Agua
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Article
Improving the Efficiency of Green Roofs Using Atmospheric
Water Harvesting Systems (An Innovative Design)
Behrouz Pirouz 1, * , Stefania Anna Palermo 2 and Michele Turco 2
Abstract: Conventional green roofs, although having numerous advantages, could place water
resources under pressure in dry periods due to irrigation requirements. Moreover, the thermal
efficiency of green roofs could decrease without irrigation, and the plants could get damaged.
Therefore, this study aims to improve the efficiency of conventional green roofs by proposing a new
multipurpose green roof combined with fog and dew harvesting systems. The analysis determined
that the average water use of green roofs in the summer (in humid regions) is about 3.7 L/m2 /day,
in the Mediterranean regions about 4.5 L/m2 /day, and in arid regions about 2.7 L/m2 /day. During
the dry season, the average fog potential in humid regions is 1.2 to 15.6 L/m2 /day, Mediterranean
regions between 1.6 and 4.6 L/m2 /day, and arid regions between 1.8 and 11.8 L/m2 /day. The average
dew potential during the dry season in humid regions is 0.1 to 0.3 L/m2 /day, in the Mediterranean
regions is 0.2 to 0.3 L/m2 /day, and in the arid regions is 0.5 to 0.7 L/m2 /day. The analysis of the
suggested multipurpose green roof combined with fog/dew harvesting systems, in the summer,
Citation: Pirouz, B.; Palermo, S.A.;
in three different climates, show that fog harvesting could provide the total water requirement of
Turco, M. Improving the Efficiency of the green roofs, and that dew harvesting by PV (photo-voltaic) panels could provide 15 to 26% of
Green Roofs Using Atmospheric Water the water requirements. Moreover, it could show a higher thermal impact on the building, higher
Harvesting Systems (An Innovative efficiency in stormwater management, less dependence on the urban water network, and greater
Design). Water 2021, 13, 546. efficiency in decreasing urban air, water, and noise pollution. Finally, the novel green roof system
https://doi.org/10.3390/w13040546 could consume less water due to the shaded area by mesh and solar PVs and maximize the utilization
of the roof area, as solar panels could be applied on the same green roof.
Academic Editor: Andreas
N. Angelakis Keywords: green roofs; fog water harvesting; dew water harvesting; solar PV; sustainability
of more than 1000 mm, such as the Mediterranean climates, precipitation during the dry
period could be scarce, or even less than 1 mm in some years [53,54].
The analysis of water conditions in several Mediterranean countries determined the
benefits of non-conventional water resources, such as rainwater harvesting, Atmospheric
(fog/dew) water harvesting, and even reverse osmosis (RO) [55]. The feasibility of atmo-
spheric water harvesting methods has been approved in numerous geographical locations
with different humidity levels [56–58]. However, before high investment programs are
launched, experimental analysis on the local pilot system is recommended [59]. The world-
wide analysis of fog harvesting systems confirmed fog harvesting potential, particularly
in arid regions [60]. Fog harvesting potential depends on the mesh topology, wettability,
and collector efficiency [56]. Another non-conventional water resource is dew water har-
vesting, which is different from fog harvesting, and means collecting droplets on surfaces
with temperatures below the dew point [61]. Different dew harvesting methods include
active cooling condensation, regenerated solar desiccant, and passive systems. [56]. The
experimental analysis of a dew and rain harvesting system using plastic cover showed
the dew contribution from total water was significantly high, about 26% [61]. In arid
and semi-arid areas, the dew collection could be significant compared to the dry sea-
son’s rainfall amount [62]. Dew is a critical water resource in the desert area, and the
growth of vegetation depends on that [63,64]. Furthermore, the type of plant can affect
the dew formation near the ground. The dew formation analysis near the plants, such as
Haloxylon ammodendron, exhibited that the plant’s canopy can increase dew formation
frequency [65]. The dew formation could happen on PV (photo-voltaic) panels during the
night and early morning [66]. The average emissivity of PV panels, between 75% and 90%,
is suitable for dew harvesting [67,68].
taining an average soil moisture content of about 0.3 m3 water/m3 soil for the experimental
investigations on an EGR.
factor is the sustainability of methods [130–132], which means installation structures, water
collectors, and mesh materials [133].
There are many published papers about green roofs and atmospheric water harvesting
methods. However, analysis of a combined design using dew and fog harvesting water in
irrigation of green roofs received less attention. The key focus on conventional green roofs
are stormwater management, landscape, and thermal impacts. The remaining issues are
the water requirements in the summer that could negatively affect the thermal impacts and
the utilization of the roof area for other purposes, such as PV panels.
Therefore, this study addresses improving conventional green roof usage and effi-
ciency by proposing a new, multipurpose green roof with fog and dew harvesting systems.
In this regard, this study’s main goal is to analyze the new proposed system’s potential
in different climates to decrease the dependency of green roofs on urban water resources,
especially in dry periods.
Start
(L/d/m2) (L/d/m2)
An innovative design of
green roof
The comparisons among the new system The share of AWHs (atmospheric water
and conventional green roofs harvesting) in green roofs water demand
Yes
Is the utilization
No The remaining
of the roof area
issues
improved?
Yes
End
Climate Location Collector Material E (%) T (mm) Yield (mm/m2 Year) Reference
PETB 0.83 0.3 19.4
Semi-arid coastal India (Kothara) Galvanized iron 0.23 1.5 15.6 [140]
Aluminum 0.09 1.5 9
Semi-arid India (Panandhro) Plastic foil 0.94 - 7.7 [97]
WSF 0.87–0.89 - 17.36
Mediterranean Spain (Cartagena) [94]
BF 0.99 0.15 20.76
Semi-arid
Lebanon (Beiteddine) PETB 0.83 0.3 15.2 [93]
France (Corsica) PETB 0.83 0.3 25.68 [141,142]
Mediterranean
Croatia (Bisˇevo) Plastic cover - - 14.7 [61]
Marine tropical Tahiti Island PTFE - 1.05 24.82 [143]
Humid continental Poland (Wroclaw) PE - - 0.1 per day [100]
PEB 0.927 - 19.4
Kenya (Maktau) PEW 0.975 - 19.6 [144]
PVC 0.965 - 22.3
Arid
Saudi Arabia (Dhahran) PE - - 0.22 in one night [99]
Morocco (15 cities) Standard passive condensers - - 0.3–18.1 [119]
E: emissivity; T: thickness; WSF: white hydrophilic foil; BF: low-cost black polyethylene foil; PETB: polyethylene mixed with 5% TiO2 and 2%
BaSO4 ; PTFE: polytetrafluoroethylene; PEB: polyethylene black; PEW: polyethylene white; PVC: polyvinyl chloride; PE: polyethylene foil.
Results
3. Results
3.1. A New
3.1. A New Multipurpose
Multipurpose Green
Green Roof
Roof with
with Fog
Fog and
and Dew
Dew Harvesting
Harvesting Systems
Systems
The new
The new proposed
proposed green
green roof
roof with
with fog
fog and
and dew
dew harvesting
harvesting systems
systems are
are presented
presented in
in
Figures 2–4. Figure 5 shows the location of the fog harvesting mesh and solar panels in
Figures 2–4. Figure 5 shows the location of the fog harvesting mesh and solar panels in the
north
the andand
north south hemispheres.
south hemispheres.
Figure
Figure 2.
2. The
The new
new design
design of
of the
the green
green roof
roof with
with atmospheric
atmospheric water
water harvesting
harvesting systems.
systems. 1—green
1—green roof
roof plants,
plants, 2—mesh
2—mesh for
for
fog harvesting, 3—dew collector plate, 4—collector pipe, 5—harvested water collector duct, 6—duct for pipes, 7—metal
fog harvesting, 3—dew collector plate, 4—collector pipe, 5—harvested water collector duct, 6—duct for pipes, 7—metal
base for fixing dew collector plate, 8—metal base for mesh installation, 9—metal clamp to fix the mesh, 10—soil.
base for fixing dew collector plate, 8—metal base for mesh installation, 9—metal clamp to fix the mesh, 10—soil.
Water 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 20
Figure 3. The
Figure 3. The main
main elements
elements of
of the
the new green roof
new green roof system.
system.
Water 2021, 13, 546 9 of 19
Figure 4.
Figure 4. The
The fog
fog and
and dew
dew harvesting
harvesting systems
systems in
in the
the new
new green
green roof
roof system.
system.
Water 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 20
Figure5.5.Location
Figure Locationof ofthe
thefog
fogharvesting
harvestingmesh
meshand
andsolar
solarpanels
panels(for
(for dew
dew harvesting)
harvesting) in
in the
thenorth
north and
andsouth
south hemispheres,
hemispheres,
D1—harvested
D1—harvestedfog fogwater
watertoto
thethe
storage tank,
storage D2—harvested
tank, D2—harvesteddewdew
water to the
water to storage tank,tank,
the storage D3—the way of
D3—the using
way of harvested
using har-
vestedforwater
water for irrigation
irrigation of the
of the green roofgreen roofnot-potable
or other or other not-potable usages
usages in the in the 11—water
buildings, buildings, storage
11—water
tankstorage tank with
with filters.
filters.
As shown in Figures 2–5, the novel green roof would benefit from fog harvesting
(by transparent
As shown in mesh) and
Figures dew
2–5, theharvesting
novel green(by solar
roof wouldpanels); it would
benefit from fog depend less (by
harvesting on
urban water mesh)
transparent resourcesandfor
dewirrigation, increasing
harvesting (by solarthe thermal
panels); advantages
it would depend(and decreasing
less on urban
the negative
water points)
resources of the green
for irrigation, roof. Thethe
increasing procedures are as follow:
thermal advantages (and decreasing the neg-
•ative points) of the green roof. The procedures are as follow:
In the fog days, the transparent mesh placed on the roof side (i.e., in the northern
hemisphere is thethe
In the fog days, south side of themesh
transparent roof,placed
and in on
the the
southern hemisphere
roof side is the
(i.e., in the north
northern
hemisphere is the south side of the roof, and in the southern hemisphere is the north
side of the roof) would harvest fog water. The harvested water would be gathered
through the collector ducts and stored in the water storage tank with a filter. In case
of more water requirements, the fog mesh could also be installed on all sides, but
would create more shaded areas on the roof and might negatively affect solar PV
Water 2021, 13, 546 10 of 19
side of the roof) would harvest fog water. The harvested water would be gathered
through the collector ducts and stored in the water storage tank with a filter. In case of
more water requirements, the fog mesh could also be installed on all sides, but would
create more shaded areas on the roof and might negatively affect solar PV efficiency.
• Solar PVs would collect dew water during the nights with a relative humidity of more
than 50%. The harvested dew would be transferred to the water storage tank with
a filter.
3.1.2. The Possible Applications of the New Multipurpose Green Roof System
The possible applications of the new multipurpose green roof system could do the following:
• Improve the thermal efficiency of the buildings and factories;
• Decrease the water consumption in conventional green roofs and improve the effi-
ciency in decreasing noise, water, and air pollutions;
• Provide water for irrigation of green roofs beside other not-potable water usages in
the buildings and factories;
• Optimize the roof area for using both green roof and solar PV panels;
• Improve the sustainability of buildings, factories, and municipalities.
3.2. Analysis of the Proposed System for a Green Roof with an Area of 100 m2
In this section, we analyzed the potential of the suggested multipurpose green roof
in three climates. The considered fog mesh has a height of 2.5 m, and we analyzed the
installation of the mesh on one-side, two-sides, and four-sides of the roof area. The
considered dew collectors are PV panels with installation in 25%, 50%, and 100% of the
roof area.
The average water use in green roofs in the summer is according to Section 1.1 and
Table 1:
• In the humid regions: 1.2 to 6.2 L/m2 /day;
• In the Mediterranean regions: 2 to 7 L/m2 /day;
• In the arid regions (with drought-tolerant landscaping plants): 2.7 L/m2 /day.
The average dew potential during the dry season is according to Section 1.2.1 and
Table 2:
• In the humid regions: 0.1 to 0.3 L/m2 /day;
• In the Mediterranean regions: 0.2 to 0.3 L/m2 /day;
• In the arid regions: 0.5 to 0.7 L/m2 /day.
The average fog potential during the dry season is according to Section 1.2.2 and
Table 3:
• In the humid regions: 1.2 to 15.6 L/m2 /day;
• In the Mediterranean regions: 1.6 to 4.6 L/m2 /day;
• In the arid regions (seashores or high elevation): 1.8 to 11.8 L/m2 /day.
Water 2021, 13, 546 11 of 19
The calculations for the suggested multipurpose green roof system for a roof with an
area of 100 m2 in three different climates are presented in Table 4.
Table 4. Water use and fog/dew harvesting in the new multipurpose green roof with an area of 100 m2 .
4. Discussion
According to the literature review analysis, the performance of green roofs mainly
depends on the type of green roof, the climate type, and the irrigation amount. The energy-
saving differs from 84% in Mediterranean climates to 52% in arid climates. However, the
thermal impacts, especially in the summer, depends on the irrigation, and dry periods
could negatively affect the thermal efficiency. An intensive green roof (IGR) requires more
water than an extensive green roof (EGR). The water use of an extensive green roof in a
humid-subtropical climate is about 5 L/m2 /day and in a Mediterranean climate ranges
from 2.6 to 9.0 L/m2 /day, averaging approximately 7 L/m2 /day in the summer.
The analysis of fog and dew harvesting in many geographical regions determined
the potential as a water source, especially in dry periods, to improve water scarcity. In
Mediterranean regions, dew events could occur in around 43% of nights in the dry season;
the dew yield during the dry season is at least 1.5 mm and exceeds 2.8 mm at the end
of the dry season, whereas the precipitation could be less than 1 mm. The values in the
dry season’s semi-arid regions are between 18.9 and 25.3 mm, and in a desert in summer
about 0.13 mm/day, and the total amount from July to October about 16.1 mm. Dew water
harvesting mainly depends on wind speed, condenser temperature, and relative humidity.
Condenser temperature can decrease at night by a surface with high emissivity, meaning
maximum reflectivity and emitting the infrared wavelength. The analysis shows RH of
more than 50% and emissivity of more than 0.8 could be suitable for having a satisfactory
yield. However, the wettability also affects the water capture and could be increased by
coating materials, such as BaSO4 and TiO2 . The fog harvesting system efficiency depends
on several factors, mainly wind velocity, type, shapes, and mesh wettability. According
to the previous studies, the potential of fog harvesting is about 3.1–15.6 L/m2 /fog day
in different climates. More specifically, about 7 L/m2 /day in a desert with an elevation
of about 650 m, about 10 L/m2 /day in arid regions with an elevation of 1000 m, and
2–7.3 L/m2 /day in Mediterranean climates with elevations more than 120 m.
Results of the calculations for the suggested multipurpose green roof combined with
fog and dew harvesting systems for a roof with a size of 100 m2 in three different climates
are as follows:
• In humid climates, the fog mesh can provide 5 to 1300% of the water requirements of green
roofs, while dew collection by PV panels could be 0.4 to 25% of the water requirements;
• In Mediterranean climates, the fog mesh can provide 6 to 230% of the water require-
ments of green roofs, while dew collection by PV panels could be 1 to 15% of the
water requirements;
• In arid climates, the fog mesh can provide 17 to 437% of the water requirements of green
roofs, while dew collection by PV panels could be 5 to 26% of the water requirements.
Water 2021, 13, 546 12 of 19
4.1. The Comparisons among the New Multipurpose Green Roof System and the Conventional
Green Roofs
The comparisons among the new multipurpose green roof combined with fog/dew
harvesting systems and the conventional green roofs are as follows:
• In the conventional green roof system, the focuses are stormwater management, ther-
mal impacts (that decrease with water issues in dry period), and landscape. However,
in the new multipurpose green roof, fog harvesting mesh could improve the thermal
impacts, increase stormwater management, decrease the noise and air pollution, and
protect the plants from direct sunlight by creating a shaded area.
• The conventional green roofs are dependent on the urban water network for irrigation
in dry periods. However, the multipurpose green roof calculations show the pres-
sure on urban water resources could be decreased by fog harvesting mesh and dew
collecting PV panels, which could harvest fog/dew/precipitation.
• One of the advantages of green roofs is the thermal impact. However, in the con-
ventional green roofs, the thermal efficiency could decrease in dry periods due to
water issues for irrigation, while in the new system, thermal performance improved
due to the increase of irrigation in the summer and decrease of water consumption
in several ways. First, the installed mesh could absorb fog/dew/precipitation and
parts of evapotranspiration by plants. Second, the PV panels could absorb dew water,
besides a decrease of direct sunlight toward the green roof. Third, the installed mesh
in the specified location of the roofs (in the northern hemisphere is the south side of
the roof, and in the southern hemisphere is the north side of the roof) creates a shaded
area and could decrease direct sunlight, resulting in decreased water requirements by
the green roofs.
• A main part of the fog harvesting cost belongs to the supporting structures for mesh
not collapse if high-speed winds should be strong, which affects the final price. How-
ever, installing mesh in the building roof does not need a separate structure, decreasing
the entire cost of atmospheric water harvesting. Moreover, the potential of fog har-
vesting depends on the relative humidity. Thus installation in the green roof site
with higher relative humidity than the adjacent area could improve fog-harvesting
efficiency. Therefore, less cost and higher efficiency could make it a suitable choice for
irrigating green roofs and other water demands.
• The average emissivity of solar panels is between 75% and 90%, making it a suitable
choice for dew harvesting. Besides, the dew formation increases near plants. Thus,
installing solar PVs on top of a green roof could increase the efficiency of dew collectors.
It could also solve another electrical issue, as the high temperature of PV panels
decreases, the electricity production efficiency, and the average temperature on the
green roof is less than the adjacent area. Therefore, in the new system, the efficiency of
both dew collection and electricity by PVs could improve.
• Another issue in the conventional green roofs is the roof area’s utilization for other
purposes, such as PV panels. In the new design, by specified location of the fog
harvesting mesh, the green roof area could be used for solar PV panels, not only for
electricity production, but also for dew collection. Moreover, since the condensing
plates (PVs) are situated near the plants, the efficiency of dew harvesting also increases.
• Other advantages of green roofs are mitigation of heat islands, water quality im-
provement, and less air pollution and noise levels. In the new system, the mesh for
harvesting fog/dew/precipitations also absorbs noise and air pollutions, improv-
ing the conventional green roof’s efficiency in decreasing urban air/noise pollution.
Moreover, creating a shaded area on the roof could mitigate heat island impacts.
stop direct sunlight and decrease water usage, as well as improve thermal behavior in the
summer; therefore, it is recommended for future studies. Finally, the efficiency of dew
collecting by using solar PVs could depend on the type and emissivity; it is recommended
for future studies.
5. Conclusions
Green roofs have numerous benefits in urban environments; however, confronting
certain issues, mainly due to irrigation demands in dry seasons, could put urban water
networks under pressure. In addition, less irrigation could negatively affect thermal ef-
ficiency, particularly in the summer. The fog and dew harvesting potential in different
climates determined the high potential in many geographical locations. While the collected
dew amount seems low, it could exceed the precipitation amount since the precipitation
in the arid area and other climates during the dry seasons might be less than 1 mm or
zero. Moreover, coated mesh with hydrophilic materials (BaSO4 and TiO2) and condens-
ing surfaces with high emissivity and wettability could increase the atmospheric water
harvesting efficiency.
The analysis of dew collectors shows an emissivity of more than 0.8 could result in a
satisfactory yield. Therefore, solar PVs with the emissivity of 75% to 90% could be suitable
for dew harvesting. In addition, installing solar PVs on green roofs could improve the
electrical efficiency, as the high temperature decreases the efficiency of PVs, and the average
temperature on the green roof is less than the adjacent area.
The comparisons among water use of green roofs and atmospheric water harvesting
potential reveal the possibility of using these methods to provide a part of green roof
water requirements. According to the analysis of the suggested multipurpose green roof
combined with fog and dew harvesting systems, in the summer, it seems that installation of
the fog harvesting mesh on two sides of the roof could provide the total water requirements
of the green roofs. While installing the fog harvesting mesh on the four sides of the roofs
could provide more water for other usages, it might negatively affect electricity production
efficiency due to the created shaded area on the roof. The dew harvesting analysis by PV
panels determined that the maximum potential in providing water requirements of green
roofs in the summer could be 25% in humid climates, 15% in Mediterranean climates, and
26% in arid climates. In other seasons, such as winter, the harvested water from fog/dew
could be used for the green roof or other non-potable water usages.
In conclusion, it seems that the novel suggested multipurpose green roof, combined
with dew/fog harvesting, has several benefits in comparison to conventional ones, in-
cluding being less dependent on urban water networks, particularly in dry periods, and
lower water use due to the shaded area by mesh and solar PVs. Moreover, the new system
could show a higher thermal impact on the building, higher efficiency in stormwater
management, and greater efficiency in decreasing urban air, water, and noise pollutions.
The new multipurpose green roof system could maximize the utilization of the roof area
since both green roofs and PV panels could be applied on the same roof.
6. Patents
The manuscript’s idea was submitted as a patent in Italy, Ministero dello sviluppo
economico, with Application number: 102021000000005.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, B.P.; methodology, B.P.; data curation, B.P., M.T., and
S.A.P.; formal analysis, B.P., M.T., and S.A.P.; investigation, B.P., M.T., and S.A.P.; writing—original
draft preparation, B.P., M.T., and S.A.P.; writing—review and editing, B.P., M.T., and S.A.P.; supervi-
sion, B.P., M.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Water 2021, 13, 546 14 of 19
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