The Architecture of the Image

Karen Cham
Kingston University
London
[email protected]

It is ‘post structuralism’ that offers us a working notion of images as systems of signs whose
‘semantic spaces’ are defined by networks of changing conceptual relationships. As a dialectical
method it has provided useful paradigms for addressing our conceptual interaction with, and
interpretation of, diverse art, design & media visualisations. However, it is limited in effectively
accounting for the significant interaction between the abstractions that are media images and
actual behaviours as practices ‘outstrips theoretical understanding of the relationship between the
sign and the signified, the simulation and the social, the model and the real’.

In the sciences, it is ‘systems thinking’ that emphasizes a concern with relationships, systems and
networks. Here, ‘emergent behaviour’ is accounted for as a recognizable characteristic of
‘complexity’; a new type of science concerning systems that are sufficiently complex as to display
a capacity for ‘autopoiesis’ or ‘self making’.

The author has previously proposed that a convergence of post structuralism and complexity may
allow some greater understanding of the generative feedback loop between the conceptual,
computational and very real ‘semantic behaviours’ of digital culture.

Here she elaborates that as the abstractions of synergetic brand architectures and designed
identity systems are used more and more to underpin user experiences, this type of distributed,
networked, ‘cloud semantics’ can be recognised as the soft engineering of participatory semantic
systems where the emergent actual behaviours are the intentional result of generating metaphoric
‘virtual’ avatars for us all to involuntarily inhabit as part of the natural ‘autopoetics’ of the digital
age.

Post structuralism. Complex systems. Semantics. Emergence. Autopoiesis. User Experience Design.

1. INTRODUCTION effectively accounting for the core aspects of

‘digitally interactive media’. This term is used here
In the Humanities, the work of poststructuralist to refer to any media that is
thinkers such as Jean Baudrillard, Roland Barthes
and Jaques Derrida offers us the notion of all ‘a machine system which reacts in the moment,
cultural artefacts as texts or systems of signs. by virtue of automated reasoning based on data
Indeed, for the poststructuralist, all artefacts and from its sensory apparatus’ (Penny 1996)
practices, including the contextualising ‘grand
Whilst post-structuralism has prefigured a number
narratives’ (Lyotard 1979) such as mathematics,
science and religion, are ‘semiotic’ systems, and of important key aspects of digital interaction, it is
the semantic value or ‘meanings’ of these signs anchored in the notion of interpretation, which
and systems are not fixed, but rather sustained by proves limited in this context. In digital interaction
networks of relationships that change, both the users interpretation is in many cases
represented and fedback into the original artefact;
synchronically and diachronically.
interaction is significantly more enactive and
As a dialectical method poststructuralism has participatory than interpretation which is initially at
provided useful paradigms for addressing our least, a conceptual private process.
interpretation of diverse art, design & media
visualizations such as magazine advertisements, As post structuralism struggles with differentiating
between interpretation and interaction in this
cinema films and cave paintings and is core to
media theory and production practice. However, it context, it also struggles to effectively account for
has in the authors view, some limitations in the significant interaction between images and
actual behaviours. Traditionally, media theory falls

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Karen Cham

back on Raymond Williams notion of ‘human

agency’ where, by aiming to robustly juxtapose any Recently however, new disciplines such as
idea of technological determinism in our ‘behavioural economics’ are looking at how a
consumption of television content, he fails to product’s UX can even encourage user behaviours
properly account for any intentionality on the part of that are detrimental to ones own best interests.
the producer whatsoever. This design style known ominously as ‘dark
patterns’, has evolved as it becomes easier to
Thirty years later, by virtue of the velocity of demonstrate the relationships between design and
technological change, many digital practices behaviour, not least as both are mediated via a
digital interface. In the nascent field of ‘neuro
‘outstrip theoretical understanding of the economics’, however, even an EEG machine can
relationship between the sign and the signified, detect ones exposure to ‘putative branding
the simulation and the social, the model and the
moments within TV commercials’. (Braeutigam
real’
2004)
Concurrently, in the sciences, it is ‘systems
thinking’ that emphasizes a concern with nodes, As the abstractions of synergetic brand
relationships, systems and networks. Here, users architectures and designed identity systems are
interaction with digital media can be understood as integrated into UX as a ‘cybernetic’ (Norbert
enactive, and accounted for as a recognizable Weiners definition ‘messages between man and
characteristic of ‘complexity’. This new type of machines, between machines and man, and
science concerns systems that are sufficiently between machine and machine’) version of ‘touch
complex as to automatically display a capacity for point orchestration’ (Abbing & Gessel 2010),
autopoiesis or ‘self making’; an ideal description of expanded across analogue and digital platforms in
the systemic aspects of digital media if not the a mixed reality experience, contemporary branding
content. activities constitute distributed, networked, ‘cloud
semantics’. This is the soft engineering of
The potential relationship between participatory semantic systems that generate
poststructuralism and complexity theory in digital metaphoric ‘virtual’ avatars for us all to involuntarily
practice have not gone unnoticed, indeed the inhabit as the natural ‘autopoetics’ of the digital
author herself has previously proposed a age. This paper argues the emergent actual
convergence of the two towards a ‘complex behaviours are by design.
adaptive structuralism’ as a design methodology for
digitally interactive media. In designing digitally 2. POST STRUCTURALISM
interactive systems, the designer establishes co
ordinates to define a ‘user experience’ (UX), In the 1960s and 70s the artefacts of the mass
establishing and then authoring parameters that media such as advertising, cinema and television
guide and delineate a performative ‘autopoeitic’ programmes became a subject of analysis for
process, often with diverse outcomes. These types these serious thinkers. ‘Texts’ were deconstructed
of ‘emergent behaviours’, are to a degree and analysed from a ‘structuralist’ thinkers; a new
technologically determined by the design, as they philosophical approach to the structure and
are a result of a fundamental relationship between function of cultural artefacts. It was the recognition
structure and function. that the semantic value or ‘meanings’ of these
signs and systems are not fixed, but rather
When expanded to the pragmatic effects of the sustained by networks of relationships that change,
consumption of media images, this approach both synchronically and diachronically, that gave
allows us to perceive a generative feedback loop rise to the term ‘poststructuralist’.
between the images and the ‘semantic behaviours’
of digital media culture such as brand loyalty, the The work of poststructuralist thinkers such as Jean
trajectory of celebrity and ‘pre-mediated’ violence. Baudrillard, Roland Barthes and Jaques Derrida
has provided useful paradigms for addressing our
As traditional economics theory, like Williams interpretation of diverse art, design & media images
theory of human agency, is based on the belief that such as magazine advertisements, cinema films
people make rational decisions, it has been difficult and cave paintings. For the poststructuralist, all
to demonstrate causal links between images and artefacts and practices are understood as
behaviour. Branding has long been established as manifestations of relative truths contextualised by
‘moments of engagement between people and ‘grand narratives’ (Lyotard 1979) such as
brands, and the associations these moments mathematics, science and religion, which are also
create’ (Ardill 2010) and brand identity is most often texts or systems of signs in flux. This is
mediated by images, yet the reluctance to concede poststructuralist discourse analysis, where all
that certain types of behaviour is driven by design sense of reality is the product of discourse. It was
remains in certain fields of enquiry.

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Jacques Derrida who took this proposal to its This work is not coincidental; it is designed to
logical conclusion with ‘deconstruction’; an attempt promote the pasta sauce.
to demonstrate that any text can be deconstructed
to into multitudinous interpretations irrespective of Post-structuralism has however, prefigured a
the authorial intent. number of important key aspects of digital
interaction. Key concepts such as Barthes ‘death of
As an analytical method, poststructuralist ‘textual the author’– the apriori that all cultural artefacts are
analysis’ can be implemented to demonstrate that open to interpretation, and all meanings must be
initially any text has multiple interpretations ‘completed’ by the ‘reader’ had been established by
anchored in contextual cultural narratives and post structuralist theory in the 1970s; indeed
ideologies. Textual analysis relies upon the Umberto Ecos concept of the ‘open work’ has also
successful implementation of the basic been an established concept for over 30 years and
representational concept of a ‘sign’ which both play out very successfully in the context of the
comprises of a ‘signifier’ and a ‘signified’. This computational arts. Lyotard's definition of the
scientific study of signs is known as ‘semiotics’ and ‘performativity’ of knowledge in a cybernetic society
poststructuralist semiotics finds its roots in the work is manifest on a daily basis on the internet; even
of French linguist, Ferdinand de Saussure whose Saussure himself, almost a century ago, described
work underpins the European notion of ‘semiotics’ spoken language as a performative system in use.
which focuses upon human signs and discourse;
significantly different to the American notion of
‘semiology’ which is concerned with broader
‘universal’ sign systems. (Pierces semiology thus
posits a potentially unworkable 56,049 different
sign types. His initial triad of signs; iconic, indexical
and symbolic have proved invaluable however to
the Saussurian inheritance (see Cobley & Jansz
1997)).

Figure 1: The Saussurean Sign

This is the body text. This is the body text. The

seminal work of ‘textual analysis’ is from Roland Figure 2: Panzani Pasta Ad, Barthes, 1968
Barthes "Rhetoric of the Image" (1964) where he
deconstructs the architecture of the Panzani Pasta
advertising image to reveal the denotations and Jean Baudrillard went further in Simulacra and
connotations of the signifiers within the text. Simulations (1981) and introduced his concept that
in an era whose communicative and semantic acts
…the serried collection of different objects are dominated by electronic media and digital
transmits the idea of a total culinary service, on technologies, reality or the principle of the "real" is
the one hand as though Panzani furnished short-circuited by the interchangeability of signs.
everything necessary for a carefully balanced He proposes the notion that, in such a state, events
dish and on the other as though the concentrate no longer hold any particular sway on the subject
in the tin were equivalent to the natural produce nor have any identifiable context; they therefore
surrounding it
have the effect of producing widespread
We can see from Barthes seminal work how key to indifference, detachment and passivity in
visual communication theory and practice semiotics industrialized populations. He claimed that a
& textual analysis are. There is however in this constant stream of appearances and references
work, interestingly no reference to the intentionality without any direct consequences to viewers or
of the producer in the making of this composition. readers could eventually render the division
between appearance and object indiscernible,
resulting, ironically, in the "disappearance" of

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Karen Cham

mankind in what is, in effect, a virtual or as a dialectical method that breaks with logical and
holographic state, composed only of appearances. causal analyses to emphasize relationships within
a whole. It can be traced from Socrates through
From the poststructuralist perspective then, we can Hegel to pragmatics and systems theory (Ball
observe in the work of both Derrida, Barthes & 1979). It is in Ludwig von Bertalanffy ‘General
Baudrillard, a severance of the text from authorial Systems Theory’ of 1969 that we find the roots of
intent and an absence of interaction between the this dialectic as an applied trans-disciplinary
text, its context and its interpretation. Thus the methodology; a means of identifying systemic
pragmatic effects of media images are dissolved principles common to different ‘systems’ from
into the flux of relationships intertwined in different disciplines. General Systems Theory
signification processes. allows us to apprehend mechanical systems such
as a car engine, biological systems such as the
As a result, post structuralism has struggled to heart, or social systems such as a school, from a
effectively account for the significant interaction common theoretical perspective. Aside from their
between images and actual behaviours, falling very obvious differences, all such systems are
back on Raymond Williams interpretative notion of highly organised and integrated wholes whose
‘human agency’ where, by robustly juxtaposing any component parts are themselves recognisable as
idea of technological determinism in our ‘subsystems’. Furthermore, such systems can be
consumption of television content, this theory fails understood as operating by means of inputs,
to properly account for any intentionality on the part processes and outputs to accomplish an overall,
of the producer whatsoever. systemic goal. In this way, a system is always more
than the sum of its parts. Systems can also be
Thirty years later, by virtue of the velocity of defined as either ‘open’ or ‘closed’, which
technological change, many digital practices conventionally describes the systems degree of
interaction with its environment, with open systems
‘outstrip theoretical understanding of the interestingly, being more likely to prosper.
relationship between the sign and the signified,
the simulation and the social, the model and the
In systems theory then, a ‘system’ can be said to
real’
consists of
This demonstrates the key problem in using post
structuralism to effectively account for the main • Objects - the component parts (abstract or
defining aspect of digitally media; its interactivity. physical) of the system
The term is used here to refer to any media that is • Attributes- qualities or properties of the
system and its objects.
‘a machine system which reacts in the moment, • Relationships-between its internal objects
by virtue of automated reasoning based on data • Environment – within which the system
from its sensory apparatus’ (Penny 1996) exists

Post structuralisms core concepts are anchored in Systems theory has become an holistic approach
the notion of interpretation, which is, the author has to scientific analysis that views whole systems
argued, significantly different to interaction. In based upon the links and interactions between the
digital interaction the users interpretation is in many component parts, their relationship to each other
cases represented and fedback into the original and the environment within which they exists. It is a
artefact; interaction is thus significantly more type of thinking that is useful to apprehend dynamic
enactive than interpretation. Furthermore in its phenomena such as networks, interactions and
reactive response to structuralist thought post processes and stands in stark contrast to
structuralism abandoned any notion of deterministic conventional science, based upon Descartes’s
relationship whatsoever between the signifier and reductionism, where the aim is to analyse a system
the signified, the text, its context and its by reducing something to its component parts.
interpretation, which serves only amplifies the void (Wilson 1998)
where notions of interactivity should lie. These
relationships are neither transcendently fixed nor As is apparent, systems theory is a way of thinking
entirely arbitrary but in a fluctuating, interactive rather than a specific set of rules, and similarly
feedback loop. there is no single unified Theory of Complexity, but
several different theories have arisen from the
natural sciences, mathematics and computing. As
3. COMPLEX SYSTEMS THEORY
such, the study of complex systems is very
In the sciences, it is ‘systems thinking’ that interdisciplinary and encompasses more than one
emphasizes a concern with relationships, systems theoretical framework. Whilst key ideas of
and networks. Systems thinking’ can be recognised complexity theory developed through artificial
intelligence and robotics research, other important

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contributions came from thermodynamics, biology, experiences. When expanded to the pragmatic
sociology, physics, economics and law. effects of media, this approach also allows us to
perceive a generative feedback loop between
In her volume for the Elsevier Advanced media images and the ‘semantic behaviours’ of
Management Series, “Complex Systems and digital media culture such as brand loyalty, the
Evolutionary Perspectives on Organisations”, Eve trajectory of celebrity and ‘pre-mediated’ acts of
Mittleton Kelly defines some generic principles of violence where representation of the act seems
complex systems as: integral to the crime on the part of the perpetrator.

• self-organisation
• emergence
• interdependence
• feedback
• space of possibilities
• co-evolving
• creation of new order
.
These principles can just as easily be traced in
virtual systems as they can in real ones, for
example, a digitally interactive environment such as
the world wide web, clearly demonstrates all the
key aspects of a complex system. Indeed, it has
already been described as a ‘complexity machine’
(Qvortup 2006). In his 2006 paper, Lars Qvortup
describes the internet itself as a ‘complexity
machine’ and described the international crisis
provoked by the publication of a cartoon of the
prophet Mohammed, as a ‘communications event’
(Qvortup 2006). This is rationally demonstrated Figure 4: The “emerging media eco-system” (Bowman &
when comparing the traditional top down model of Willis 2003)
news generation, distribution and consumption to
the “emerging media eco-system” (Bowman & The recent work of Ira Livingston sets out this
Willis 2003). It is clear there is some form of causal notion of an ‘autopoiesis’ or ‘self-making’ capacity
relation between the image, the system and the for language based systems. Livingstons
behaviour. ‘autopoetics’ or ‘the convergence of words and
things’ is based on the proposition that a
It is in design for interactive media arts, where language based system is
algorithms meet images, and the user can
interact, adapt and amend the artefact, that self- ‘of the world, like galaxies and ecosystems…it
organisation, emergence, interdependence, participates in what it represents’ (Livingston
feedback, the space of possibilities, co-evolution 2006)
and the creation of new order are embraced on
a day to day basis by artists, designers and
users alike.

Figure 3: Traditional top down model of news

generation, distribution and consumption (Bowman &
Figure 5: Person as a co-evolving media product
Willis 2003)

Whilst post-structuralism has prefigured the 4. DESIGNING EMERGENT BEHAVIOURS

processes of interaction in digital media to an
extent, a complex notion of language systems Branding of course, has long been established as
accounts for emergent behaviours rather than ‘moments of engagement between people and
simply emergent interpretations. This helps us brands, and the associations these moments
design for digital interaction and anticipate user

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Karen Cham

create’ (Ardill 2010). We know that users complex systems theory with systems art and
experience of brands feedsback into the brand digital media.
identity itself; one only needs to think of Gerald
Ratners ill thought out comments that the earrings This ‘Complex Adaptive Structuralism’ allows us to
sold in his shops were understand more about the complex adaptive
systems of media culture as a whole and raises
“cheaper than a prawn sandwich but probably important questions about the generative capacity
wouldn’t last as long” of representation per se within a solid theoretical
framework. As a design methodology it is a
to understand how easily the ‘emperors clothes’ of
proposal for a ‘Reconstruction Theory’; whereas
a successful brand can evaporate; within weeks the
Derrida’s deconstruction is ‘fractal’ textual analysis
share price of ‘Ratners’ decreased by £500 million
of the conceptual interpretive systems of the
and his large UK chain of jewellers closed down
reader, Reconstruction Theory is a design
(http://www.mpowerpeople.co.uk/2011/05/7-ways-
methodology and critical tool regarding the
that-being-too-real-on-twitter-can-kill-your-
intentional authorship of a space of possibility in
business/). Whilst in the nascent field of ‘neuro
complex media for emergent behaviours, as part of
economics’, even an EEG machine can detect
any complex text that is intended to be interactive
ones exposure to ‘putative branding moments
such as an installation, networked web
within TV commercials’. (Braeutigam 2004)
communities and massively multiplayer games.
As it becomes easier to demonstrate the ‘When designing digitally interactive artifacts we
relationships between design and behaviour, not design parameters or co ordinates to define the
least as both the design and the behaviour take space within which a performative autopoeitic
place via a GUI, new disciplines such as process will take place. We can never begin to
‘behavioural economics’ are looking at how a predict precisely what those processes might
product’s UX design can even encourage user become through interaction, emergence and self
behaviours that are detrimental to users’ best organization, but we can and do establish and
then author parameters that guide and delineate
interests; a design style known ominously as ‘dark
the space of possibilities’. (Cham 2007)
patterns’. (Brignull 2010)
As the abstractions of this type of synergetic brand
Dark Patterns are not bad design, deriving from architectures and designed identity systems are
ignorance, laziness and a lack of attention to detail used more and more to underpin user experiences,
etc, Dark Patterns are designed systems that have this constitutes in effect distributed, networked,
been ‘cloud semantics’ as part of the soft engineering of
participatory semantic systems where the emergent
‘crafted with great attention to detail, and a solid
understanding of human psychology, to trick
actual behaviours are the intentional result of
users into do things they wouldn’t otherwise generating metaphoric ‘virtual’ avatars for us all to
have done’. (Brignull 2010) involuntarily inhabit as a driver of the natural
‘autopoetics’3 of the digital age.
We can see from dark patterns that it is really not
that difficult to design for intended user behaviours
through GUI based systems. Thus, brand identity is 6. CONCLUSIONS
being rapidly integrated into UX and expanded
across analogue and digital platforms in a mixed Digital media is forcing our understanding of
reality user experience; so its no longer a case of interactivity between representation and the real as
real experiences feeding back into our perception ‘the terms art, design and media converge into a
of a brand identity but of a co-evolving ecosystem process driven, performative event that
of associations in a ‘cybernetic’ version of ‘touch demonstrates emergence through autopoietic
point orchestration’ (Abbing & Gessel 2010). processes’

The author has previously proposed a convergence The void between the signifier and the signified is
of the poststructuralist and complexity theory as a the interaction between polarized conceptual
means of understanding the ‘material’ qualities of constraints inherited from Rene Descartes (In the
digital media cultural systems (Cham 2007). It is a Philosophy of Mind, Rene Descartes states that the
proposal built upon the basis of a theoretical immaterial mind and the material body are separate
continuum from Saussurian linguistics and the and that they interact with each other.). We
concern with synchronic systems and performance; struggle to understand the interaction between the
it predicates post structuralism and the role of the conceptual (non material) and the physical
‘reader’ in ‘completing’ the emergent meaning of (material)“ as we struggle to rationally integrate the
‘open’ texts and integrates systems thinking and notions of mind and body unified in embodied
interaction with immersive interfaces as the

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Karen Cham

conceptual is increasingly mediated and then November, Pages 355-360 2nd Conference on
materialized. NeuroEconomics - ConNEcs 2004.
Brignall, H. (2010) Dark Patterns: dirty tricks
Whilst post-structuralism prefigures the processes designers use to make people do stuff,
of digital interaction to an extent, a complex notion http://www.90percentofeverything.com/2010/07/08/
of language systems accounts for emergent dark-patterns-dirty-tricks-designers-use-to-make-
behaviours rather than simply emergent people-do-stuff/comment-page-3/#comment-
interpretations. This immediately crosses the 161069 (23 May 2011)
Cartesian void between signification and the real.
Brignall, H. (2010) UX Brighton Presentation on
Furthermore, it appears that some type of Dark Patterns,
autopoiesis is at play here across that void; not http://www.90percentofeverything.com/2010/09/13/
only that language systems and behaviour patterns ux-brighton-presentation-on-dark-patterns/ (23 May
are complex systems themselves, and part of the 2011)
complex nested system of culture in dynamic, Cham, K.L. and Johnson, J.H. (2007) ‘Complexity
interactive relation, but that they are equally ‘real.’ Theory; a Science of Cultural Systems?’, ‘M/C
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transformation of the real & experience design, International Journal of
Performance Arts & Digital Media, Vol 3 Issue
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