Physics 121: Electricity &

Magnetism – Lecture 12
Induction II & E-M Oscillations
Dale E. Gary
Wenda Cao
NJIT Physics Department
 Induction Review
 Faraday’s Law: A changing   N d B
magnetic flux through a coil dt
of wire induces an EMF in the
wire, proportional to the
number of turns, N.
 Lenz’s Law: The direction of
the current driven by the EMF
is such that it creates a
magnetic field to oppose the
flux change.  
 Induction and energy transfer: P F v Fv
The forces on the loop oppose
the motion of the loop, and P i
the power required to move
the loop provides the
electrical power in the loop.   d B
 A changing magnetic field
 E ds  N
dt
creates and electric field.
November 7, 2007
 Induction and Inductance
 When we try to run a current
through a coil of wire, the
changing current induces a
“back-EMF” that opposes the
current.
 That is because the changing
current creates a changing
magnetic field, and the
increasing magnetic flux through
the coils of wire induce an
opposing EMF.
 We seek a description of this that
depends only on the geometry of
Inductance units: henry (H), 1 H = 1 T-m2/A
the coils (i.e., independent of the
current through the coil).
 We call this the inductance (c.f. L  N B Inductance
capacitance). It describes the i
proportionality between the
current through a coil and the
q
C
magnetic flux induced in it. V
November 7, 2007
 Inductance of a Solenoid
 Consider a solenoid. Recall that the magnetic field inside a
solenoid is
B  0in

 B B dA  0inA

Number
The magnetic
of turnsflux
per through thensolenoid
unit length = N/l. is then
N B N 0inA
 L
The inductance of the solenoid is then:  nl 0 nA  0 n 2lA
i i

 Note that this depends only on the geometry. Since N = nl, this can

also be written N 2
A  A
L 0
C
Compare with capacitance of a capacitor 0

l l

Can also write 0= 4×107 H/m = 1.257 H/m

Compare with 0 = 8.85 pF/m

November 7, 2007
 Self-Induction
 You should be comfortable with the
notion that a changing current in one
loop induces an EMF in other loop.
 You should also be able to appreciate
that if the two loops are part of the
same coil, the induction still occurs—a
changing current in one loop of a coil
induces a back-EMF in another loop of
the same coil.
 In fact, a changing current in a single
loop induces a back-EMF in itself. This
iL  N B
is called self-induction. N 
L B
di d B
 Since for any inductor i L
then  N
dt dt
d B di The self-induced EMF is
 L  N  L opposite to the direction of
 But Faraday’s Law says dt dt
change of current
November 7, 2007
 Induced EMF in an Inductor
1. Which statement describes the current
through the inductor below, if the induced
EMF is as shown?
L 
A. Constant and rightward.
B. Constant and leftward.
C. Increasing and rightward.
D. Decreasing and leftward.
E. Increasing and leftward.

November 7, 2007
 Inductors in Circuits—The RL

Circuit
Inductors, or coils, are common
in electrical circuits.
 They are made by wrapping
insulated wire around a core, and
their main use is in resonant
circuits, or filter circuits.
 Consider the RL circuit, where a

battery with EMF  drives a

current around the loop,
producing a back EMF L in the
inductor.   iR  L di 0
 Kirchoff’s loop rule gives dt

 Solving this differential equation

i  (1  e  Rt / L ) Rise of current
for i givesR
November 7, 2007
 RL Circuits 
 i  (1  e  Rt / L )
 When t is large:i  Inductor acts like a wire. R
R

Inductor acts like an
When t is small (zero), i = 0.open circuit.

 The current starts from zero and

 / R
increases up to a maximumi of
with a time constant given by
L
L  Inductor time constant
R
Compare:  C RC Capacitor time constant

The voltage across the resistorVRisiR  (1  e

  Rt / L
)
 The voltage across the inductor is

VL   VR    (1  e  Rt / L )  e  Rt / L
November 7, 2007
 Inductive Time Constant
2. The three loops below have identical
inductors, resistors, and batteries. Rank
them in terms of inductive time constant,
L/R, greatest first.

A. I, then II & III (tie).

B. II, I, III.
C. III & II (tie), then I.
D. III, II, I.
E. II, III, I. I. II. III.

November 7, 2007
 RL Circuits
 What happens when the switch is
thrown from a to b?
 Kirchoff’s Loop Rule was:

  iR  L di 0
dt
 Now it is: di
iR  L 0
dt

VR (V)
 The decay of the current, then, is
given by 
i  e  Rt / L Decay of current
R
 Voltage across resistor:

VR iR  e  Rt / L
 Voltage across inductor: di
VL L L
 d e  Rt / L   e  Rt / L
dt R dt
November 7, 2007
 What is Happening?
 When the battery is removed, and the RL series circuit is shorted,
the current keeps flowing in the same direction it was for awhile.
How can this be?
 In the case of an RC circuit, we would see the current reverse as
the stored charge flowed off the capacitor. But in the case of an
RL circuit the opposite happens—charge continues to flow in the
same direction.
 What is happening is that the current tries to drop suddenly, but
this induces an EMF to oppose the change, causing the current to
keep flowing for awhile.
 Another way of thinking about it is that the magnetic field that
was stored in the inductor is “collapsing.”
 There is energy stored in the magnetic field, and when the source
of current is removed, the energy flows from the magnetic field
back into the circuit.

November 7, 2007
Make Before Break Switches
 The switch in a circuit like the one at right has to be
a special kind, called a “make before break” switch.
 The switch has to make the connection to b before
breaking the connection with a.
 If the circuit is allowed to be in the state like this…
even momentarily, midway between a and b, then a
big problem results.
 Recall that for a capacitor, when we disconnect the
Link to video
circuit the charge will merrily stay on the capacitor
indefinitely. You have probably
 Not so on an inductor. The inductor needs current, seen this when
i.e. flowing charge. It CANNOT go immediately to unplugging
zero. something with a
 The collapsing magnetic field in the inductor will motor—a spark that
force the current to flow, even when it has no where jumps from the plug
to go. to the socket.
 The current will flow in this case by jumping the air
gap.
November 7, 2007
 Example Circuit
 This circuit has three identical resistors
R = 9 , and two identical inductors L =
2.0 mH. The battery has EMF  = 18 V.
(a) What is the current i through the battery
i 
 2 A
just after the switch is closed?
(acts like open wire) R
(b) What is the current i through the battery
a long time after the switch is closed?
3
(acts like straight wire)i  6 A
R
(c) What is the behavior of the current
between these times? Use Kirchoff’s
Loop Rule on each loop to find out.

November 7, 2007
 Current Through Battery 1
3. The three loops below have identical
inductors, resistors, and batteries. Rank
them in terms of current through the
battery just after the switch is closed,
greatest first.

A. I, II, III.
B. II, I, III.
C. III, I, II.
D. III, II, I. I. II. III.
E. II, III, I.
November 7, 2007
 Current Through Battery 2
4. The three loops below have identical
inductors, resistors, and batteries. Rank
them in terms of current through the
battery a long time after the switch is
closed, greatest first.

A. I, II, III.
B. II, I, III.
C. III, I, II.
D. III, II, I. I. II. III.
E. II, III, I.
November 7, 2007
 Energy Stored in Magnetic
Field di
  iR  L
By Kirchoff’s Loop Rule, we have
dt
 We can find the power in the circuit by
multiplying by i.
i i 2 R  Li di
dt power stored
in magnetic
power power field
provided by dissipated in
battery resistor dU di
 Power is rate that work is done, i.e.
P  B Li
dt dt
 So dU Li di , or after integration
1 2
B U B  Li
Energy in magnetic field
2

q2 1
Recall for electrical energy in a capacitor:
UE   CV 2
2C 2
November 7, 2007
 The LC Circuit
 What happens when we make a circuit
from both an inductor and capacitor?
 If we first charge the capacitor, and then
disconnect the battery, what will happen
to the charge?
 Recall that initially the inductor acts like
an open circuit, so charge does not flow
immediately.
 However, over longer times the inductor
acts like a simple, straight wire, so charge
will eventually flow off from the capacitor.
 As the charge begins to flow, it develops a
magnetic field in the inductor.

November 7, 2007
Electromagnetic Oscillations

q2 1 1
U E U  Li 2CV 2
B2C
2 2

November 7, 2007
 Oscillations Forever?
5. What do you think (physically) will happen
to the oscillations over a long time?

A. They will stop after one complete cycle.

B. They will continue forever.
C. They will continue for awhile, and then suddenly
stop.
D. They will continue for awhile, but eventually die
away.
E. There is not enough information to tell what will
happen.
November 7, 2007
 Ideal vs. Non-Ideal
 In an ideal situation (no resistance in
circuit), these oscillations will go on
forever.
 In fact, no circuit is ideal, and all have
at least a little bit of resistance.
 In that case, the oscillations
U mgh get
smaller with time. They are said to
K  12 mv 2   g
be “damped oscillations.”
l
 This is just like the situation with a
pendulum, which is another kind of
oscillator.
 There, the energy oscillation is between
potential energy and kinetic energy. Damped Oscillations
k
Spring Animation U  12 kx 2 K  12 mv 2  
m
November 7, 2007
 Derivation of Oscillation
 Frequency
We have shown qualitatively that LC circuits act like an
oscillator.
 We can discover the frequency of oscillation by looking
q 2 1 at2 the
U U E  U B 
equations governing the total energy.  Li
2C 2
 Since the total energy is constant, the time
dU q dq di derivative should be
zero:   Li 0
dq 2
di d q dt C dt dt d 2q q
i  2 L 2  0
dt dt dt dt C
 But and , so making these substitutions:
q Q cos(t   )
 This is a second-order, homogeneous differential equation,
whose solution is
dq d 2
q
 i.e. the charge varies according toa  sin(wave
 Qcosine t   ) with2 amplitude
 Q 2 cos(t   )
Q and frequency . Check by taking dt dt
two time derivatives of charge: 1
d 2q q Q 1  
 L into
Plug  LQequation:
 original 2
cos(t   )  cos(t   ) 0  L  0
2

dt 2
C C C LC
November 7, 2007
 Example
a) What is the expression for the voltage change across the capacitor
in the circuit below, as a function of time, if L = 30 mH, and C =
100 F, and the capacitor is fully charged with 0.001 C at time
t=0?

First, the angular 1 of 1oscillation

  frequency
 is .4 rad/s
577
LC (3 10 2 H)(10 4 F)

Because the voltage across the capacitor is proportional to

the charge, it has the same
q Qexpression
cos(t   ) as the charge:
VC  
C C

At time t = 0, q = Q, so = 0. 10
Therefore,
3
C the full expression for the
voltage VC   6 cos(577t ) 1000 cos(577t ) volts
10 F
across the capacitor is
November 7, 2007
 Example, cont’d
b) What is the expression for the current in the circuit?

dq
The current isi   Q sin(t )
dt

i  (10  3 C)(577 rad/s) sin(577t )  0.577 sin(577t ) amps

c) How long until the capacitor charge is reversed?

1 2
T
That happens after ½ period, where the period is 
f 
T 
 5.44 ms
2 

November 7, 2007
 Summary
 Inductance (units, henry H) is given Lby N B

 Inductance of a solenoid is:  N 2 A i
L 0
l (depends only on geometry)
 EMF, in terms of inductance, is:  L  N d B  L di
dt dt
 RL circuitsRise of current Decay of current Inductor time constant

i  (1  e  Rt / L )

i  e  Rt / L L 
L
R R R
 Energy in inductor: 1 2
U B  Li
Energy in magnetic field
2 2
 LC circuits: total electric + magnetic energy is conserved q 1
U U E  U B   Li 2
2C 2
Charge equation Current equationOscillation frequency
1
q Q cos(t   ) i  Q sin(t   ) 
LC
November 7, 2007