B.

Rocks: Materials of the solid Earth

Objectives

 To classify rocks based on their geological formation processes and characteristics.

 To understand the different classification of rocks into three main categories

(igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic) and their respective properties.

 To explore and analyze the processes involved in the formation of rocks, including
crystallization, sedimentation, and metamorphism.

Introduction

Rock, in geology, naturally occurring and coherent aggregate of one or more minerals.
Such aggregates constitute the basic unit of which the solid Earth is composed and
typically form recognizable and mappable volumes. Rocks are commonly divided into
three major classes according to the processes that resulted in their formation. These
classes are (1) igneous rocks, which have solidified from molten material called magma;
(2) sedimentary rocks, those consisting of fragments derived from preexisting rocks or
of materials precipitated from solutions; and (3) metamorphic rocks, which have been
derived from either igneous or sedimentary rocks under conditions that caused changes
in mineralogical composition, texture, and internal structure. These three classes, in
turn, are subdivided into numerous groups and types on the basis of various factors,
the most important of which are chemical, mineralogical, and textural attributes.

Classes of Rocks

1. Igneous Rocks are those that solidify from magma, a molten mixture of
rockforming minerals and usually volatiles such as gases and steam. Since their
constituent minerals are crystallized from molten material, igneous rocks are formed at
high temperatures. They originate from processes deep within the Earth—typically at
depths of about 50 to 200 kilometres (30 to 120 miles)—in the mid- to lower-crust or in
the upper mantle. Igneous rocks are subdivided into two categories: intrusive
(emplaced in the crust), and extrusive (extruded onto the surface of the land or ocean
bottom), in which case the cooling molten material is called lava. Two Categories of
Igneous Rocks

1.1 Extrusive (Volcanic) Rocks. Lava is fluid magma that flows from a crack
or a volcano onto Earth's surface. The term also refers to rock that forms when lava
cools and becomes solid. After lava erupts onto the relatively cool Earth's surface, it
solidifies rapidly-perhaps over a few days or years. Crystals form but do not have much
time to grow. As a result, many volcanic rocks have fine-grained textures, with crystals
too small to be seen with the naked eye. Basalt is a common very fine grained volcanic
rock.

Examples of Extrusive Igneous Rocks

ROCKS DESCRIPTION USES

Basalt is a fine-grained, dark-colored It used in construction (e.g. as

extrusive igneous rock composed building blocks or in the groundwork),
mainly of plagioclase and pyroxene. making cobblestones (from columnar
basalt) and in making statues. Heating
and extruding basalt yields stone
wool, which has potential to be an
excellent thermal insulator.

Dacite is a fine-grained, extrusive It is sometimes used to produce

igneous rock that is usually light in crushed stone. It performs well as fill
color. It has a composition that is and as a loose aggregate in a wide
intermediate between rhyolite and variety of construction projects. It
andesite. does not perform well as a concrete
aggregate because its high silica
content reacts with the cement.

Obsidian is a dark-colored volcanic It was used for cutting tools and

glass that forms from the very rapid weapons, like blades and arrowheads.
cooling of molten rock material. It Well-crafted obsidian blades can be as
cools so rapidly that crystals do not sharp as surgical steel scalpels. Today,
form. obsidian is used as a gem or
ornamental stone.

Rhyolite is a light-colored, It use in the construction industry

finegrained, extrusive igneous rock includes Arrowhead, building house or
that typically contains quartz and walls, like dimension stone,
feldspar minerals. construction aggregate, for road
aggregates, cutting tools, and knives.
Rhyolite use in the medical industry is
not yet defined.

Pumice is a light-colored vesicular It is a very lightweight, porous and

igneous rock. It forms through very abrasive material and it has been used
rapid solidification of a melt. The for centuries in the construction and
vesicular texture is a result of gas beauty industry as well as in early
trapped in the melt at the time of medicine. It is also used as an
solidification. abrasive, especially in polishes, pencil
erasers, and the production of
stonewashed jeans.
 1.2 Intrusive (Plutonic) Rocks. When magma solidifies within the crust, the
overlying rock insulates the magma like a thick blanket. The magma then crystallizes
slowly and the crystals grow over hundreds of thousands, or even millions, of years. As
a result, most plutonic rocks are medium to coarse grained. Granite, the most abundant
rock in continental crust, is a medium- or coarse-grained plutonic rock. The crystals in
granite are clearly visible. Many are a millimeter or so across, although some crystals
may be much larger.

Example of Intrusive Igneous Rocks

ROCKS DESCRIPTION USES

Peridotite is a coarse-grained Peridotite is the primary source of

intrusive igneous rock that is composed the gemstone peridot, which is a
almost entirely of olivine. It may green gemstone that is used in
contain small amounts of amphibole, jewelry. It is the ultimate source of
feldspar, quartz, or pyroxene. all chromium ore and naturally
occurring diamonds, and of nearly
all chrysotile asbestos.
Pegmatite is a light-colored, Pegmatiteare used as architectural
extremely coarse-grained intrusive stone. If the pegmatite is sound
igneous rock. It forms near the and attractive, it might be cut into
margins of a magma chamber during slabs and polished for building
the final phases of magma chamber facing, countertops, tile or other
crystallization. It often contains rare decorative stone products and sold
minerals that are not found in other commercially as a “granite.”
parts of the magma chamber.
Granite is a coarse-grained, It is used as a construction
lightcolored, intrusive igneous rock that material, a dimension stone, an
contains mainly quartz, feldspar, and architectural stone, a decorative
mica minerals. stone, and it has also been used to
manufacture a wide variety of
products. Granite is used in
buildings,bridges, paving,
monuments, and many other
exterior projects.
Gabbro is a coarse-grained, Gabbro rocks are used to make
darkcolored, intrusive igneous rock that many rough-cut products like
contains feldspar, pyroxene, and curbing, ashlars, paving stones and
sometimes olivine. others. Gabbro is also called black
granite, and is a well-known
graveyard headstone used in
several funerary rites. Gabbro rocks
are also used as a sea defense.
They are placed at the sea shores
to prevent the high tides from
reaching the roads.
 Diorite is a coarse-grained, intrusive It is used in the dimension stone
igneous rock that contains a mixture of industry for facing stones, tiles,
feldspar, pyroxene, hornblende, and blocks, pavements, curbing, and
sometimes quartz. other dimension stone products.
Polished diorite is also used as
architectural stone
2. Sedimentary Rocks are those that are deposited and lithified (compacted and
cemented together) at the Earth’s surface, with the assistance of running water, wind,
ice, or living organisms. Most are deposited from the land surface to the bottoms of
lakes, rivers, and oceans. Sedimentary rocks are generally stratified—i.e., they have
layering. Layers may be distinguished by differences in colour, particle size, type of
cement, or internal arrangement.

Four Categories of Sedimentary Rock

2.1 Clastic Sedimentary Rock is composed of particles of weathered rocks,

such as sand grains and pebbles, called clasts, which have been transported,
deposited, and lithified. (The generic term clastic refers to any rocks that are
composed of fragments of older rocks.) This category includes shale, siltstone,
and sandstone. Clastic sedimentary rock makes up about 85% of all sedimentary
rock.
ROCKS DESCRIPTION USES

Sandstone is a sedimentary rock Building of homes and outdoor

composed of sand-size grains of structures, as well as gates or as
mineral, rock, or organic material. It support for columns on porches. To
also contains a cementing material make crushed stone for construction
that binds the sand grains together projects. It often used in flooring
and may contain a matrix of silt- or and paving of outdoor areas and
clay-size particles that occupy the commercial buildings.
spaces between the sand grains.
Siltstone is a sedimentary rock It is rarely mining for use as a
composed mainly of silt-sized construction material or
particles. It forms where water, manufacturing feedstock.
wind, or ice deposit silt, and the silt The pore spaces of siltstone serve
is then compacted and cemented as good aquifer. It is rarely porous
into a rock. It is usually gray, enough or extensive enough to
brown, or reddish brown. serve as an oil or gas reservoir.
 Shale is a fine-grained It is a source material in the
sedimentary rock that forms from ceramics industry to make brick,
the compaction of silt and clay-size tile, and pottery. Shale is crushed
mineral particles that we commonly and heated with limestone to make
call "mud." This composition places cement for the construction
shale in a category of sedimentary industry.
rocks known as "mudstones.

2.2. Organic Sedimentary Rock consists of the lithified remains of plants or

animals. Coal is an organic sedimentary rock made up of decomposed and compacted
plant remains.

ROCKS DESCRIPTION USES

Limestone is a sedimentary rock Used for cement (an essential

composed principally of calcium component of concrete), as aggregate
carbonate (calcite) or the double for the base of roads, as white
carbonate of calcium and pigment or filler in products such as
magnesium (dolomite). It is toothpaste or paints, as a soil
commonly composed of tiny fossils, conditioner, and as a popular
shell fragments and other fossilized decorative addition to rock gardens.
debris.
Chalk, a sedimentary rock, is a soft Chalk is mined for use in industry,
form of limestone that is not well such as for quicklime, bricks and
cemented and thus is often powdery builder's putty, and in agriculture, for
and brittle. It usually ranges in color raising pH in soils with high acidity.
from white to light gray to buff and
forms from sediment deposited in a
saltwater environment.
Coals are the most abundant Coal is one of the primary sources of
organic-rich sedimentary rock. They energy used for power generation. It
consist of undecayed organic matter is burned in power plants to produce
that either accumulated in place or electricity, which is used to power
was transported from elsewhere to homes, businesses, and industries.
the depositional site. The most
important organic component in coal
is humus.
2.3. Chemical Sedimentary Rock forms by direct precipitation of minerals
from solution. Rock salt, for example, forms when salt precipitates from evaporating
seawater or saline lake water. (Precipitation is a chemical reaction that produces a solid
salt, called a precipitate, from a liquid solution.)
 ROCKS DESCRIPTION USES

Gypsum constitutes a third type of Fertilizer to help improve soil for

chemical sedimentary rock formed agricultural use.
primarily through evaporation. The For building materials such as plasters,
chemical formula for gypsum is C a paints, and drywall’s. In
S O 4 · H 2 O. As an evaporite, the manufacture of
wallboard, cement, plaster
gypsum represents a crystal formed
of Paris, and as a hardening retarder in
via precipitation, in which one water
portland cement
molecule is used per two calcium
sulfate molecules.
Rock salt is a chemical sedimentary Making brines, salt grinders, deicing
rock that forms by the evaporation roads and sidewalks, gritting salt for
of water (usually seawater) and the managing ice and snow, a condiment
precipitation of dissolved minerals. and preservative in Indian cuisine,
Chemical sedimentary rocks that particularly throughout fasting days,
form by the evaporation of water are adding flavor to chaats, chutneys,
called evaporites. Rock salt & rock raitas and lots of other savoury Indian
snacks as well as vegetable
gypsum are the two most common
preparations.
evaporites.
Chert is a hard, fine-grained Used for tool making, construction,
sedimentary rock composed of and decorative purposes, and for
microcrystalline or cryptocrystalline making weapons, tools, and other
quartz, the mineral form of silicon uses that required a sharp edge or a
dioxide (SiO2). Chert is spark.
characteristically of biological origin,
but may also occur inorganically as a
chemical precipitate or a diagenetic
replacement, as in petrified wood.
2.4. Bioclastic Sedimentary Rock is composed of broken shell fragments and
similar remains of living organisms. The fragments are clastic, but they have a biological
origin. Most limestone formed from broken shells and is a bioclastic sedimentary rock.

ROCKS DESCRIPTION USES

Flint is a hard, tough chemical or Forging knives, arrowheads, and the

biochemical sedimentary rock that tips of spears, making fire when out in
breaks with a conchoidal fracture. It the wild, creating tools such as knife
is a form of microcrystalline quartz blades, projectile points, scrapers,
that is typically called "chert" by axes, drills, and other sharp tools,
geologists. starting fires, making sharp-edged
weapons, being used as a gem, and
being used for home decoration.
 Peat is a naturally existing It is used for domestic heating
sedimentary material that is both purposes as an alternative to firewood
common and unusual; its origins are and forms a fuel suitable for boiler
due to botanical and geological firing in either briquetted or pulverized
processes, and significant form. Peat is also used for household
contributions to any peat deposit are cooking in some places and has been
attributable to animals, plants, and used to produce small amounts of
electricity.
diverse groups of microbial taxa.
Fossiliferous limestone can be When polished as tiles or slabs, fossil
made up of coral, sea shells or parts bearing rocks are used as attractive
of other marine creatures. Large reefs building facades and pavements. They
and layers of shells made of calcium are also carved as ornamental stones,
carbonate can become limestone. and used in jewelry making.
Since it is made up of parts of
organisms that were alive, it has no
minerals

3. Metamorphic Rocks are those formed by changes in preexisting rocks under the
influence of high temperature, pressure, and chemically active solutions. The changes
can be chemical (compositional) and physical (textural) in character. Metamorphic rocks
are often formed by processes deep within the Earth that produce new minerals,
textures, and crystal structures. The recrystallization that takes place does so essentially
in the solid state, rather than by complete remelting, and can be aided by ductile
deformation and the presence of interstitial fluids such as water. Metamorphism often
produces apparent layering, or banding, because of the segregation of minerals into
separate bands. Metamorphic processes can also occur at the Earth’s surface due to
meteorite impact events and pyrometamorphism taking place near burning coal seams
ignited by lightning strikes.
Example of Metamorphic Rocks
ROCKS DESCRIPTION USES

Marble is a metamorphic rock that forms Buildings and sculptures, for its
when limestone is subjected to the heat beauty and durability,
and pressure of metamorphism. It is construction aggregate and fill,
composed primarily of the mineral calcite for its strength and stability,
(CaCO3) and usually contains other brightener, filler, pigment, for
minerals, such as clay minerals, micas, its whiteness and optical
quartz, pyrite, iron oxides, and graphite. properties
Phyllite is a foliated metamorphic rock Used as decorative aggregates,
that is made up mainly of very finegrained floor tiles, and as exterior
mica. The surface of phyllite is typically building, or facing stone. The
lustrous and sometimes wrinkled. It is other uses include cemetery
intermediate in grade between slate and markers, commemorative
schist. tablets, creative artwork, and
 writing slates.
Quartzite is a non-foliated metamorphic Crushed quartzite is used in
rock that is produced by the road construction and for
metamorphism of sandstone. It is railway ballast, to make
composed primarily of quartz. roofing tiles, stairs, flooring,
and kitchen countertops and
decorative walls.
Soapstone is a metamorphic rock that Countertops in kitchens and
consists primarily of talc with varying laboratories, sinks, cooking
amounts of other minerals such as micas, pots, cooking slabs, boiling
chlorite, amphiboles, pyroxenes, and stones, bowls and plates,
carbonates. It is a soft, dense, cemetery markers, electrical
heatresistant rock that has a high specific panels, ornamental carvings
heat capacity. and sculpture, fireplace liners
and hearths.
Schist is a metamorphic rock with Building houses, walls,
welldeveloped foliation. It often contains flooring, roofing, and pillars,
significant amounts of mica which allow making decorative rock walls
the rock to split into thin pieces. It is a and stone, adding to paints
rock of intermediate metamorphic grade and jewelry, and
between phyllite and gneiss. manufacturing cement and
road aggregate.
The Rock Cycle
The rock cycle is the natural, continuous process that forms, breaks down, and
reforms rock through geological, chemical, and physical processes. Through the cycle,
rocks convert between igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary forms. It is a dynamic
system that recycles Earth’s materials in different forms, from molten magma deep
below the surface to solid rock formations and sediments.

It is the process that describes the gradual transformation between the three
main types of rocks: sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous. It is occurring
continuously in nature through geologic time.

The rock cycle explains how the three rock types are related to each other, and
how processes change from one type to another over time. This cyclical aspect makes
rock change a geologic cycle and, and on planets, containing life, a biogeochemical
cycle.

Process of the formation of the Rock Cycle

The rock cycle with molten rock, called magma, which forms by melting that
occurs primarily within Earth's crust and upper mantle. Once formed, a magma body
often rises toward the surface because it is less dense than the surrounding rock.
Occasionally, magma reaches Earth's surface, where it erupts as lava. Eventually.
molten rock cools and solidifies, a process called crystallization or solidification.
Molten rock may solidify either beneath the surface or, following a volcanic eruption, at
the surface. In either situation, the resulting rocks are called igneous rocks.

If igneous rocks are exposed at the surface, they undergo weathering, in which
the daily influences of the atmosphere slowly disintegrate and decompose rocks. The
loose materials that result are often moved downslope by gravity and then picked up
and transported by one or more erosional agents-running water, glaciers, wind, or
waves. Eventually, these particles and dissolved substances, called sediment, are
deposited. Although most sediment ultimately comes to rest in the ocean, other sites of
deposition include river flood plains, desert basins, lakes, inland seas, and sand dunes.

Next, the sediments undergo lithification, a term meaning "conversion into

rock." Sediment is usually lithified into sedimentary rock when compacted by the
weight of overlying materials or when cemented as percolating groundwater fills the
pores with mineral matter.

If the resulting sedimentary rock becomes deeply buried or is involved in the

dynamics of mountain building, it will be subjected to great pressures and intense heat.
The sedimentary rock may react to the changing environment by turning into the third
rock type, metamorphic rock. If metamorphic rock is subjected to still higher
temperatures, it may melt, creating magma, and the cycle begins again.
1) Formation of Igneous Rock – Melting, Cooling, and Crystallization

Magma, the molten rock present deep inside the earth, solidifies due to cooling and
crystallizes to form a type of rock called igneous rocks. Cooling of igneous rocks can
occur slowly beneath the surface of the earth or rapidly at its surface.

2) Formation of Sedimentary Rock – Weathering, Erosion, Sedimentation, and

Compaction

Due to weathering and erosional activities, the igneous rocks are broken down to form
sediments in the form of gravel, sand, silt, and clay, which gets mixed and pressed
together for extended periods to form sedimentary rocks.

3) Formation of Metamorphic Rocks – Metamorphism

Over a very long period of time, sedimentary and igneous rocks end up being buried
deep underground the soil, usually because of the movement of tectonic plates. Deep
below the surface, these rocks are exposed to high heat and pressure, which change
them into a different type of rock called metamorphic rock.

4) Weathering

Igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks present on the surface of the earth are
constantly being broken down by wind and water over a long time.

5) Transportation

Carrying away of broken rocks by rain, streams, rivers, and oceans to a distant place
from their origin.

Energy Resources
Introduction

The term “energy” comes from the Greek word energeia or from the French words
enmeaning in and ergon which means work. Energy is the ability to do work or heat
objects. It is a scalar physical quantity, which means it has magnitude, but no direction.
Energy is conserved, which means it can change from one form to another, but isn’t
created or destroyed.
Energy Resources

Energy resources are all forms of fuels used in the modern world, that can produce
heat, power life, move objects, generate electrical energy, or for other forms of energy
conversion processes. Matter that store energy is called fuel. Classification

Energy resources can be divided into two categories: Non-Renewable Resources

(Conventional Sources) and Renewable Resources (Non- Conventional
Sources)

1. Non-renewable Resources

Sources of energy are only available in limited amounts and develop over a longer
period of time. These are also known as “dirty” or “Conventional Source” because they
can endanger the environment or human health and which are being traditionally used
for many decades. These resources are found in specific parts of the world, making
them more plentiful in some nations than others. The generation of energy from these
resources is relatively less expensive.

Coal

Coal has long been a significant contributor to non-renewable energy production. Coal
is formed from ancient plants’ remains and extracted from underground mines or
surface mining methods. It is widely used in electricity generation and industrial
processes, making it a prominent non-renewable energy resource.
Plant matter is composed mainly of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and contains large
amounts of water. During burial, rising pressure expels the water and chemical
reactions release most of the hydrogen and oxygen. As a result, the proportion of
carbon increases until coal forms. The grade of coal and the heat that can be recovered
by burning coal can vary considerably depending on the carbon content.

Coal also has a myriad of other uses, including in cement production, carbon fibers and
foams, medicines, tars, synthetic petroleum-based fuels, and home and commercial
heating.

Anthracite is a hard, compact variety

of coal with the highest carbon count
and lowest level of impurities. It is used
today in hand-fired stoves and
automatic stoker furnaces

Petroleum

Petroleum is a complex liquid mixture of hydrocarbons, formed from decayed plant

and animal matter, that can be extracted from sedimentary strata and refined to
produce propane, gasoline, and other fuels. Also called crude oil or simply oil.

The word petroleum comes from the Latin for "rock oil" or "oil from the earth”. The
first commercial oil well was drilled in the United States in 1859, ushering in a new
energy age. Crude oil, as it is pumped from the ground, is a gooey, viscous, dark liquid
made up of thousands of chemical compounds. It is then refined to produce propane,
gasoline, heating oil, and other fuels. Petroleum also is used to manufacture plastics,
nylon, and other useful materials.

Streams carry organic matter from decaying land plants and animals to the sea and to
some large lakes, and deposit it with mud in shallow coastal waters. Marine plants and
animals die and settle to the seafloor, adding more organic matter to the mud. Over
millions of years, younger sediment buries this organic-rich mud to depths of a few
kilometers, where rising temperature and pressure convert the mud to shale. At the
same time, the elevated temperature and pressure convert the organic matter to liquid
petroleum that is dispersed throughout the rock. The activity of bacteria may enhance
the process. Typically, petroleum forms in the temperature range of 50 0C to 1000C.
Natural Gas

Natural gas is an energy resource that forms in source rock or an oil reservoir when
crude oil is heated above 100°C during burial. (Natural gas is mostly methane, CH 4, an
organic molecule consisting of a single carbon atom bonded to four hydrogen atoms.)
Consequently, many oil fields contain a mixture of oil, with natural gas floating above
the heavier liquid petroleum. In other instances, the lighter, more mobile gas escaped
into the atmosphere or was trapped in a separate underground reservoir.

Natural gas is used without refining for home heating, cooking, and to fuel large
electrical generating plants. Because natural gas contains few impurities, it releases no
sulfur or other pollutants when it burns, although, as with all fossil fuels, combustion of
natural gas releases carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas. This fuel has a higher net
energy yield, produces fewer pollutants, and is less expensive to produce than
petroleum. At current consumption rates, global natural gas supplies will last for 80 to
200 years.

Although most commercial natural gas is produced from petroleum fields, 7 percent of
current U.S. gas production comes from coal seams, where both natural Earth heat and
microbial activity slowly convert buried coal to coal bed methane, methane that is
chemically bonded to coal. The coal bed methane reserves in the United States are
estimated to be more than 700 trillion cubic feet (Tcf), although less than 100 Tcf may
be economically recoverable.
How fossil fuel was formed?

Oil, natural gas, and coal are collectively called fossil fuels. Fossil fuels were formed
within the Earth from dead plants and animals over millions of years—hence the name
“fossil” fuels. They are found in underground layers of rock and sediment. Pressure and
heat worked together to transform the plant and animal remains into crude oil (also
known as petroleum), coal, and natural gas.

The plants and animals that became fossil fuels lived in a time called Carboniferous
Period, around 300 to 360 million years ago. The energy in the plant and animal
remains originally came from the sun; through the process of photosynthesis, solar
energy is stored in plant tissues, which animals then consume, adding the energy to
their own bodies. When fossil fuels are burned, this trapped energy is released.

Crude oil is a liquid fuel fossil fuel that is used mostly to produce gasoline and diesel
fuel for vehicles, and for the manufacturing of plastics. It is found in rocks below Earth’s
surface and is pumped out through wells.

Natural gas is widely used for cooking and for heating homes. It consists mostly of
methane and is found near oil deposits below Earth’s surface. Natural gas can be
pumped out through the same wells used for extracting crude oil.

Coal is a solid fossil fuel that is used for heating homes and generating power plants.
It is found in fossilized swamps that have been buried beneath layers of sediment. Since
coal is solid, it cannot be extracted in the same manner as crude oil or natural gas; it
must be dug up from the ground.

2. Renewable Resources

Renewable resources are those resources that continue to exist despite being consumed
or can replenish themselves over a period of time even as they are used. They include
the sun, wind, water, geothermal, and biomass. The disadvantage of renewable
resources is that they may not be available for use when needed.
Solar Energy

Current technologies allow us to use solar energy in three ways: passive solar heating,
active solar heating, and electricity production by solar cells. A passive solar house is
built to absorb and store the Sun's heat directly. In active solar heating systems, solar
thermal collectors absorb the Sun's energy and use it to heat water. Pumps then
circulate the hot water through radiators to heat a building, or the inhabitants use the
hot water directly for washing and bathing. Solar thermal collectors are becoming
increasingly popular worldwide, with an estimated total capacity of more than 450
million square meters.

A solar cell or photovoltaic (PV) cell produces electricity directly from sunlight. A
modern solar cell is a semi-conductor, a device that can conduct electrical current under
some conditions but not others. Sunlight energizes electrons in the semiconductor,
producing an electric current. The sun bathes the earth with 86,000 trillion watts of
energy at any given time, more than 6,600 times the amount currently used by humans
each year.

Although solar power still accounts for less than 1 percent of world energy demand,
solar energy is our most abundant resource, and PV cell production is the
fastestgrowing segment of the energy industry. Photovoltaic arrays are now competitive
with electricity costs during peak demand times in California, especially those installed
for single-family units. PVs are also cost-effective for electricity needs far from existing
power lines.

Wind Energy

Wind power is a limitless, pollution-free source of electricity. Anything that moves has
kinetic energy, and scientists and engineers are using the wind’s kinetic energy to
generate electricity. Wind energy, or wind power, is created using a wind turbine,
a device that channels the power of the wind to generate electricity. The wind blows
the blades of the turbine, which are attached to a rotor. The rotor then spins a
generator to create electricity.
Worldwide, wind is the second-fastest-growing source of energy and many countries are
rapidly investing in new wind farms. The United States surpassed Germany as as the
world leader in wind energy production in 2008, but Germany remains a close second,
with the capacity to generate just under 24, 000 megawatts in 2008. This is, however,
7% of German’s total energy usage, whereas the United States’ larger capacity
accounts for only 1 % of total U.S. energy.

Geothermal Energy

Energy extracted from Earth's internal heat is called geothermal energy. Natural hot
ground water can be pumped to the surface to generate electricity, or it can be used
directly to heat homes and other buildings. Alternatively, cool surface water can be
pumped deep into the ground, to be heated by subterranean rock, and then circulated
to the surface for use. The United States is the largest producer of geothermal
electricity in the world. with a production capacity of just over 3,000 megawatts.

Hydroelectric Energy

If a river is dammed, the energy of water dropping downward through the dam can be
harnessed to turn turbines that produce electricity. Hydroelectric generators supply
between 15 and 20 percent of the world's electricity. They provide about 3 percent of
all energy consumed in the United States, but about 8 percent of our electricity. The
United States is unlikely to increase its production of hydroelectric energy. Large dams
are expensive to build, and few suitable sites remain. Environmentalists commonly
oppose dam construction because the resulting reservoirs flood large areas-destroying
wildlife habitats, agricultural land, towns, and migratory fish populations. For example,
the dams on the Columbia River and its tributaries are largely responsible for the
demise of salmon populations in the Pacific Northwest. Undammed wild rivers and their
canyons are prized for their aesthetic and recreational value.

Biomass Energy

Biomass is organic, meaning it is made of material that comes from living organisms,
such as plants and animals. The most common biomass materials used for energy are
plants, wood, and waste. These are called biomass feedstocks. Biomass energy can
also be a nonrenewable energy source.

Biomass contains energy first derived from the sun: Plants absorb the sun’s energy
through photosynthesis, and convert carbon dioxide and water into nutrients
(carbohydrates).

The energy from these organisms can be transformed into usable energy through direct
and indirect means. Biomass can be burned to create heat (direct), converted into
electricity (direct), or processed into biofuel (indirect).

Biomass (plant) fuels currently produce about 11,000 megawatts of energy. Wood is the
most productive of all biomass, followed by controlled garbage incineration and alcohol
fuels. The use of biofuels-fuels derived from crops and agricultural wastes-is growing
rapidly around the world. In general, these fuels are cleaner burning than fossil fuels
and can be produced domestically in most countries, thereby creating local jobs and
reducing foreign oil imports, However, production of biofuels is not always a net energy
gain; in some cases, more energy is used in the production and processing of these
fuels than can be extracted from then. The two main types of biofuel are ethanol and
biodiesel.
Advantages of Renewable Sources of Energy

1. Renewable energy sources can never run out because these sources are
continuously filled by nature. For instance: solar energy can never run out until the Sun
exists in the solar system.

2. As compared to non-renewable sources like fossil fuels, renewable energy

sources are easily available to humans and are reliable because these energy sources
are distributed equally on the planet.

3. Renewable energy sources are environment friendly because they are produced
naturally, and they do not emit any harmful gases or pollutants that can cause damage
to the ozone layer or to the environment.

4. Renewable sources require less maintenance as compared to non-renewable

energy sources. For instance, if you can see turbines in hydropower stations or in wind
farms, you will observe that these power generating systems do not require any external
system for rotating parts. Although their initial cost is high, once they are installed, you
can benefit from them for a lifetime.

Disadvantages of Renewable Sources of Energy

1. Renewable energy sources are not available round the clock because these
sources are natural forces that depend strongly on the weather condition. Therefore,
when you have bad weather conditions, renewable energy such as solar cells can’t be
used.

2. The efficiency of renewable energy is low because every type of energy requires
a particular kind of technology to convert it into electricity. Unfortunately, as compared
with traditional energy conversion devices, the efficiency of renewable sources and
technology is not that high.
3. The storage cost of renewable energy is very high, and also it requires a lot of
space for its installation.

Advantages of Non-Renewable Sources of Energy

1. Resources such as oil and coal tend to provide us with more energy as
compared to renewable energy like wind or solar energy, and the reason behind it is
that nonrenewable resources are high in energy.

2. In the construction of natural gas pipelines, mining of coal and selling of oil and
petroleum, huge profits can be generated.

3. Non-renewable resources are easy to use and quite easy to store. Also,
nonrenewable resources can be conveniently moved across the world.

4. Most significantly, non-renewable resources are helpful in generating

employment. Extracting, refining and transporting are the portions of non-renewable
sources that provide employment for the people in gulf countries.

Disadvantages of Non-Renewable Source of Energy

1. One of the main drawbacks of non-renewable energy is that it consumes a lot of

time and it takes a lot of effort. For instance, the process involved in the mining of coal
is searching for the coal mines, installation of complex machines, drilling, extracting,
refining and transporting. All these processes are very time-consuming processes.

2. Non-renewable energy sources are slowly vanishing from the earth because they
are formed over billions of years.

3. Since some non-renewable sources emit carbon monoxide, like fossil fuels, it
means that non-renewable energy causes pollution and also, they can cause respiratory
problems in humans. Sources like coal, oil and natural gas are responsible for rapidly
destroying the ozone layer because these sources release a large amount of carbon
dioxide when burnt.

4. Transportation of non-renewable sources is a very risky process because when

huge oil tanks and cargo ships crash and spill the contents in the sea or somewhere
else, then it can be deadly for human beings, sea animals and the vegetation in that
area.
References

Tarbuck, E. J. & Lutgens, F. K. (2019). Earth Science (14th ed.). Mind

Mover Publishing House, Inc.

Thompson, G. R. & Turk, J. (2012). Introduction to Earth Science

(Philippine ed.). Cengage Learning Asia Pte Limited.

Thompson, G. R. & Turk, J. ( ). Earth Science and the Environment

(Philippine ed.). Cengage Learning Asia Pte Limited.

https://www.britannica.com/science/rock-geology/Physical-properties

https://sciencenotes.org/the-rock-cycle-diagram-and-explanation/

https://www.sciencefacts.net/rock-cycle.html

https://byjus.com/physics/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-renewable and-
non-renewable-energy-sources/

https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/nonrenewable resources/