is the velocity of the 8 kg toy car as it moves left?
Example: A planning machine has moving parts of mass 1.5 tonnes. It is brought to rest from a
speed of 0.12 m/s in 0.8s.Calculate the average retarding Force.
Solution F = = = = 225N
Example: A rocket in level flight ejects 100 kg of burnt fuel in 8s at a velocity of 500m/s relative
to the rocket. Calculate (a) the change in momentum of burnt fuel, (b) the average force on the
rocket due to the ejection.
Solution (a) Momentum = Mv = 100 kg x 500 m/s = 50 000kg m/s
(b) F = = = 6.25 KN
Example: A train of total mass 1000 tonnes is travelling at 90km/h. (a) Find the total resisting
force required to stop the train in one minute. (b) If the rolling resistance to motion is
100N/tonne, what is the braking effort required?
Solution
(a) The braking effort together with the tractive resistance provides the decelerating force.
90 km/h = 25 m/s
Deceleration = 25 m/s in 60s = = 0.417 m/s2
Force, F required to produce this acceleration = ma
= 100 x 1000 x 0.417 = 41700 N
(b) Resistance to motion = Applied Force F
R = 100 x 100 = 10 000N
Braking Effort = 41700 -10 000
= 31700 = 31.7 KN
Example: A train of mass 650 tonnes is drawn by a locomotive of mass 50 tonnes and exerts a
tractive effort of 80 KN. If the tractive resistance is 65N/tonne, find the time to reach a steady
speed of 90 Km/h from rest.
Solution
V = 90 km/h = 25 m/s
Acceleration Force, F = Tractive Effort – Tractive Resistance
= (80 x 103) – 65(650 + 50) = 34 500N
Since F = ma
34 500 = (700 x 1000) a
Therefore a = 0.0493 m/s2
From, v = at
25 m/s = 0.0493 x t
t = 507s = 8.45 minutes
Example: A motor vehicle of mass 1250 kg is retarded from a speed of 108 km/h and comes to
rest with uniform retardation after travelling a distance of 150m. Determine:
(a) The magnitude of the braking force.
(b) The time taken by the vehicle to come to rest.
Solution
(a) Use The equation: v2 = u2 + 2as to find deceleration (-3 m/s2)
Braking Force = Mass of vehicle x Retardation (ma)
= 1250 kg x 3
= 3. 75 KN
(b) To find time taken by vehicle to come to rest: s = ½ (u + v) t
150 = ½ ( + 0) t
t = 10s
Example: A force of 650 N is applied to a body of mass 200 kg for a period of 12s. If the only
other force acting on the body is a constant frictional force of 400N in opposition to its motion,
find: (a) the acceleration of the body b) the distance moved by the body in this time.
Solution
(a) Acceleration Force, F = Resultant Force in the direction of motion

= Applied Force – Frictional Force
= 650N - 400N
= 250 N
But, from F = ma, Acceleration, a = F/m
=
= 1.25 m/s2
(b) To find distance moved by the body,
S = ut + ½ at2 where: u =0; t = 12s; a = 1.25 m/s2
= 0 + ½ (1.25 x 122)
= 90 m
Impulse for linear and angular motion

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Chapter 1: GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF STATICS

Scalars & Vectors

Adding vectors to find the resultant vector

Adding vectors which act at 90o to each other

The parallelogram of forces method

Resolving Vectors or resolution of forces

We can resolve a vector into two components at 90o to each other.

Horizontal component (x) Vertical component (y)

There are two conditions for equilibrium:

• The resultant force acting on the object is zero.

0 + (- 0.707106T1) + 0.866T2 = 0 … … … (i)

(-981) + 0.707106T1 + 0.5T2 = 0 … … (ii)

Solving simultaneously and substituting for T2 in equation (i)

(0.866 x 718.16) = 0.707106T1

Total horizontal component,

H = 4 cos 90° + 5 cos 180° + 8 cos 225° + 7 cos 315° = -5.7071

Total vertical component,

V = 4 sin 90° + 5 sin 180° + 8 sin 225° + 7 sin 315° = -6.6066

R= = 8.73 N and θ = tan-1 = tan-1 = 229.18°

y = 95.7 + 0.192 x … … … … (i)

y = - 74.8 – 2.33 x … … (ii)

Therefore, 95.7 + 0.192 x = - 74.8 – 2.33 x

x = - 67.6 N (its direction means is pointing towards the point of concurrence)

y = - 74.8 – (2.33 x - 67.6)

190.53 + 0.866Y = 900 …(i)

: 900 Sin 180 + 220 Sin 330 + X Sin 270 + Y Sin 30

0.5Y = 110 + X …(ii)

From the sum of horizontal component

θ = tan-1(0.209) = 11o 48’

R x d = total moments = 35.94

Magnitude of resultant force

Resolving all the forces horizontally,

ΣH = 8 sin α + 12 + 5 sin 45° – 9 sin 45° – 6 sin α

= (8 × 0.894) + (12) + (5 × 0.707) – (9 × 0.707) – (6 × 0.894) kN

And now resolving all the forces vertically,

ΣV = 7 + 8 cos α – 5 cos 45° – 9 cos 45° + 6 cos α

= 7 + (8 × 0.447) – (5 × 0.707) – (9 × 0.707) + (6 × 0.447) kN

Direction of the resultant force

Position of the resultant force

Taking moments about *E and equating the same,

11.46 x = (7 × 0) + (8 × 0) + (12 × 10) + (5 × 0.707) + (9 × 0.707) + (6 × 0)

Moments are measured in newton metres (Nm).

• F = the force in Newton (N)

Moment = Fd = 10 x 0.50 = 5.0 Nm

The principle of moments

Sum of anticlockwise moments = sum clockwise moments

F1 x d1 = F2 x d2 F1 x d1 = (F2 x d2) + (F3 x d3)

Considering the horizontal forces acting on the beam, H = 1 x Cos 60 0 = 0.5 kN

The weight of the 200 kg mass = 1962 N

L x 8 + 1600 = (1000 x Sin600 x 2) + (2000 x 3) + (1962 x 6) + 2000

8L = 21 504.05081 – 1600 = 19 904.05081 N

Similarly, taking moments about the left hand end:

R x 8 + 2000 = (1962 x 2) + (2000 x 5) + (1000 x Sin 60 0 x 6) + 1600

8R = 20 720.15242 – 2000 = 18720.15242

Vertical component of 100 N = 100 sin 45o = 70.710 678 12

(F sin 60o x 3) = (100 sin 45o x 1.5) + (60 x 1)

(0.866F x 3) = (70.710 678 12 x 1.5) + (60 x 1)

2.598F = 106.066 017 2 + 60 = 166.066 017 2

Clockwise moments = anticlockwise moments