Chapter 6

Inductance, Capacitance, and

Mutual Inductance
6.1 The inductor
6.2 The capacitor
6.3 Series-parallel combinations of
inductance and capacitance
6.4 Mutual inductance
6.5 Closer look at mutual inductance

1
Overview

„ In addition to voltage sources, current sources,

resistors, here we will discuss the remaining 2
types of basic elements: inductors, capacitors.
„ Inductors and capacitors cannot generate nor
dissipate but store energy.
„ Their current-voltage (i-v) relations involve with
integral and derivative of time, thus more
complicated than resistors.

2
Key points
di
„ Why the i-v relation of an inductor is v L ?
dt
dv
„ Why the i-v relation of a capacitor is i C ?
dt

„ Why the energies stored in an inductor and a

capacitor are:
1 2 1 2
w Li , Cv , respectively?
2 2

3
Section 6.1
The Inductor

1. Physics
2. i-v relation and behaviors
3. Power and energy

4
Fundamentals

„ An inductor of inductance L is symbolized by a

solenoidal coil.
„ Typical inductance L ranges from 10 PH to 10
mH.
„ The i-v relation of an inductor (under the
passive sign convention) is:

di
v L ,
dt

5
Physics of self-inductance (1)

„ Consider an N1-turn coil C1 carrying current I1.

& &
The resulting magnetic field B1 ( r ) v N1 I1 (Biot-
Savart law) will pass through C1 itself, causing a
& & flux linkage O1, where
B1 ( r )
O1 N1I1 ,
& & *
I1 ³ B1 ( r ) ˜ ds P1 N1 I1 ,
S1

P1 is the permeance.
Ÿ O1 P1 N12 I1.
6
Physics of self-inductance (2)

„ The ratio of flux linkage to the driving current is

defined as the self inductance of the loop:
O1
L1 { N12 P1 ,
I1
which describes how easy a coil current can
introduce magnetic flux over the coil itself.

7
Examples

„ Solenoidal & toroidal coils: ~2 cm

L = 270 PH L = 36 PH

„ RG59/U coaxial cable:

L = 351 nH/m.
8
The i-v relation

„ Faraday’s law states that the electromotive

force v (emf, in units of volt) induced on a loop
equals the time derivative of the magnetic flux
linkage O:
d d d
v { O , Ÿ v { Li L i.
dt dt dt
„ Note: The emf of a loop is a non-conservative
force that can drive current flowing along the
loop. In contrast, the current-driving force due
to electric charges is conservative.
9
Behaviors of inductors

di
v L
dt
„ DC-current: inductor behaves as a short circuit.
„ Current cannot change instantaneously in an
inductor, otherwise, infinite voltage will arise.
„ Change of inductor current is the integral of
voltage during the same time interval:
1 t
i (t ) i (t0 )  ³ v (W )dW .
L t0
10
Inductive effect is everywhere!

„ Nearly all electric circuits have currents flowing

through conducting wires. Since it’s difficult to
shield magnetic fields, inductive effect occurs
even we do not purposely add an inductor into
the circuit.

11
 Example 6.1: Inductor driven by a current pulse

­0, t  0
i (t ) ® 5t
¯10te , t !0

The inductor voltage is:

Inductor
voltage can Memory-less
di ­0, t  0 in steady
v(t ) L ® 5t jump!
dt ¯e (1  5t ), t ! 0 state.

12
Power & energy (1)

„ Consider an inductor of inductance L. The

instantaneous power in the inductor is:
di
p vi Li .
dt
„ Assume there is no initial current (i.e. no initial
energy), Ÿ i(t = 0) = 0, w(t = 0) = 0. We are
interested in the energy W when the current
increases from zero to I with arbitrary i(t).

13
Power & energy (2)

dw di W I
p Li , Ÿ dw
0 0
Li ˜ di, Ÿ ³ dw L ³ idi,
dt dt
2 I
i 1 2 1 2
ŸW L LI , i.e. w Li
2 0
2 2

„ How the current changes with time doesn’t

matter. It’s the final current I determining the
final energy.
„ Inductor stores magnetic energy when there is
nonzero current.
14
Example 6.3: Inductor driven by a current pulse

„ t < 0.2, Ÿ p > 0, wn, charging.

„ t > 0.2, Ÿ p < 0, wp, discharging.

„ In steady state (t of), i o 0,

vo 0, p o 0, w o 0 (no energy).

15
Example 6.3: Inductor driven by a voltage pulse

1 t
i (t ) v(W )dW  i (0)
L ³0

„ p > 0, wn, always charging.

„ In steady state (tof), i o2 A,

v o 0, p o 0, w o 200 mJ
(sustained current and With memory in
steady
ady state.
state
constant energy).
16
Section 6.2
The Capacitor

1. Physics
2. i-v relation and behaviors
3. Power and energy

17
Fundamentals

„ A capacitor of capacitance C is symbolized by a

parallel-plate.
„ Typical capacitance C ranges from 10 pF to 470
PF.
„ The i-v relation of an capacitor (under the
passive sign convention) is:

dv
i C .
dt

18
Physics of capacitance (1)

„ If we apply a voltage V12 between two isolated

conductors, charge rQ will be properly
distributed over the conducting surfaces such
& &
that the resulting electric field E (r ) satisfies:
1
& &
2 E (r ) *1 & & *
B1 E ( r ) ˜ dl V12 ,
³2

which is valid for any

integral path linking
* the two conducting
E surfaces.
19
Physics of capacitance (2)

„ If V12c DV12 , Ÿ Q c DQ while the spatial

distribution of charge remains such that
& & & & 1 & & *
E c( r ) DE ( r ), V12c DE ( r ) ˜ dl DV12 .
2
³
„ The ratio of the deposited charge to the bias
voltage is defined as the capacitance of the
conducting pair:
Q
C{ ,
V
describing how easy a bias voltage can deposit
charge on the conducting pair.
20
Examples

„ Ceramic disc & electrolytic:

„ RG59/U coaxial cable:

C = 53 pF/m.
21
The i-v relation

„ From the definition of capacitance:

Q d d d
C { , Ÿ q(t ) Cv(t ), q C v, i C v.
V dt dt dt
„ Note: Charge cannot flow through the
dielectric between the conductors. However, a
time-varying voltage causes a time-varying
electric field that can slightly displace the
dielectric bound charge. It is the time-varying
bound charge contributing to the
“displacement current”.
22
Polarization charge

23
Behaviors of capacitors

dv
i C
dt
„ DC-voltage: capacitor behaves as an open
circuit.
„ Voltage cannot change instantaneously in an
capacitor, otherwise, infinite current will arise.
„ Change of capacitor voltage is the integral of
current during the same time interval:
1 t
v(t ) v(t0 )  ³ i (W )dW .
C t0
24
Capacitive effect is everywhere!

„ A Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor (MOS) transistor

has three conducting terminals (Gate, Source,
Drain) separated by a dielectric layer with one
another. Capacitive effect occurs even we do
not purposely add a capacitor into the circuit.

(info.tuwien.ac.at)

charges

25
Power & energy (1)

„ Consider a capacitor of capacitance C. The

instantaneous power in the capacitor is:
dv
p vi Cv .
dt
„ Assume there is no initial voltage (i.e. no initial
energy), Ÿ v(t = 0) = 0, w(t = 0) = 0. We are
interested in the energy W when the voltage
increases from zero to V with arbitrary v(t).

26
Power & energy (2)

dw dv W V
p
0 0
Cv , Ÿ dw Cv ˜ dv, Ÿ ³ dw C ³ vdv,
dt dt
2 V
v 1
ŸW C CV 2 , i.e. w 1 Cv 2
2 0
2 2
„ How the voltage increases with time doesn’t
matter. It’s the final voltage V determining the
final energy.
„ Capacitor stores electric energy when there is
nonzero voltage.
27
Example 6.4: Capacitor driven by a voltage pulse

Capacitor current
can jump!

„ t < 1, Ÿ p > 0, wn, charging.

„ t > 1, Ÿ p < 0, wp, discharging.

„ In steady state (tof), i o0, v Memory-less in

o 0, p o 0, w o 0 (no energy). steady state.

28
Section 6.3
Series-Parallel
Combinations

1. Inductors in series-parallel
2. Capacitors in series-parallel

29
Inductors in series
i i1 i2 i3 ,
v v1  v2  v3 ,
di j
vj Lj ,
dt
di di di
Ÿv L1  L2  L3
dt dt dt
di
Leq ,
dt
n
Ÿ Leq ¦L j
j 1
30
Inductors in parallel

1 t
v v1 v2 v3 , i i1  i2  i3 , i j ³ v (W )dW  i j (t 0 ),
Lj t0

3 § 1 t · § 3 1 ·§ t ª 3 º
Ÿi ¦ ¨ v (W ) d W  i j (t 0 ) ¸ ¨¦ ¸¨ v (W )dW ·¸  «¦ i j (t0 ) »
¨ ³t0 ¸ ¨j1L ¸© ³t0
j
j 1 © Lj ¹ © ¹ ¹ ¬j 1 ¼
n
1 § t · 1 1
¨ ³t v (W )dW ¸  i (t0 ), Ÿ
Leq © 0 ¹ Leq
¦j 1 Lj
31
 Capacitors in series

­v v1  v2  v3 , i i1 i2 i3 , n
° 1 1
1 t 1 t Ÿ
®v
° j C ³t0
idW  v j (t0 ), v 0
³ idW  v(t ),
t0 Ceq
¦
j 1 Cj
¯ j Ceq
32
Capacitors in parallel

­v v1 v2 v3 , i i1  i2  i3 , n
°
® dv dv Ÿ Ceq ¦C j
°̄i j C j dt , i Ceq dt , j 1

33
Chapter 7
Response of First-order RL
and RC Circuits

7.1-2 The Natural Response of RL and RC

Circuits
7.3 The Step Response of RL and RC
Circuits
7.4 A General Solution for Step and Natural
Responses
7.5 Sequential Switching
7.6 Unbounded Response

1
Overview

„ Ch9-10 discuss “steady-state response” of

linear circuits to “sinusoidal sources”. The math
treatment is the same as the “dc response”
except for introducing “phasors” and
“impedances” in the algebraic equations.
„ From now on, we will discuss “transient
response” of linear circuits to “step sources”
(Ch7-8) and general “time-varying sources”
(Ch12-13). The math treatment involves with
differential equations and Laplace transform.
2
First-order circuit

„ A circuit that can be simplified to a Thévenin (or

Norton) equivalent connected to either a single
equivalent inductor or capacitor.

„ In Ch7, the source is either none (natural

response) or step source.
3
Key points

„ Why an RC or RL circuit is charged or

discharged as an exponential function of time?

„ Why the charging and discharging speed of an

RC or RL circuit is determined by RC or L/R?

„ What could happen when an energy-storing

element (C or L) is connected to a circuit with
dependent source?

4
Section 7.1, 7.2
The Natural Response of RL
and RC Circuits

1. Differential equation & solution of a

discharging RL circuit
2. Time constant
3. Discharging RC circuit

5
What is natural response?

„ It describes the “discharging” of inductors or

capacitors via a circuit of no dependent source.
„ No external source is involved, thus termed as
“natural” response.
„ The effect will vanish as t o f. The interval
within which the natural response matters
depends on the element parameters.

6
Circuit model of a discharging RL circuit

„ Consider the following circuit model:

„ For t < 0, the inductor L is short and carries a

current Is, while R0 and R carry no current.
„ For t > 0, the inductor current decreases and the
energy is dissipated via R.
7
Ordinary differential equation (ODE), initial condition (IC)

„ For t > 0, the circuit reduces to:

IC depends on initial
energy of the inductor:
i (0 ) i (0 ) { I 0 Is

„ By KVL, we got a first-order ODE for i(t):

d
L i(t )  Ri(t ) 0.
dt
where L, R are independent of both i, and t.
8
Solving the loop current

d
ODE : L i (t )  Ri (t ) 0, IC : i (0  ) { I 0 I s ;
dt
di R
Ÿ L(di )  Ri (dt ) 0,  dt ,
i L
i ( t ) di c R t i (t ) R t
Ÿ³  ³ dt c, ln ic i ( 0 )  t c 0 ,
i ( 0 ) ic L 0 L
i (t ) R
Ÿ ln i (t )  ln i (0) ln  t,
I0 L
tW L
Ÿ i (t ) I 0 e , where W …time constant
R
9
Time constant describes the discharging speed

„ The loop current i(t) will drop to e-1 (| 37%) of its

initial value I0 within one time constant W. It will
be <0.01I0 after elapsing 5W.
„ If i(t) is approximated by a linear function, it will
vanish in one time constant.

0.37 I 0

10
Solutions of the voltage, power, and energy

„ The voltage across R (or L) is:

­°0, for t d 0  ,
v(t ) Ri(t ) ® …abrupt change at t = 0.
tW 
°̄ RI 0 e , for t t 0 .

„ The instantaneous power dissipated in R is:

p (t ) i 2 (t ) R I 02 Re  2t IJ , for t t 0 .

„ The energy dissipated in the resistor R is:

t t
2  2t c IJ
w p(t c)dt c 0 dt c
³ 0 0
I R³ e
>
w0 1  e  2t IJ , w0 @ LI 02 2 , for t t 0 .
initial energy stored in L
11
Example 7.2: Discharge of parallel inductors (1)

„ Q: Find i1(t), i2(t), i3(t), and the energies w1, w2

stored in L1, L2 in steady state (t o f).

„ For t < 0: (1) L1, L2 are short, and (2) no current

flows through any of the 4 resistors, Ÿ
i1 (0  ) 8 A, i2 (0  ) 4 A, i3 (0  ) 0,
w1 (0  ) (5 H)(8 A)2 2 160 J, w2 (0  ) (20)(4) 2 2 160 J.
12
Example 7.2: Solving the equivalent RL circuit (2)

„ For t > 0, switch is open, the initial energy stored

in the 2 inductors is dissipated via the 4 resistors.
The equivalent circuit becomes:
I0 = (8+4) = 12 A
Req =
Leq = (5H//20H) = 4 H v(0-) = 0 8 :

„ The solutions to i(t), v(t) are:

Leq 4 ­°i (t ) I 0 e  t W 12e 2t A,
W 0.5 s, Ÿ ®
Req 8 °̄v(t ) Ri (t ) 96e  2t V.
13
Example 7.2: Solving the inductor currents (3)

„ The two inductor currents i1(t), i2(t) can be

calculated by v(t):

96e 2t V

1 t 1 t
i1 (t ) i1 (0)  ³ v(t c)dt c 8  ³ 96e  2t dt c 1.6  9.6e  2t A.
L1 0 5 0
1 t 1 t  2t  2t
i2 (t ) i2 (0)  v (t c) d t c 4  96 e d t c 1 . 6  2 . 4e A.
L2 ³0 20 ³0

14
Example 7.2: Solutions in steady state (4)

„ Since
i1 (t ) 1.6  9.6e 2t o 1.6 A,
i2 (t ) 1.6  2.4e  2t o 1.6 A,
the two inductors form a closed current loop!

„ The energies stored in the two inductors are:

1
w1 (t o f) (5 H)(1.6 A) 2 6.4 J,
2
1
w2 (t o f) (20)(1.6) 2 25.6 J,
2
which is ~10% of the initial energy in total.
15
Example 7.2: Solving the resistor current (5)

„ By current division, i3(t) = 0.6i4:(t), while i4:(t) can

be calculated by v(t):

i4:

v(t ) 96e 2t

i4 : (t ) 9.6e  2t A.
4:  (15: // 10:) 10
3
Ÿ i3 (t ) i4 : (t ) 5.76e  2t A.
5
16
Circuit model of a discharging RC circuit

„ Consider the following circuit model:

„ For t < 0, C is open and biased by a voltage Vg,

while R1 and R carry no current.
„ For t > 0, the capacitor voltage decreases and the
energy is dissipated via R.
17
ODE & IC

„ For t > 0, the circuit reduces to:

IC depends on initial
energy of the capacitor:
v (0 ) v (0 ) { V0 Vg

„ By KCL, we got a first-order ODE for v(t):

d v(t )
C v(t )  0.
dt R
where C, R are independent of both v, and t.
18
Solving the parallel voltage

d v(t ) 
ODE : C v(t )  0, IC : v(0 ) { V0 Vg ;
dt R

Ÿ v(t ) V0 e  t W , where W RC …time constant

„ Reducing R (loss)
and parasitic C is
critical for high-
speed circuits.

19
Solutions of the current, power, and energy

„ The loop current is:

v(t ) ­°0, for t d 0  ,
i (t ) ® …abrupt change at t = 0.
tW 
R °̄ V0 R e , for t t 0 .

„ The instantaneous power dissipated in R is:

v 2 (t ) V02  2t IJ
p(t ) e , for t t 0 .
R R
„ The energy dissipated in the resistor R is:
t CV02
w > @
p (t c)dt c w0 1  e  2t IJ , w0 , for t t 0 .
³0 2
initial energy stored in C
20
Procedures to get natural response of RL, RC circuits

1. Find the equivalent circuit.

2. Find the initial conditions: initial current I0
through the equivalent inductor, or initial voltage
V0 across the equivalent capacitor.
3. Find the time constant of the circuit by the
values of the equivalent R, L, C:
W L R , or RC ;
4. Directly write down the solutions:
i (t ) I 0 e  t W , v(t ) V0 e  t W .
21
Section 7.3
The Step Response of
RL and RC Circuits

1. Charging an RC circuit
2. Charging an RL circuit

22
What is step response?

„ The response of a circuit to the sudden

application of a constant voltage or current
source, describing the charging behavior of the
circuit.
„ Step (charging) response and natural
(discharging) response show how the signal in a
digital circuit switches between Low and High
with time.

23
ODE and IC of a charging RC circuit

IC depends on
initial energy of
the capacitor:
v (0 ) v (0 ) { V0

„ Derive the governing ODE by KCL:

v (t ) d dv 1
Is  C v (t ), Ÿ  v Vf ,
R dt dt W
where W RC , V f I s R are the time constant
and final (steady-state) parallel voltage. 24
Solving the parallel voltage, branch currents

dv 1 dv 1
 v Vf , Ÿ  dt ,
dt W v Vf W
v(t ) dvc 1 t v (t )  V f t v (t )  V f
 dt c, ln  , e t W ,
³V0 vc  I s R W 0
³ V0  V f W V0  V f

Ÿ v (t ) V f  V0  V f e t W .
„ The charging and discharging processes have
the same speed (same time constant W= RC).
„ The branch currents through C and R are:
d § V0 · t W v(t )
iC (t ) C v(t ) ¨ I s  ¸e , iR (t ) , for t ! 0.
dt © R¹ R 25
Example 7.6 (1)

„ Q: Find vo(t), io(t) for t t 0.

„ For t < 0, the switch is connected to Terminal 1

for long, the capacitor is an open circuit:
 60 k:
vo (0 ) ( 40 V) 30 V, io (0 ) 0.
( 20  60) k:
26
Example 7.6 (2)

„ At t t 0+, the “charging circuit” with two terminals

2 and G can be reduced to a Norton equivalent:

vo (0 ) vo (0 ) +
v0
{ V0 30 V
 Is 1.5 mA
27
Example 7.6 (3)

„ The time constant and the final capacitor

voltage of the charging circuit are:
W RC (40 k:)(0.25 PF) 10 ms,
Vf IsR ( 1.5 mA)(40 k:) 60 V.

Ÿ vo (t ) V f  V0  V f e t W 60  90e 100t V.

Ÿ io (t ) I s  V0 R e t W 2.25e 100t mA.

„ At the time of switching, the capacitor voltage

is continuous: vo (0 ) 30 V v0 (0 ) ( 60  90) V ,
while the current io jumps from 0 to -2.25 mA.
28
Charging an RL circuit

IC depends on
initial energy of
the inductor:
i (0  ) i (0  ) { I 0
d
Vs Ri (t )  L i (t ), Ÿ i (t ) I f  I 0  I f e t W ,
dt
L Vs
where W , If .
R R
„ The charging and discharging processes have
the same speed (same time constant W=L/R). 29
&KDSWHU
1DWXUDODQG6WHS5HVSRQVHVRI
5/& &LUFXLWV

8.1-2 The Natural Response of a Parallel RLC

Circuit
8.3 The Step Response of a Parallel RLC
Circuit
8.4 The Natural and Step Response of a
Series RLC Circuit

1
Key points

„ What do the response curves of over-, under-,

and critically-damped circuits look like? How to
choose R, L, C values to achieve fast switching
or to prevent overshooting damage?

„ What are the initial conditions in an RLC circuit?

How to use them to determine the expansion
coefficients of the complete solution?

„ Comparisons between: (1) natural & step

responses, (2) parallel, series, or general RLC.
2
Section 8.1, 8.2
The Natural Response of a
Parallel RLC Circuit

1. ODE, ICs, general solution of parallel

voltage
2. Over-damped response
3. Under-damped response
4. Critically-damped response
3
The governing ordinary differential equation (ODE)

V0, I0, v(t) must

satisfy the
passive sign
convention.

dv ª 1 t º v
„ By KCL: C  « I 0  ³ v (t c)dt c»  0.
dt ¬ L 0 ¼ R

„ Perform time derivative, we got a linear 2nd-

order ODE of v(t) with constant coefficients:
d 2 v 1 dv v
2
  0.
dt RC dt LC 4
The two initial conditions (ICs)

„ The capacitor voltage cannot change abruptly,

Ÿ v (0 ) V0 (1)
„ The inductor current cannot change abruptly,
Ÿ iL ( 0  ) I 0 , iC (0 )  iL ( 0  )  iR ( 0  )  I 0  V0 R ,
 dvC   I 0 V0
 iC (0 ) C , Ÿ vCc (0 ) vc(0 )    ( 2)
dt t 0 C RC
5
General solution
„ Assume the solution is v(t ) Ae st, where As are
unknown constants to be solved.
„ Substitute into the ODE, we got an algebraic
(characteristic) equation of s determined by the circuit
parameters: 2 s 1
s   0.
RC LC
„ Since the ODE is linear, Ÿ linear combination of
solutions remains a solution to the equation. The
general solution of v(t) must be of the form:
v (t ) A1e s1t  A2e s2t ,
where the expansion constants A1A2 will be determined
by the two initial conditions.
6
Neper and resonance frequencies

„ In general, s has two roots, which can be (1)

distinct real, (2) degenerate real, or (3) complex
conjugate pair.
2
1 § 1 · 1
s1, 2  r ¨ ¸  D r D 2  Z02 ,
2 RC © 2 RC ¹ LC
where
1
D , …neper frequency
2 RC

1
Z0 …resonance (natural) frequency
LC
7
Three types of natural response

„ How the circuit reaches its steady state depends

on the relative magnitudes of D and Z0:

The Circuit is When Solutions

real, distinct
Over-damped D ! Z
roots s1, s2
complex roots
Under-damped D  Z
s1 = (s2)*
real, equal roots
Critically-damped D Z
s1 = s2
8
Over-damped response (D > Z0)

„ 7KHFRPSOHWHVROXWLRQDQGLWVGHULYDWLYHDUHRI
WKHIRUP s1t s2 t
­°v (t ) A1e  A2e ,
®
°̄vc(t ) A1s1e s1t  A2 s2e s2t .

where s1, 2 D r D 2  Z02 are distinct real.

„ 6XEVWLWXWHWKHWZR,&V
­v (0 ) A1  A2 V0 (1) Ÿ VROYH
°
®  I 0 V0 A1A2
°vc(0 ) s1 A1  s2 A2  C  RC ( 2)
¯
9
Example 8.2: Discharging a parallel RLC circuit (1)

„ Q: v(t), iC(t), iL(t), iR(t) = ?

12 V 30 mA

­ 1 1
°D 2 RC 2( 200)( 2 u 107 ) 12.5 kHz, Ÿ D>Z0
° over-
® 1 1
°Z0 10 kHz. damped
°¯ LC (5 u 102 )( 2 u 107 )
10
Example 8.2: Solving the parameters (2)

„ The 2 distinct real roots of s are:

­s 2 2
°1 D  D  Z 0 5 kHz, …|s1| < D(slow)
®
°̄ s2 D  D 2  Z02 20 kHz. …|s2| > D(fast)

„ The 2 expansion coefficients are:

­ A1  A2 V0
° ­ A1  A2 12
® I 0 V0 Ÿ ®
°̄ s1 A1  s2 A2  C  RC ¯ 5 A1  20 A2 450

Ÿ A1 14 V, A2 26 V.
11
Example 8.2: The parallel voltage evolution (3)

v (t ) A1e s1t  A2e s2t  14e 5000t  26e 20000t V.

|s2| > D(fast) Converge

dominates to zero

“Over”
|s1| < D(slow)
damp
dominates

12
Example 8.2: The branch currents evolution (4)

„ 7KHEUDQFKFXUUHQWWKURXJK5LV
v(t )
iR (t )  70e 5000t  130e  20000t mA.
200 :

„ 7KHEUDQFKFXUUHQWWKURXJK/LV
1 t
iL (t ) 30 mA  ³ v(t c)dt c 56e 5000t  26e  20000t mA.
50 mH 0

„ 7KHEUDQFKFXUUHQWWKURXJK&LV
dv
iC (t ) (0.2 ȝF) 14e 5000t  104e  20000t mA.
dt
13
Example 8.2: The branch currents evolution (5)

Converge
to zero

14
General solution to under-damped response (D < Z0)

„ The two roots of s are complex conjugate pair:

s1, 2 D r D 2  Z02 D r jZd ,

where Zd Z02  D 2 is the damped frequency.

„ 7KHJHQHUDOVROXWLRQLVUHIRUPXODWHGDV
v (t ) A1e( D  jZd ) t  A2e( D  jZd ) t
e Dt >A1 cos Zd t  j sin Zd t  A2 cos Zd t  j sin Zd t @
e Dt > A1  A2 cos Zd t  j A1  A2 sin Zd t @
e Dt B1 cos Zd t  B2 sin Zd t .
15
Solving the expansion coefficients B1, B2 by ICs

„ 7KHGHULYDWLYHRIv(t) LV
vc(t ) B1  De Dt cos Zd t  Zd e Dt sin Zd t
 B2  De Dt sin Zd t  Zd e Dt cos Zd t
e Dt >  DB1  Zd B2 cos Zd t  DB2  Zd B1 sin Zd t @.

„ 6XEVWLWXWHWKHWZR,&V
­v (0 ) B1 V0 (1)
° Ÿ VROYH
®  I 0 V0
° v c( 0 ) DB1  Zd B2    ( 2) B1B2
¯ C RC

16
Example 8.4: Discharging a parallel RLC circuit (1)

„ Q: v(t), iC(t), iL(t), iR(t) = ?

0V
-12.25 mA

­ 1 1
°D 2 RC 2(2 u 104 )(1.25 u 107 ) 0.2 kHz, Ÿ D< Z0
°
® 1 1 under-
°Z0 1 kHz. damped
7
°¯ LC (8)(1.25 u 10 )
17
Example 8.4: Solving the parameters (2)

„ The damped frequency is:

2 2 2 2
Zd Z D
0 1  0.2 | 0.98 kHz.

„ The 2 expansion coefficients are:

­ B1 V0 0(1)
° ­ B1 0,
® I 0 V0 Ÿ®
°̄ DB1  Zd B2  C  RC ( 2) ¯ B2 | 100 V

18
Example 8.4: The parallel voltage evolution (3)

v (t ) B1e Dt cos Zd t  B2e Dt sin Zd t | 100e 200t sin 980t V.

„ The voltage
oscillates (~Zd) and
approaches the final
value (~D), different
from the over-
damped case (no
oscillation, 2 decay
constants).

19
Example 8.4: The branch currents evolutions (4)

„ 7KHWKUHHEUDQFKFXUUHQWVDUH

20
Rules for circuit designers

„ If one desires the circuit reaches the final value

as fast as possible while the minor oscillation is
of less concern, choosing R, L, C values to
satisfy under-damped condition.
„ If one concerns that the response not exceed its
final value to prevent potential damage,
designing the system to be over-damped at the
cost of slower response.

21
General solution to critically-damped response (D = Z0)

„ Two identical real roots of s make

v (t ) A1e st  A2e st ( A1  A2 )e st A0e st ,
not possible to satisfy 2 independent ICs (V0, I0)
with a single expansion constant A0
„ The general solution is reformulated as:
v (t ) e Dt D1t  D2 .

„ <RXFDQSURYHWKHYDOLGLW\RIWKLVIRUPE\
VXEVWLWXWLQJLWLQWRWKH2'(
vcc(t )  ( RC ) 1 vc(t )  ( LC ) 1 v (t ) 0.
22
Solving the expansion coefficients D1, D2 by ICs

„ 7KHGHULYDWLYHRIv(t) LV
vc(t ) D1 e Dt  Dte Dt  DD2e Dt > D1  DD2  DD1t @e Dt .

„ 6XEVWLWXWHWKHWZR,&V
­v (0 ) D2 V0  (1)
°
®  I 0 V0 Ÿ VROYHD1D2
°vc(0 ) D1  DD2  C  RC ( 2)
¯

23
Example 8.5: Discharging a parallel RLC circuit (1)
„ Q: What is R such that the circuit is critically-
damped? Plot the corresponding v(t).

R
0V
-12.25 mA

1 1 1 L 1 8
D Z0 , , R 4 k:.
2 RC LC 2 C 2 1.25 u 107
„ Increasing R tends to bring the circuit from over-
to critically- and even under-damped.
24
Example 8.5: Solving the parameters (2)

„ The neper frequency is:

1 1
D 1 kHz,
2 RC 2( 4 u 103 )(1.25 u 107 )
1
ŸW 1 ms.
D
„ The 2 expansion coefficients are:
­ D2 V0 0 (1)
° -12.25 mA ­ D1 98 kV s
® I 0 V0 Ÿ®
°̄ D1  DD2  C  RC  ( 2) ¯ D2 0
0.125 PF 25
Example 8.5: The parallel voltage evolution (3)
v(t ) D1te Dt  D2 e Dt 98,000te 1000t V.

98 V/ms

26
Procedures of solving nature response of parallel RLC

„ Calculate parameters D (2 RC ) 1 and Z0 1 LC .

„ Write the form of v(t) by comparing D and Z:
2 2
­ A e s1t  A e s2t , s
1 2 1, 2 -D r D  Z0 , if D ! Z0 ,
°
° Dt 2 2
v (t ) ® e B 1 cos Z d t  B2 sin Z d t , Z d Z 0  D , if D  Z0 ,
° Dt
°¯e D1t  D2 , if D Z0 .

„ Find the expansion constants (A1, A2)(B1, B2)RU

(D1, D2) E\WZR,&V ­v (0 ) V0 (1),
°
®  I 0 V0
° v c( 0 )    ( 2)
¯ C RC
27
Section 8.3
The Step Response of
a Parallel RLC Circuit

1. Inhomogeneous ODE, ICs, and general

solution

28
The homogeneous ODE

+
Is V0 I0


dv ª 1 t º v
„ By KCL: C  « I 0  ³ v (t c)dt c»  Is.
dt ¬ L 0 ¼ R
„ Perform time derivative, we got a homogeneous
ODE of v(t) independent of the source current Is:
d 2 v 1 dv v
2
  0.
dt RC dt LC
29
The inhomogeneous ODE

Is iL
V0 I0

„ &KDQJHWKHXQNQRZQWRWKHLQGXFWRUFXUUHQWiL(t)
­ dv v
°°C dt  iL  R Is ,
d 2 iL 1 diL iL Is
® Ÿ 2  
°v L diL , dt RC dt LC LC
°¯ dt

30
The two initial conditions (ICs)

Is iL
V0 I0

„ The inductor current cannot change abruptly,

Ÿ iL ( 0  ) I 0 (1)
„ The capacitor voltage cannot change abruptly,
Ÿ vC (0 ) V0 vL (0 ),
 diL  V0
 vL (0 ) L , Ÿ iLc (0 )  ( 2)
dt t 0 L
31
General solution

„ The solution is the sum of final current If = Is and

the nature response iL,nature(t):
iL ( t ) I f  iL,nature (t ),
where the three types of nature responses were
elucidated in Section 8.2:

­ I f  A1ce s1t  A2ce s2t , if D ! Z0 ,

°° Dt
iL ( t ) ® fI  e B1c cos Zd t  B2c sin Zd t , if D  Z0 ,
° Dt
°¯ I f  e D1ct  D2c , if D Z0 .
32
 Example 8.7: Charging a parallel RLC circuit (1)

„ Q: iL(t) = ?

I0 = 0
Is=
24
mA V0 = 0 625 :

­ 1 1
°D 2 RC 2(625)( 2.5 u 108 ) 32 kHz, Ÿ D < Z0
°
® 1 1 under-
°Z0 40 kHz. damped
°¯ LC ( 2.5 u 102 )( 2.5 u 108 )
33
Example 8.7: Solving the parameters (2)

„ The complete solution is of the form:

Dt
iL ( t ) Is  e B1c cos Zd t  B2c sin Zd t ,

where Zd Z02  D 2 402  322 24 kHz.

„ The 2 expansion coefficients are:

­ I s  B1c I 0 0(1)
° ­ B1c 24 mA,
® V0 Ÿ®
°̄ DB1c  Zd B2c L 0(2) ¯ B2c | 32 mA

34
Example 8.7: Inductor current evolution (3)

32 , 000 t
iL ( t ) >24  24e cos(24,000t )  32e 32,000t sin(24,000t ) mA.
@

35
 Example 8.9: Charging of parallel RLC circuits (1)

„ Q: Compare iL(t) when the resistance R = 625 :

(under-damp), 500 : (critical damp), 400 :
(over-damp), respectively.

I0 = 0
Is=
24
mA V0 = 0

„ Initial & final conditions remain: iL(0+)=0, i'L(0+)=0,

If = 24 mA. Different R’s give different functional
forms and expansion constants. 36
Example 8.9: Comparison of rise times (2)

„ The current of an under-damped circuit rises

faster than that of its over-damped counterpart.

37
Section 8.4
The Natural and Step
Response of a Series RLC
Circuit
1. Modifications of time constant, neper
frequency

38
ODE of nature response

V0, I0, i(t) must

satisfy the
passive sign
convention.

di ª 1 t º
„ By KVL: Ri  L  V0  i ( t c) dt c 0.
dt «¬ C ³0 »¼
2
„ By derivative:
d i R di i
2
  0.
dt L dt LC
1
in parallel RLC
RC 39
The two initial conditions (ICs)

„ The inductor cannot change abruptly,

Ÿ i (0 ) I 0 (1)
„ The capacitor voltage cannot change abruptly,
Ÿ vC (0 ) V0 , vL (0 ) vC (0 )  vR (0 ) V0  I 0 R,
 diL   V0  I 0 R
 vL (0 ) L , Ÿ iLc (0 ) ic(0 )   ( 2)
dt t 0 L 40
General solution

„ Substitute i (t ) Ae st into the ODE, we got a

different characteristic equation of s:
2 R 1
s  s 0. Ÿ s1, 2 D r D 2  Z02 .
L LC
„ The form of s1,2 determines the form of general
solution: 1 2
­ A1e s t  A2e s t , if D ! Z0
° Dt
i (t ) ®e B1 cos Zd t  B2 sin Zd t , if D  Z0
°e Dt D t  D , if D Z
¯ 1 2 0

R 1
ZKHUH D , Z0 , Zd Z02  D 2 .
2L LC
( 2 RC ) 1 in parallel RLC 41
Example 8.11: Discharging a series RLC circuit (1)

„ Q: i(t), vC(t) = ?

I0 = 0
vC(0-) = 100 V, +
Ÿ V0 = -100 V
 100 V

­ R 560
°D 2 L 2(0.1) 2.8 kHz, Ÿ D<Z0
°
® 1 1 under-
°Z0 10 kHz. damped
°¯ LC (0.1)(1 u 107 )
42
Example 8.11: Solving the parameters (2)

„ The damped frequency is:

2 2 2 2
Zd Z D
0 10  2.8 9.6 kHz.

„ The 2 expansion coefficients are:

­ B1 I 0 0(1)
° -100 V ­ B1 0,
® V0  I 0 R Ÿ®
°̄ DB1  Zd B2  (2) ¯ B2 | 104.2 mA
9.6 L
kHz 100 mH

43
 Example 8.11: Loop current evolution (3)
i (t ) e Dt B1 cos Zd t  B2 sin Zd t 104.2e 2,800t sin 9,600t mA.

44
Example 8.11: Capacitor voltage evolution (4)

vc ( t ) Ri (t )  Lic(t )
e 2,800t 100 cos 9,600t  29.17 sin 9,600t V.

„ When the capacitor

energy starts to
decrease, the
inductor energy starts
to increase.
„ Inductor energy starts
to decrease before
capacitor energy
decays to 0.
45
ODEs of step response

I0
+
Vs V0


di ª 1 t º
„ By KVL: Ri  L  «V0  ³ i (t c)dt c» Vs .
dt ¬ C 0 ¼
„ The homogeneous and inhomogeneous ODEs
of i(t) and vC (t) are:
d 2i R di i d 2vC R dvC vC Vs
2
  0, and 2
  .
dt L dt LC dt L dt LC LC
46
The two initial conditions (ICs)

I0
+
Vs vC (t) V0


„ The capacitor voltage cannot change abruptly,

Ÿ vC (0 ) V0 (1)
„ The inductor current cannot change abruptly,
Ÿ iL ( 0  ) I0 iC (0 ),
 dvC  I0
 iC (0 ) C , Ÿ vCc (0 )  ( 2)
dt t 0 C
47
General solution

„ The solution is the sum of final voltage Vf = Vs

and the nature response vC,nature(t):
vC (t ) V f  vC ,nature (t ),
where the three types of nature responses were
elucidated in Section 8.4.

­V f  A1ce s1t  A2ce s2t , if D ! Z0 ,

°° Dt
vC (t ) V
® f  e B1c cos Zd t  B2c sin Zd t , if D  Z0 ,
° Dt
°¯V f  e D1ct  D2c , if D Z0 .
48
Key points

„ What do the response curves of over-, under-,

and critically-damped circuits look like? How to
choose R, L, C values to achieve fast switching
or to prevent overshooting damage?

„ What are the initial conditions in an RLC circuit?

How to use them to determine the expansion
coefficients of the complete solution?

„ Comparisons between: (1) natural & step

responses, (2) parallel, series, or general RLC.
49