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SD DOMBO UNIVERSITY OF BUSINESS AND INTEGRATED DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCE AND ARTS
DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY AND POLITICAL SCIENCE

CODE: IDS 401/DPS 417 ACADEMIC YEAR: 2023/2024

COURSE: CRISES AND CONFLICT MANAGEMENT IN ADMINISTRATION
PRESENTER: S. MARFO

COURSE OUTLINE

Human society continues to embattle with varying natural and social events across geo-political
settings. Rising water levels, global warming, terrorists’ activities, global pandemics, deadly
conflicts and climate change among others, demonstrate that humanity is at a cross road. Natural
disasters associated with earthquakes, volcanoes, floods, droughts, hurricanes/typhoons/tornados
among of others, which essentially are described as ‘acts of God’, point a gloomy picture about
the world in which we live. Paradoxically, our attempts to create a stable and secured world of
development in most instances, have either led to or stimulate crises situations. Clash of
interests, industrial pollution, indiscriminate dumping of various wastes, bad agricultural
practices, mining activities, shedding of explosive bombs in destructive social conflicts and
superstitious beliefs, have complicated crises situations globally. Given this development, the
earlier we manage crises productively, the better for human society. The course therefore, seeks
to:
1. Equip students with grounded understanding of the concepts crisis and conflict, a
foundation of any creative approach to crisis and conflict management.
2. Equip students with prerequisite skills in managing crises and conflict productively.

COURSE STRUCTURE
1. Nature of Crisis Management
-Conceptual definition of Crisis, Management and Crisis Management

2. Typologies of Disasters
- Global picture of disasters
1. Water and climate related disasters-Floods, Global warming, Drought
2. Geological disasters-Earthquakes

3. Accidental disasters- Ship/Canoe/Boat wreck

4. Biological disasters

3. Refugee Crisis
-Concept and Global Picture of Refugee (Crisis)
-Causes and Management Strategies
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4. Disaster Management Strategies

- Institutional approach: NADMO
- Disaster Management Approaches- the case of Covid19
(a) Preventive/proactive strategies
(b) Reactive strategies

5. Fire and fire safety

-Nature, causes and spread of fire
-Fire prevention and protection strategies

6. Social Conflict
-Conceptual and theoretical approaches to conflict
-Sources of social conflict
- Armed conflict and the safety of the child

7. Conflict Resolution Mechanisms

(a) Arbitration
(b) Negotiation
(c) Mediation

8. Peacebuilding
-Conceptual explanation of peace and peace building
-Peace building strategies (Institutionalized mechanisms)
1. Security sector reforms
2. Good governance
3. Socio-economic Transformation
4. National healing (reconciliation)

MODE OF ASSESSMENT
Test, quiz, group/individual assignments, presentation

READING LIST

Abbot, P.L. 2006. Natural Disaster. Boston: McGraw-Hill

Anstey, M. 1991. Negotiating Conflict, Insight and Skills for Negotiators and Peacemakers.
Cape Town-South Africa: Creada Press
David, C.P. 2002. ‘Does Peacebuilding Build Peace’. In Jeong, H.W. (eds). Approaches to
Peacebuilding. New York: Palgrave Macmillan
Fisher, R and Ury, W. 1991. Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement without Giving In. Boston-
New York: Houghton Mifflin Company
Forsyth, D.R. 1999. Group Dynamics. USA: Wadsworth Publishing Company
Himes, J. 1980. Conflict and Conflict Management. Athens: The University of Georgia Press
Ltd
Zanden,J.W.V. 1987. Social Psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill,Inc
California: SAGE Publishers, Inc
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The Wuaku Commission Report

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DPS 417, CRISES AND CONFLICT MANAGEMENT IN ADMINISTRATION

1. Conceptual explanation of Crisis and Crises Management

Crises situations abound everywhere globally, and manifest at all social settings. Crisis may
manifest at the micro level (individual level) and the macro level (group/national/international
level). Crises situations cut across geographical boundaries and permeate all cultures regardless
of race or color. The uncertainties characterizing the world in which we live make any absolute
predictions of events very difficult. The rising water levels, global warming and climate change,
attest to the fact that humankind cannot run away from crises. Natural events such as
earthquakes, volcanoes, floods, droughts, hurricanes/typhoons/tornados and hosts of others
which could be described as ‘acts of God’, point a gloomy picture about the world in which we
live. Reflecting on these, we may be tempted to or conclude that nature is unfair to humankind.

In Africa for instance, the situation is much compounded. Famine, diseases, protracted and
destructive social conflicts, terrorists’ activities, poverty and high indebtedness among others,
have become forces to be reckoned with. Countries such as Nigeria, Kenya, Mali and Burkina
Faso among others, are embattled with terrorism and violent extremist attacks. Ghana though
considered as ‘safe haven’ in a sub-region torn apart by destructive conflicts, nonetheless, is
saddled with chieftaincy and land conflicts of varying degrees and periodic flood conditions
coupled with mining related violence. Timberlake could be right when he entitled his book
‘Africa in Crisis’. The heinous occasional xenophobic attacks in South Africa, deadly political
upheavals, teeming youth unemployment and conflicts across the continent are indicative that
Africa is indeed, in a crossroad and calls for a deeper reflection.

The concept crisis has become a household term in all academic fields and every facet of social
life. We generally talk of political crisis, social crisis, leadership crisis, economic crisis, marital
crisis, religious crisis, management crisis, security crisis, energy crisis, among others.
Notwithstanding its popularity in terms of usage, crisis as a concept has no one accepted
universal definition.

In his book ‘An A-Z of Counselling, Theory and Practice’, Stewart (2001:108) defines crisis as a
limited period of acute psychological and emotional disorganization brought about by a
challenging or hazardous event.

According to O’connor (1987:108), the classical definition of ‘crisis’ is the turning point of an
illness ‘in which it is decided whether or not the organism’s self-healing powers are sufficient for
recovery’.
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The World Book Dictionary (p.325) defines crisis as a situation that has reached an extremely
difficult and dangerous point; a time of great disagreement, uncertainties or suffering.

From the foregoing explanations, crisis situation could be conceptualized as:

i. A period of trauma, distress, and an inevitable change
ii. An unstable or critical time or state of affairs which a decisive change is pending
iii. A crucial or decisive point or a situation-a turning point
iv. An unstable condition involving an abrupt change or deterioration
v. A time of extreme or acute trouble, danger or difficulty
vi. A turning point in the course of a thing
vii. Movement of great danger or difficulty

It must be noted that society can create opportunity out of a situation that threatens. The famine
in Ghana which was brought by the severe bush fires in 1983 stimulated farming activities. This
resulted in bumper harvest in 1984 and 1985 respectively.

Based on the explanations above, for the purposes of our discussion, crisis could be explained or
described as an incident, event or a state of affairs that may involve death or threat to people and
property and harm to the environment.

The irony is that crises situations are generally unpredictable. Like the conduct of a thief, crises
generally pull as surprise to society and largely affect people particularly the vulnerable
including children, the aged, disabled, the poor and women. The attack on the World Trade
Center (WTO) in United States of America (US) by terrorists in September 2001and current
extremists’ deadly activities sums up the nature of crises and the need for efficient crisis
management.

What then is crisis management?

Management is a contested term. However, Chandan (2010) argues that, management is an
integral part of living and is essential wherever human efforts are to be undertaking to achieve
desired objectives.

According to Fayol (quoted in Marfo-Yiadom, 1998, 1), “To manage is to forecast and plan, to
organize, to command, to coordinate and to control”. Management concerns with resources, tasks
and goals. It is a social process because it comprises series of actions that lead to the
accomplishment of objectives (Marfo-Yiadom, 1998).

The Cambridge International Dictionary of English (P.859) indicates that, management is the
control and organization of something.

From the above definitions, it could be deduced that:

1. Management demands concerted efforts
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2. Management demands well formulated plans and goals

3. Management is active but not passive social enterprise

Reflecting on the two concepts crisis and management, crisis management could be described as
an academic discipline which seeks to deal with crises through direct intervention or
response/reactive approach and proactive strategy. Crisis management therefore aims at
preventing and or minimizing the negative impact of crises. It entails forecasting a potential
crisis and means to address the phenomenon. Management of crisis involves planning phase and
an execution phase.

For want of time, our discussions will center on the human factor in natural events. That is,
societal role in natural events- what is popularly known as anthropogenic factors. In our
circumstance as in Ghana, we will discuss issues pertaining to floods global warming. The
discussions will equally dwell on social conflicts, fire disasters and refugee crisis and their best
management practices.

BASIC CONCEPTS AND TERMS

(1) Preparedness and resilience

Preparedness is the process of capacity building and awareness creation that enables individuals
and community to track trends and support or participate in action or projects intended to make
individuals and community safe. It is oriented towards community resilience and making
members responding more favourable to events. Preparedness is linked to poverty reduction and
promotion of development and as such demands concerted efforts.

(2) Vulnerability analysis

The vulnerable in terms of disasters are individuals or groups who are easily affected or hurt
emotionally and physically by disasters or events. In simple terms, the vulnerable are those who
are much prone to the dangers of disasters. We may not necessarily prevent disasters, but the
body of knowledge acquired through vulnerability analysis and the range of actions taken can
enable us to reduce the destructiveness of disasters. Thus, we may either avert or reduce the
terrific consequences of disasters in terms of loss of lives and livelihood.

(3) Risk and disaster risk reduction

Risk connotes the likelihood for a bad or misfortune to happen to someone or an area due to the
condition of the person or the entity. Risk and vulnerability could therefore not be used
interchangeably. Those who are more likely or easily affected by events are the vulnerable. In
simple mathematical sense, vulnerability could be said to be a subset of risk.

Disaster risk reduction is an embodiment of educational programs intended to convey the

understanding of the natural and human conditions (actions and inactions) that lead to disasters,
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as well as the policies engineering to reduce these threats and to stimulate changes in individuals
and group behaviour towards a culture of safety. It is a shared responsibility and demands
collective efforts from all-individuals, family, departments, community, etc. Blending
indigenous practices and scientific knowledge, and constantly evaluation and learning from
previous successes are key to disaster risk reduction (DRR).

(4) Hazard
A hazard is a physical or human-made event that can potentially trigger a disaster. Example
naked electrical wire, floods. For instance, if it rains all day long without any havoc to life and
property, the situation could be termed as hazardous as the continuous rainfall can lead to a
landslide thereby affecting life and property.

(5) DISASTER
Disasters are unfavourable and undesirable social and natural events as they overwhelmingly and
negatively affect life, property and the environment.

NATURAL EVENTS AND THE HUMAN FACTOR (ANTHROPOGENIC FACTORS)

Earthquakes, floods, droughts and global warming are all natural events. In effect, humankind
has no direct control over them. They occur naturally with or without the knowledge of society.
In a situation where there are signs as to an impending danger or event, there is little, if any,
room for manoeuvring.

Natural events may have devastating effects on life, property and the environment. They may
affect every facet of societal life: political, economic, social and emotional. They may trigger
mass movement of people; cause more deaths; damage to the environment; propel political
upheaval; result in social disintegration; create single parenting and orphanage conditions; slow
down economic activities and development (as a result of collapse of businesses, damage to
bridges, roads, electricity plants, etc,); causing widespread of diseases and fomenting social
conflicts as people struggle over limited available food, water and other resources. Considering
these events as ‘natural’ or ‘Acts of God’, God the creator may be blamed for their occurrences
and fatalities.

Humans’ quests for development, sense of superiority, superstitious belief systems and many
other practices have resulted in a massive assault on the environment. As humankind we take
great delight in enjoying from nature/environment, but contributes relatively little in return to
its upkeep. In recent times, the intermittent occurrence and intensity of earthquakes, floods,
droughts and global warming is an indication that man is not at war with nature but himself.
Humans to a large extent must blame themselves for the fatalities so experienced.
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Floods, fires (bushfires and domestic fires/industrial fires), droughts, famine, epidemics, social
conflicts, migration, earthquakes, typhoons and many other crises have been with humankind
since time immemorial. Globally, no single country or continent is free from disasters. Every
country is vulnerable one way or the other as far as disasters are concerned. All the five regions
around the globe namely Oceania, Americas, Africa, Europe and Asia are saddled with disasters.

The great disaster involving the historic Titanic Ship that occurred in April 1912 over the North
Atlantic Ocean was recorded to have claimed the lives of about 1523. On that fateful Sunday
April 12, 1912, the euphoria that gripped the maiden trip of the said Titanic suddenly turned into
state of mourning as the supposed unsinkable ship sunk in the ocean due to the clash of the ship
against an iceberg. What lessons have societies learnt from this disaster?

Disasters are unfavourable and undesirable events as they negatively affect life, property and the
environment. They are therefore not necessarily synonymous with crises or hazards. A hazard as
indicated above is a physical or human-made event that can potentially trigger a disaster.
Disasters generally kill and injure people and destroy property. They could strike at anytime,
anywhere, with or without the slightest societal knowledge. Disaster could occur in the air, on
the land and at the sea.

Societies throughout ages have been plagued by all forms of disasters. In contemporary times,
disasters have become more alarming and to some extent threaten the very human existence.
Newspapers, television reports, and even rumour bring word of many disasters around the world.
Ironically, regardless of the widespread usage, the term disaster lacks a coherent definition. In
the view of Schaefer (2005:510), the term disaster refers to a sudden or disruptive event or set of
events that overtaxes a community’s resources, so that outside aid is necessary.

Abbott explains disaster as an event that so overwhelms a region and calls for outside assistance
to rescue and care for people, clean up the destruction, and begins the process of reconstruction
(2006:4).

According to the UN as presented by the ActionAid Baseline Report (2007:126), disaster is a

serious disruption of the functioning of a community or society causing widespread human,
material, economic or environmental losses which exceed the ability of the affected community
or society to cope using its own resources. It is a function of risk process resulting from the
combination of hazards, conditions of vulnerability and insufficient capacity or measures to
reduce the potential negative consequences of risk.

Disaster could therefore be explained as any natural or social event or phenomenon which over-
tasks or stretches the community resources beyond its coping capacity thereby needed external
support or intervention.
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Traditionally, disasters have been catastrophes related to nature such as earthquakes and floods.
However, in an industrial age, natural disasters have been joined by crashes, industrial
explosions, nuclear meltdowns and massive chemical poisonings (Schaefer, 2005:510). For
convenient and analytical purposes, disasters could be classified into types, namely:

Water and climate related disasters

Disaster of this nature is caused by water or rains. Example-floods as occurred in Thailand in
2011 and Ghana in 2011 and 2015; Typhoons as occurred in Philippines in 2011 and 2013, etc.

Geological disasters
Disasters of this nature involves the land or the earth. Example of geological disasters includes
earthquakes as occurred in Haiti in 2010, volcanoes, Landslides, etc. Earthquake as a geological
disaster is common in Japan and other Asian countries.

Biological disasters
Emanates from deadly biological substances. Example of such disasters includes pest infestation
and the use of anthrax as a weapon of war. Following the Iraq invasion by America after 9/11
episode for instance, the use of anthrax as a weapon of war became prominent.

Accidental disasters
These are unintended and unexpected disasters, eg plane clash. The Malaysian plane went
missing on early 8 March 2014 with 239 passengers and crew aboard and has since not be traced.
The occupants are presumed missing. The great Titanic sank in 1912 leading to the death of an
estimated 1523. In 2017, On Sunday March 10, 2019, an Ethiopian Airlines flight Boeing 737-8
MAX, crashed shortly after takeoff from Ethiopia's capital killing all 157 on board. In October,
2018 another Boeing 737-8 MAX plunged into the Java Sea just minutes after taking off from
Jakarta, Indonesia's capital, killing all 189 people on board the plane Lion Air flight. Figure 1
below shows the site of the wreckage Boeing 737-8 MAX plane in Ethiopia.
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A. EARTHQUAKES (GEOLOGICAL DISASTER)

Earthquake may be explained as the sudden shaking of the earth crust or the trembling of the
ground caused by rapid movement of the earth rocky outer layer. It is called earthquake simply
because the earth ‘quakes or shakes’. It is considered natural. However, humankind in diverse
ways either facilitates or induces the process, and this is supported by empirical facts as
identified in various studies/literature.
 Drilling deeply into the earth crust for minerals such as gold, diamond, oil, etc, weakens
the foundation of the earth
 Testing of nuclear weapons underground distorts earth rocky layers
 The use of deadly bombs during wars causes the ground to vibrate
 The use of explosives (dynamites) in mining activities affects the stability of the earth
 Underground trenches for whatever purposes weaken the stability of the earth
 Creation of dams and underground reservoirs with much water volumes and liquids puts
much pressure on the earth, stretching it beyond its coping capacity
 The use of heavy earth moving vehicles and machines in the construction of roads, dams
and buildings as well as mining activities affects the stability of the earth
 The pumping of large amount of liquid into and out of the ground destabilizes the natural
order of the earth
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 Over-concentration of people and settlement at earthquake prone areas or fault lines

facilitates the process of earthquake and its fatalities

Earthquakes can be extremely destructive. The earthquake in Bam-Iran in December 26, 2003
killed an estimated 41,000 people, injured more than 30,000 and left over 100,000 more
homeless; Gujarat-India earthquake in 2001 killed over 20,000 people; Tangshan-China
earthquake in 1976 killed over 240,000 people (Abbott, 2006:4). In December 26, 2004, the
Tsunami induced earthquake was reported to have killed over 250,000 people, spanning across
13 countries around the globe, with Indonesia being the most affected country. An estimated
198,000 people were killed in that earthquake in Indonesia alone. The January 12, 2010
earthquake in Haiti is reported to have led to the death of about 92000 to 230000 people, and
injuring about 300,000 people. An estimated 3 million people were affected and 1 million people
were made homeless.

The axiom is that as the world population grows, so also is the number of natural disaster deaths,
especially from earthquakes and floods.

B. FLOODS (WATER AND CLIMATE RELATED DISASTERS)

Floods are great over flow of water on a dry land caused usually by severe or torrential rainfall,
overflow or rivers and oceans as well as melting of ice. It is generally natural by nature. In
Ghana, the devastating effects of floods have become a yearly ritual. The two giant cities, Accra
and Kumasi are gradually becoming symbolic with floods.

The role or contribution of humankind to floods:

-Clearing of vegetation along the banks of rivers which naturally serves as levees (natural
protective walls)
-Building on water ways most especially in the cities and towns impede free flow of running
waters
-Construction of shallow and narrow gutters. These are unable to contain large volumes of
running water
-Indiscriminate dumping of waste resulting in choke quarters
-Spilling of water from dams. The spilling of water from the White and Black Volta rivers in
Burkina for instance usually results in flood situation in Ghana, especially the three northern
regions
-Concreting or the hardening of the earth surface with bitumen or cement prevents the earth from
its natural sponging effects resulting in flood condition with the slightest down pour. In Thailand,
the flood that engulfed Bangkok in 2011 took more than 6 months before the stagnant waters
were able to dry which was partly due the concreting of the city
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These and many related activities facilitate flood situations. It is generally believed that, globally,
the most common type of hazard facing people is that of flooding. Recent flood situation in
Ghana reveals how most places in the country are vulnerable. According to the literature, in
2004, of the 10 disasters that struck the world, 5 were floods impacted over 90 million people
with the most affected being China and Bangladesh. The Asian Tsunami alone is estimated to
have killed over 250,000 people. The July 2010 floods in Pakistan is reported to have led to the
death of about 2000 people and is described as the worst in the last 80 years in the history of the
country affecting about 4 million people. In Ghana, the June 2015 flood induced fire was said to
have led to over 150 deaths in Accra

Question: The June 2015 flood and associated fire in Accra and other flood situations in
Ghana are indicative that flood disasters are self-inflicting. Discuss

C. DROUGHTS (CLIMATE DISASTER)

Drought may be defined as an acute or prolong period of inadequate water or protracted period
of precipitation deficiency affecting the life of crops, humans and animals. By nature, droughts
are natural events.

According to Abbott (2006:306), drought describes times of abnormal dryness in a region

when the usual rains do not appear, and all life must adjust to the unexpected shortage of water.
The lack or reduction of moisture can cause agricultural collapse or shortfalls, bringing famine
and disease and causing deaths and mass migration to wetter areas.

Role of humankind:
-Deforestation (clearing of vegetation) as a result of: mining, bush burning, logging for industrial
and domestic consumption
-Removal of the vegetation covers by means of over grazing, over farming, over tilling of the
land and human settlement
-Destruction of wetlands for human settlement
-Emission of pollutants through mining activities, industrial activities, domestic activities and
farming practices which affects the ozone layer and global warming.

These activities as of humans as outlined affect the water cycle formation as the land becomes
bare. Excessive heat disperses rain bearing clouds thereby causing droughts.

In Africa, the drought that hit the Sahel between 1968 and 1975 is reported to have killed over
200,000 people due to famine. Millions of herd animals were said to have died and many
thousands of children were brain-damaged as a result of inadequate nutrition. It collapsed the
economy of several countries including Mauritania, Senegal, Mali, Niger, Chad, Sudan, Ethiopia
and Somalia. Besides, it is recorded to have caused massive changes in lifestyle.
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The UN indicated that over 10 million people of four African countries, namely: Chad,
Mauritania, Mali and Niger faced food insecurity as a result of the 2009 drought in the Sahel
Region. The worst affected country was Niger, where some 7 million people (about 50% of the
country’s population) faced severe food insecurity. In Chad the number of deaths among children
due to severed acute malnutrition was estimated to have increased from 2900 in 2009 to 6508 in
2010 (UN Report, 2010). The drought situation in some parts of Vietnam, Thailand and China in
2009 was reported to have resulted in water crisis facing millions of people and livestock in that
region. This negatively impacted fishing activities especially in Thailand and farming activities
in Northern Vietnam and economic loss of about 2.5 million dollars in China (CNN Report,
2010).

D. GLOBAL WARMING (CLIMATE DISASTER)

It is generally defined as the steady increase in the atmospheric temperature and ocean and its
projected increase into the future due to greenhouse gases notably carbon dioxide (CO 2). The
phenomenon is considered as natural.

Role of humankind:
-Burning of fossil fuels example oil, gas, petroleum, kerosene increases atmospheric greenhouse
gases (heat trapping gases, ie Methane (CH4), Nitrous Oxide (N2O), Ozone (O3), Carbon Dioxide
(CO2), Water Vapor (H2O), etc.
-Mining activities expel methane to the atmosphere
-Deforestation
-Domestic use of certain appliances, that is-man-made organohalogen (such as refrigeration and
industrial cleaning substances) contributes to the emission of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and
bromofluorocarbons.
-Sprays and insecticides used in farming
-Modern means of transport results in the emission of fumes

These practices have resulted in excess greenhouse gases concentration in the atmosphere,
notably CO2 and N2O. These gases trap heat which otherwise would have expelled into the space
and remit it back to the earth (greenhouse effect) causing more heat than what is required for the
growth and survival of living things. Ironically, plants that make use of CO 2 have been destroyed
through deforestation, bushfires, and overgrazing, resulting in excessive heat.

Some of these gases especially atomic chlorine (CI) and atomic bromine (Br) are capable of
surviving the rise to the stratosphere and through the action of ultraviolet light able to breakdown
ozone molecules. The breakdown of the ozone in the stratosphere inhibits ozone molecules to
absorb biologically harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun especially that of Ultraviolet –B.
This is what has come to be known as Ozone depletion which has the capacity to cause skin
cancer.
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According to scientists, CFCs have very long atmospheric lifetimes ranging from half a century
to a century. This makes ozone layer recovery very difficult. It is important to note that the ozone
layer was discovered in 1913 by the French Physicists Charles Fabry and Henri Buisson. Since
then, many discoveries have been made contributing to our understanding of ozone layer and its
depletion as well as that of global worming

E. FIRE DISASTERS

In the past decennium, the issue of bushfire has appeared as a central theme in the discourse of
development at both the international and national contexts. The apparent surge on issues of bush
burning is because it is one of the challenging 'man versus environment' conflicts in Ghana
(Marfo, Arthur and Akparep, 2016). While bush burning is embedded in the cultural values and
traditional farming systems of the people, its impact on rural livelihoods and on the ecosystem
are increasingly becoming extensive and damaging. Meanwhile, reducing or completely
eliminating it is increasing becoming difficult. This stems from the fact that eliminating bushfires
completely means that there is the need for a clear understanding of the causes and effects of
bushfires so that bushfire policies can address the undesirable effects with respect to forestry,
arable agriculture, rangeland, soil conservation and wildlife (Nsiah-Gyabaah, 1996).

Fire is a paradox – it can kill plants and animals, and cause extensive ecological damage but it is
also extremely beneficial, the source of forest regeneration and of nutrient recycling (Rowell and
Moore, 2000). The FAO (2006) observes that over the past decade, many regions of the world
have experienced a growing trend of excessive fire application in the forestry and agriculture
interface, land-use systems and land-use change, and an increasing occurrence of extremely
severe fires. Burchi and Carle (2009) estimate that about 350 million hectares of land burn each
year, much of which are forest and woodland.

Fire is very important in human life. Around the globe; fire is needed to warm human bodies
particularly during cold seasons, cook, ward off predatory animals especially in the night, smelt
aluminum and other metals into various appliances, incinerate waste materials and preserve food
(smoke fish/meat and palm wine processing) among others. In simple terms, fire serves various
purposes including; domestic, health, agriculture, industrial and security (Secretariat of the
Convention on Biological Diversity, 2001). Fire equally features prominently in cultural
practices of some societies as typified in the Fire Festival of the Dagombas of Ghana (Awedoba,
2009). Fire however, can be detrimental to life, property and the environment if not managed
productively. As noted by American Forest (2016), fire is unique in that it can be either a
beneficial natural process or a devastating catastrophe. It noted that wildfire is necessary for
forests, but also a threat to them.

In contemporary times, bushfires and other natural disasters have increasingly become
destructive phenomena confronting both developed and developing nations which threaten
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economic security and safety of people, property as well as the environment (De Haen and
Hemrich, 2007). De Haen and Hemrich (2007) asserted a large and growing share of the world's
poor whose livelihood depends on agriculture are disproportionally affected by bushfires.
Bushfires, also known as wild land fires or forest fires, intensified by climate change, drought
and other conditions, can damage forests (vegetation that is a combination of trees and smaller
plants) so badly that it takes years for them to naturally recover (American Forest, 2016).

According to National Geographic (2016), on average, more than 100,000 wildfires destroy 4
million to 5 million acres (1.6 million to 2 million hectares) of land in the US every year and
have in recent years burnt up to 9 million acres (3.6 million hectares) of land. Bureau of
Transport Economics (BTE) (2001), reported the average annual damage costs from disastrous
bushfires in Australia are estimated at $ 77 million. It noted that during the period from 1967 to
1999, bushfire accounted for 39 per cent of the fatalities and 57 per cent of the injuries associated
with natural disasters in Australia over the same period. In support of BTE assertion (2001),
Astrid and Stefan (2016), wrote that the ‘Ash Wednesday" bushfires in Victoria and South
Australia in February, 1983 resulted in 75 deaths and destroyed 2,300 homes. They further
reported that the February, 2009 bushfires disaster described as ‘Black Saturday' blaze and the
worst bushfire disaster in Australia that hit rural Victoria, mainly northwest of Melbourne led to
the death of 173 people and destroyed 640 homes with several track of forest some 4,500 km2 of
land consumed by the fires.

A number of uncontrolled bushfires as discussed above suggest that bushfires in recent times
have become a bad master destroying several lives and property and causing a great
environmental havoc around the globe. These fires together with other natural disasters such as
drought invariably threaten the economic and food security of most people (two major
components of human security), especially, the rural poor whose livelihood mainly depends on
agriculture (UNDP, 1994; Lolig et al., 2014).

In Ghana, the situation is not different as the economic and food security of most people both in
the forest areas and Savanna Zones are threatened by bushfires, though bushfires in the forest
areas have not been as frequent and extensive as in the Savanna Zone (Nsiah-Gyabaah, 1996).
Nonetheless, virtually every part in Ghana is prone to bushfires. As noted by Amisah, Gyampoh
Sarfo-Mensah and Quagrainie (2009), at the beginning of the century, a third of Ghana’s land
area of 238.533km2 was covered by high forest whilst the remaining was Savannah Woodland.
Amisah et al. (2009) asserted in present times only about 10% of the land remains as forested
land due to bushfires and other agricultural practices and excessive exploitation of non-Timber
Forest Products (NTFPs). For instance, in 1983, uncontrolled bushfires amidst drought and
severe weather conditions, caused serious humanitarian crisis in the country (Bimpong, 2014;
Ofori-Attah, 2013). An estimated 50% of Ghana’s vegetation cover was destroyed. Both food
and cash crops such as cocoyam, yam, plantain, palm, cocoa, and economic tress among others,
were said to have severely destroyed by the torrential bushfires that plagued the country,
rendering most people economically and food insecure.
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The irony is that in spite of Ghana’s bitter experience in 1983, and the presence of
institutionalised and voluntary bodies such as; the Forestry Services Commission, Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA), the Ghana National Fire Service (GNFS) and the Community Fire
Volunteer Squads targeting fire safety in particular, and forest safety in general (Control and
Prevention of Bushfires Act, 1990, PNDC Law 229; Constitution of Republic of Ghana, 1992),
the country continues to experience various levels of devastating bushfires. Recent studies have
shown that bushfires have destroyed various property and besides, caused wide spread poverty
among people in Ghana. According to Ghana Business News (2016) for instance, Ghana
recorded 2,469 fire outbreaks within the first quarter of 2016 as against 2,036 within the same
period in 2015, representing 21.27 per cent increase. The report noted that 42 electric poles, 14
high tension poles and 14 transformers among others were burnt mainly due to bushfires. These
fires, though attributed to both natural and human conditions, the fires are largely attributed to
human factor. As noted by Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity SCBD, 2001),
although some forest fires occur naturally, a combination of human activity, fuel availability, and
climate accounts for the majority of fires.

When disaster is qualified by bushfire, it presupposes another kind of event that affects the
economic and food security of people and tends to over-task a community resources beyond its
coping capacity. It also presupposes disaster involving principally with the forest or farmlands as
opposed to domestic or industrial fires. Nonetheless, the effects of bushfire disasters stretch
beyond the destruction of forest or farm lands or agricultural products. Bushfires, caused either
by nature or through human error and described as disasters, undermine human security (Marfo,
Arthur and Akparep, 2016). As indicated by UNDP (1994), De Haen and Hermrich (2007) and
Lolig et al., (2014), bushfires together with other natural disasters such as drought threaten the
economic and food security of most people especially, the rural poor whose livelihood mainly
depends on agriculture. This invariably compels people to make certain coping choices or
strategies which may be inimical to their health (Simmons, 2013).

Understanding fire safety

What is fire?
Fire in simple terms could be described as the outcome of the trinity namely (a) heat, (b) fuel and
(c) oxygen. Some authorities refer to this as the ‘fire triangle’.

Forms of Fuel: coal, wood, waste paper, cloth, natural gas, hydrogen, gasoline, kerosene, paint,
alcohol
Sources of Heat: open flame, hot surface, electrical energy, sparks and friction, the sun

Know the basic causes of fire outbreak (CIA)

 16

The knowledge of the causes of fire is considered important and the first step in any fire safety
management. Basically, we have three principal causes of fire outbreak

1. Carelessness (Not taking the necessary precaution. eg. Throwing away unquenched cigarette
ends)
2. Ignorance (Having no idea that an act could lead to fire outbreak. eg children playing with
matches)
3. Accident (An unexpected event resulting in fire outbreak. eg. Collision of two vehicles leading
to fire outbreak due to leakages of fuel and sparks from the collision
4. Arson - deliberately setting things ablaze

Know the mode of the spread of fire

Our knowledge in the mode of the spread of fire helps us in combating fire and most especially
how to conduct ourselves in case of fire outbreak in any given situation. This is crucial in any
fire safety strategy. Fire generally spreads from one point to another through three principal
modes, namely:

1.Conduction-: It is the process or a situation whereby fire spreads through conductors such as
beams or iron sheets to another point. A conductor is any substance that readily acts as a path for
heat. It could be iron, steel copper, etc

2.Convection-: It is a situation whereby fire spreads through vapour or gas and ignites a
combustible material elsewhere. Heated gases or liquids on fire will travel upwards until they
reach a ceiling whereby a further rise becomes impossible. The heated smoke or gas then spreads
and forms a mushroom and ignites a combustible material in the neighbourhood above the
original seat of the fire
3 Radiation-: This is a situation where fire spreads without any intervening agent. Heat from a
large fire can ignite a combustible material in the neighbourhood some meters away. Fire that
may occur in this manner basically depends on the ignition temperature of the combustible
material around.

Types of fire
Fires are classified according to the fuel which constitutes the fire. Classification of fire based on
the fuel constituent determines how a particular fire will be extinguished. There are three types
of fuel, namely: solid, liquid and gas
1. Class ‘A’ Fire (Solid Fire)
These are fires of ordinary combustible materials, such as waste papers, wood, furniture, shoes,
and clothes. They could be effectively extinguished by water and water fog
2. Class B Fire (Liquid Fire)
They are fueled by substances such as oil, petrol, gasoline, grease, paint, kerosene, etc.
1. Class C Fire (Gaseous Fire)
 17

They are highly inflammable substances such as cooking gas, hydrogen gas.

Types of Fire Extinguishers

There are 4 groups but further classified into 3 groups according to how they put off fire

Group 1
Water extinguishers: They are extinguishers which expel water. We have Water Air Charged
Extinguishers or Water Gas Cartridge Extinguishers. They are good for ordinary combustible
materials such as wood, paper, clothes, etc. They quench fire through reduction of temperature of
a burning material

Group 2
Foam Extinguishers. Foam is a heavy organic lather. Good for liquid fires. eg petrol. They
quench fire through smothering (keeping out air)

Group 3
CO2 (Carbon Dioxide) Extinguishers: They expel gas. Good for electrical fire

Group 4
Dry Powder Extinguishers. Good for electrical fire. It is suitable for all types of class ‘C’ fires
and as such classified as group ‘C’ extinguisher. They quench fire through smothering

Fighting fire with fire extinguishers: A word of caution!

Like the nature of fire, the process of fire-fighting could be dangerous especially in dealing with
fire extinguishers. The effects of fire may be the same but the process of fighting fire varies. The
type of fire will determine the fire extinguisher that must be used. A wrong use of fire
extinguisher may exacerbate the fire and cause harm even to the user.

Question. Critically discuss any five principal causes of bushfires in Ghana. ii. Examine
any five repercussions of the phenomenon of bushfire disasters. Suggest any five ways of
mechanisms that can be adopted to manage bushfire disasters in Ghana.

SOCIAL CONFLICT

Social conflict is primarily used as a pejorative word connoting negative elements such as
killing, fighting, shouting, damage to person and property, war, hurting, discord, argument,
violence, controversy, strive, aggression and struggle. It is viewed as an uneasy bedfellow of
peace, stability, growth and development. Poverty diseases, wastage of scarce resources, hanger
and starvation, stagnation of development, refugee crisis, premature deaths and all forms of
 18

social ills are blamed on conflict. Those who see conflict as purely negative seek to prevent it if
possible.

Is conflict synonymous with negativity?

Conflict has gained much currency in contemporary times. Interestingly, in spite of its notoriety,
the concept has no one coherent definition. Many scholars therefore have sought to explain the
concept in their own ways. While many perceive conflict as disruptive and destructive in social
systems and therefore negative, others view conflict as a positively functional for social systems.

Forsyth (1999:236) has indicated that, conflict comes from the Latin word ‘conflictus’ meaning
‘striking together with force’. Conflict then implies disagreement, discord and friction that occur
when actions and beliefs of one or more members of a group are unacceptable and resisted by
another.

According to Himes (1980:14), social conflict refers to purposeful struggles between collective
actors who use social power to defeat or remove opponents and to gain status, power, resources
and other scarce values. Conflict is seen as the product of conscious intention on the part of those
involved in it. It involves the use of social power for defense and attack of opponents.

Kriesberg writes that, social conflict exists when two or more persons or groups manifest the
belief that they have incompatible objective (1998:2). Conflict is explained as a psychic
phenomenon as opposed to objective facts.
According to Pruitt and Rubin (1986:14), conflict means perceived divergent of interest, or a
belief that the parties’ current aspirations cannot be achieved simultaneously. The definition
relates to the incompatible nature of interest among people.

Coser (1956:8) defines conflict as a struggle over values and claims to scarce status, power and
resources in which the aims of the opponents are to neutralize, injure or eliminate their rivals.
Coser’s definition buttresses the point that conflict is normally about struggle over values or
scarcity. It also indicates a purposeful human action or goal oriented, directed to neutralize, or
injure each opponent in their efforts to obtain their objectives.

Reflecting on the foregoing definitions, conflict could be explained as a social activity, a

manifestation of perceived and objective incompatibility by a person or persons or group of
persons over interest, values, needs, data and relationships, which may result in the destruction of
an opponent or self. Conflict does occur in a person, between persons, groups, communities and
nation states.

Note!
-Perception is the mental image, picture, view or opinion we have about a person, object or a
place.
 19

-It is affected by the perceived object and the situation.

-It may or may not be true.
*If you happen to come across a group of people wailing and filing past a coffin, what will be
your impression?
*Can you think of any perceptual conflict which may or may not actually be true?
-Two people vying for one position is a manifestation of objective conflict. The issue is
unambiguous.

Galtung’s Model of Conflict

According to Johan Galtung (1996: 72), conflict could be viewed as a triangle, with Contraction
(C), Attitude (A) and behaviour (B) at its vertices. The contradictions show the nature of the
conflict environment or the underlying conflict situation, which includes the perceived or actual
incompatibility of goals between the parties. The attitude talks about the perception and feeling
that the parties have about each other. Attitude is influenced by emotions such as fear, anger,
bitterness and hatred. Behaviour is what is exhibited by the parties in reaction to the
contradiction. It can involve cooperation or coercion gestures signifying conciliation or hostility.

Contradiction

Attitude Behaviour

Nature of conflict
i. Conflict and society
-Conflict is inherent in human society
-Society and conflict are intertwined
-Society without conflict is a matter of fantasy (utopian society)
-Conflict is unavoidable by-product of human interaction and relationships
-Conflict could not be prevented and it is even not desirable

ii. Universality of conflict

- Conflict is ubiquitous in every human groupings the world over
- It could occur at the micro or macro level (from intra-personal/individual level to
international/group level)
- It affects individuals, families, communities, nations, ethnic groups
- It affects blacks and whites, young and old, rich and the poor
- Indeed, it affects every member of society
- It cuts across all political, economic, religious, social and geographical norms and borders
 20

Can you think of any conflict of national or international dimension?

iii. Symmetry nature of conflict
*Conflict has two equal but opposing effects
*It is neither good nor bad. How?
*It could be waged destructively (negatively) or constructively (positively)

Summary
Conflict is pervasive in every human setting. Fundamentally, there is nothing wrong with it.
Conflict is not pathological or sick per se. It stimulates growth and development which is
productive. Conflict can however be destructive of persons and property if unmanaged or poorly
managed. How we act, react or both will determine the outcome of a given conflict explaining
the dualistic or symmetry nature of conflict.

Typologies of conflict
Different types of conflicts exist in our society and there is no one typical way of classifying
them. The classification of conflicts is therefore a matter of choice rather than a rule. Conflicts
can be classified as: micro conflicts or macro conflicts, symmetry conflicts or asymmetry
conflicts, perceptual conflicts or objective conflicts, inter-conflicts and intra-conflicts, etc.
Conflicts could equally be classified as personal conflicts, interpersonal conflicts, family
disputes, political conflicts, chieftaincy disputes, marital disputes, labour-management disputes,
ethnic conflicts, terrorism, religious conflicts, civil wars, domestic violence, community conflicts
and international conflicts among others.

In general, conflicts tend to spring from the same litany of sources for all people. Virtually, every
conflict begins with someone or something violating an individual’s ‘comfort zone’ (Cowan,
1995). Social conflicts basically tend to conform to the same over-all pattern. However, it is
important to note that, conflicts are largely shaped by the environment in which they occur. In
this regard, we can talk of conflict between married couples as relatively different from conflict
that exists within or between two political parties or religious bodies. Conflict environment also
largely determines the number of parties that may be involved in a particular conflict as well as
the strategies that may be adopted. For instance, the parties in marital dispute may be relatively
far less than parties in ethnic conflict. For the purposes of this chapter, conflicts will be classified
on the basis of their sources. Such classification is helpful at least for two reasons; (1) it enables
us to identify the probable roots of a given conflict and (2) to identify the appropriate
mechanism(s) that can be adopted in addressing the conflict. It should be emphasized that
conflicts are rarely uni-dimensional in their outlook but are based on many causes
simultaneously. Thus, a particular conflict may have several causes roped together or present at
the same time.
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Perhaps Stone (1999) explanation will be the best response to why we need to classify conflicts
on the basis of their sources. Conflicts do not arise without cause, and they do not disappear until
the cause is addressed. If a conflict is not resolved or at least its effects tampered, the conflict
effects can grow. A wrong assumption of the cause of a particular conflict may lead to a still-
born resolution. When symptoms instead of causes are addressed, wounds are merely bandaged
not healed and they may fester (Rothman, 1992). In this regard we will classify conflicts into
seven broad types. As noted earlier, these are however not in a water-tight compartment.

i. Interest-Based Conflicts
-Emanate from perceived or actual competition for scarce resources (both tangible and in-
tangible). eg. Money, land, job, access to a powerful position, status, dignity
*Think about the 2008 presidential election in Ghana and the number of people that vyied for the
position

ii. Value-Based Conflicts

-Different people have different value systems
-A value is an ethical principle to which people feel a strong emotional commitment and which
the people employ in judging behaviour (Zanden, 1987: 356).
-Values are the things we cherish most. These result in separate cultures and identity groups (in-
group/out-group perception about self)
-It could be linguistic, religious, ethnic, ideas, customs and behavior

Can you think of any value-based conflict in your community?

iii. Structural Conflict

-Caused by unequal control, ownership and distribution of resources, power and authority
-Destructive patterns of behavior or interaction
-Geographical, physical, or environmental factors that hinder cooperation
*The rumpus about the establishment of certain District Assembly Capitals in the country in
2008 is a manifestation of structural conflict.
*The issue of the North-South dichotomy of development is a typical example of structural
conflict

iv. Data-Based or Information Conflict

-Timely information is needed for effective human interaction
-Lack of shared legitimate information causes misperception, miscommunication and suspicion
-Manufactured and guesswork in the absence of reliable information
-Different interpretation of data.
-Distortion of information to achieve a purpose
-Filtering of a whole array of data. The era of proliferation of information
-Different cultures and experiences result in different patterns of information assessment
 22

*The on-going media war between the current administration and the out-going administration
about the sale of government vehicles to officials could be regarded as data-based conflict as
there seem to be no clear information as to the process involved in the deal.

v. Relationship Conflict
-Fractured communication in inter-group contact
-Lack of trust in relationship
-Repetitive negative behavior
-Poor or miscommunication
-Misperception or stereotype
-Marginalization (eg Darfur in Southern Sudan conflict)
* Consider the relationship between the black Africans and the aparthy regime in South Africa

vi. Need-Based Conflict

-Humans have fundamental needs
-The needs are universal and ontological and necessary for growth, development and harmonious
functioning of societies
-Could be food, recognition, belongingness, security, self-esteem, shelter, sex, healthcare
-If not fulfilled or frustrated, would be pursued in a manner counter to acceptable procedure

vii. Change and ambiguity

-Change involves movement
-Change affects societal equilibrium (stability)
-Affects various strata in the society
-Maintenance of status-quo and pro-change result in strain relationships (eg struggle for power)
-May result in ambiguity due to weak or breakdown of societal norms
-Uncertainty results in trial and error

Conflict Mapping /Conflict Analysis

A map may be seen as a graphic representation showing the position, shape or height of a
country, a river, or a mountain. Conflict resolution demands a map, demarcating the parameters
of a particular conflict

What should be captured by the map?

i. The issue
-What is the conflict about? Is it about a farm land or the siting of a market?
-Issues are the thighs to be debated upon. They capture the goals and fears of parties
-Issues could be complex or simple and sometimes ambiguous
ii. The parties
Who are the key parties to the conflict? They are the people who initiate the conflict
 23

Other parties’- These are the people who directly or indirectly become parties as the conflict
unfolds or escalates but were not part of the initiation of the conflict
iii. Victims
They are those who suffer the negative consequences of conflict. They could be parties or
innocent bystanders
iv. Those who could influence the outcome of a resolution
Any person whose effort is considered critical or important, or matters in the resolution process

v. Process/Procedure
*Select appropriate grounds
*Accord each party with the most legitimacy
*Allows each party to narrate his/her side of the matter without any interruption from the other
party
*Look behind position for interests
*Separate the people from the problem
*Identify common grounds of agreement
*Generate as many options as possible with regard to each issue identified
*Use your conflict management skills
*Select the most option which best address the issue
*Document agreements reached

Conflict resolution mechanisms

Conflict is a complex social phenomenon. However, in any given social setting, people in
conflict have a variety of means of resolving their differences (Marfo, 2013). Notable among
these conflict resolution mechanisms are the adversarial court system, ombudsman, arbitration,
conciliation, mediation and negotiation. Each option has its own processes, the tools and the
skills required, expected role of the partisans and the intervenors if any, as well as the expected
outcome. In a given conflict situation, a combination of mechanisms may be adopted in the
resolution process.

We manage conflict with the view to:

* Turn conflict into positive growth-output

* Reduce its destructiveness and frequency

* Learn, live and tolerate one another in a pluralistic environment

For the purposes of this course, negotiation, arbitration and mediation are discussed. These
conflict resolution mechanisms in some quarters are referred to as alternative dispute resolution
 24

mechanisms (ADR). The word ‘alternative’ does not mean that they are inferior to the judicial
system. All the available conflict resolution mechanisms complement each other.
Negotiation

Negotiation is part and parcel of every human life. As humans we negotiate everyday with our
colleagues, parents, partners, friends and children. We negotiate at home, school, market, office
etc. According to Moore (1986:6), negotiation is a bargaining relationship between parties who
have a perceived or actual conflict of interest.

Forsyth (1999:257) writes that, negotiation is a reciprocal communication process whereby two
or more parties to a dispute examine specific issues, explain their positions, and exchange offers
and counter offers.

Fisher and Ury (1991:32) define negotiation as a process of communicating back and forth for
the purpose of reaching a joint decision.

Negotiation may be explained as a voluntary and intentional communication process between

two or more parties, who jointly confront a problem for their own benefits and or their
constituents. It is an intentional face to face interaction. It is not an informal discussion.

Conditions for a Successful Negotiation

The effectiveness of negotiation depends on a number of factors as outlined below. Though these
factors are not exhaustive, they are nonetheless essential.

i. Interdependence (collaborative spirit). Parties in negotiation should understand and be

convinced that their goals can be best achieved with their mutual cooperation.
ii. Perception of the possibility of reaching an acceptable agreement to all parties in
which each party would be better of, or no worse of, than if no agreement is reached.
In simple terms, it is better and beneficial for parties in provocative relationship to
negotiate. Stated differently, parties stand to lose if they fail to negotiate.
iii. Perception of reaching more than one agreement. Outcome of negotiation should not
be viewed as a zero-sum game. A zero-sum game is a game in which the sum total is
equal to zero. That is, the parties should have a clear understanding that they all stand
to gain if they negotiate (win-win outcome).
iv. Focusing on interest rather than on position. Position is the hard stance taken by a
party in a negotiation. For instance, if workers demand for 10% pay increment
without explaining the reasons for such demand, it may be termed simply as
positional demand or a stance. Such demand gives no clear indication as to how the
problem at stake could be addressed. Behind position lies interest. If the reasons for
the demand for the 10% increment are attributed to high cost of feeding, high cost of
 25

rent, high cost of transportation and high cost of school fees, appropriate means can
be found to address these concerns.
v. Separating the problem from the people. In negotiation, all efforts should be directed
towards the resolution of the issue at stake. Parties should refrain from attacking or
insulting personalities involved. Insults and attacks on the personalities involved tend
to aggravate the situation rather than addressing the actual problem at stake.
vi. Availability of BATNA (Best Alternative To Negotiated Agreement). According to
Fisher and Ury (1991), BATNA is the basis upon which proposed agreements is
measured. It is the standard which can protect you both from accepting terms that are
too unfavourable and from rejecting terms it would be in your interest to accept.
BATNA specifically is a principle that guides a person in making the necessary and
appropriate/reasonable demand or choice.
The greater advantage of negotiation is that, the power of decision lies in the hands of the parties
themselves. In any conflict situation, where necessary, parties may decide to negotiate their
differences without the recourse to a third-party intervention. Negotiation is generally not
practical in a highly polarized relation where parties are not prepared to see one another. For
example, the disputed election results in 2007 in Kenya engendered violent confrontation
between the followers of the incumbent President Nwai Kibaki and the main opposition leader
Raila Odinga. This led to a number of deaths in the country. Given the high emotion that
characterized the political landscape at that time, it was unlikely that Kibaki and Odinga could
have personally negotiated their differences. A facilitated negotiation - a third party intervention
was the ideal and this saw the intervention of Kofi Annan and other African dignitaries which
eventually culminated in the power-sharing between the two contending parties in 2008.

Arbitration
Arbitration is a quasi-judicial process. It is a generic term for conflict resolution mechanism in
which an assistance of an impartial and a neutral third party (arbiter) is sought by parties in a
conflict in resolving a contested issue(s). The arbiter renders a decision on the basis of facts of
the case and these facts are determined on the basis of evidence presented by the parties (Brulle
and Nesie, 2001).
Arbitration:

 Is mainly used in civil disputes

 Process is mainly informal compared to judicial process

 Could be conducted by one person or a panel

 Is relatively less expensive as compared to the judicial process

 Outcome may be advisory or binding

 26

 May not be subjected to public scrutiny

 Parties could select their own arbitrators

 Is relatively less time consuming

Arbitration allows parties to enjoy the services of an expert. Decision as to the outcome however
rests in the hands of the arbiter.

Mediation
Mediation is considered as one of the oldest and most common forms of conflict resolution. In
Ghana for instance, chiefs and family heads have been mediating in land and marital disputes
where necessary. It is important however, to recognize that mediation as a substantive part of
public policy in coping with disputes is a 19 th century development and witnessed a new
dimension during the 1960s.

According to Keltner (1994:101-103), the word mediation comes from a Latin root ‘mediare’
meaning ‘to be in the middle or to halve’. He emphasized that, mediation has a different
connotation with different cultures, but has come to mean a procedure for conflict resolution in
the Western culture.

According to Moore (1986:14), mediation is an intervention into a dispute or negotiation by an

acceptable impartial and neutral third party, who has no authoritative decision-making power to
assist disputing parties in voluntarily reaching their own mutually acceptable settlement of issue
in dispute.

Kraybill (cited in Pretorius, 1993:130) writes that, mediation is a voluntary process by which
disputants, with the assistance of an independent third party identify issues in order to develop
options, consider alternatives, and reach an agreement that addresses their needs.

Isard (1992:128) explains that, mediation is the process whereby a third-party attempt to help
conflicting parties reach a voluntary agreement.

From the stated definitions, mediation could be seen as an appendage of negotiation or simply a
facilitated negotiation. It is a purposeful and voluntary dispute resolution mechanism which aims
to achieve agreement between disputants through the assistance of a skillful third party or a
mediator, who has no major influence on decision or the substantive issues. It is a non-violent
dispute resolution mechanism that affords disputants the opportunity to address their own
problems on the basis of their decision-making process, devoid of any imposition from either
internal or external forces. In present times, mediation is widely practiced by a number of
professionals in different fields, and applied in virtually all forms of disputes. It is considered a
better alternative dispute resolution to the adversarial legal system. It is relatively less expensive,
more convenient, less time consuming and more humorous. The establishment of more
 27

professional bodies, mandatory legal bodies as well as training institutions for mediators, sum up
the immensurable role played by mediation in today’s conflict-endemic societies. The
Commission for Conciliation Mediation and Arbitration (CCMA) of South Africa, and the
Commission on Human Rights and Administrative Justice (CHRAJ) of Ghana, are worthy of
reference.

Justification for a Third Party Intervention

Many, if not most of the conflicts that arise can readily be addressed through the collaborative
problem-solving of the parties involved. On the other hand, when conflicts do arise, and the
parties employ contentious tactics that take them along the winding pathway of destruction, then,
the re-course to a third-party intervention becomes necessary. The role of a third party, for that
matter mediation, becomes necessary if parties in a conflict are not prepared to negotiate their
differences. In the view of Burton (1990), when policies and decisions lead to conflict in
practice; there is the frequent recourse to third party of one kind or another. Dr Henry Kissinger
indicated that ‘the greatest danger of war seems to him not to be in the deliberate actions of
wicked men, but in the inability of harassed men to manage events that had run away with them’
(Nieumeijer and Renee Du Toit, 1994: 254). Conflict situations have to be intervened so as to
make them more productive.
Using Hobbesian terminology, Coser indicates that, in the state of nature, conflict whether it is
waged for gain, for safety or glory, ‘ceaseth only in death’ (1967:37). Social conflict tends to
continue or to escalate, and to end with the total destruction of at least one of the antagonists,
when unchecked by societal regulation and by deliberate actions of the contenders. This in effect
validates the need for a third-party intervention, for that matter, mediation.

Generally, there are three principal means through which a person can become a mediator:

1. A mediator may be called in by one or both of the parties to the conflict given his/her
profile, or good reputation in the field. The parties will approach the mediator because of
his/her profile, or good reputation in the field. The mediator may be a member of a panel
that is well known to the parties, or may belong to a community Conflict Resolution
Centre. Pretorius (1993) indicates that, the tradition in South African dispute resolution in
the labour field has been and continues to be one where the third party does not initiate
the intervention but rather responds to a request from one or other party to become
involved. Conversely, in the American tradition, the third party is somehow more pro-
active and may approach disputing parties offering assistance.
2. Parties may also be referred to a third party, who might be a community leader, such as a
church leader or Imam who may initially be approached by one of the parties, or who
may become aware of the conflict and perceive a need for intervention. Sub-Part II of the
Ghana Labour Act, Act 651 (2003), Article 154, for instance indicates that, in industrial
disputes where the parties involved failed to settle a dispute through negotiation, the
Labour Commission shall request the parties to settle the dispute by mediation.
 28

3. The mediator himself/herself may suggest to the parties on becoming aware of the
conflict. This might become problematic if there is financial consideration.
It must be noted that the decision to accept mediation virtually rests with the parties except when
mediation is mandated by legislation, court order or contract. By definition, mediation is
voluntary and cannot be forced on parties.

Prerequisites for Effective Mediation

The success of mediation is contingent upon the presence of certain factors or prerequisites. A
prerequisite is construed as a thing required as a condition. The success of mediation requires
certain conditions to be satisfied, fulfilled or to be present. This section focuses on the various
factors that promote effective resolution of disputes by mediation. In this vein, the following
variables are considered:

i. Mediators’ characteristics and attributes

ii. Disputants’ behaviour
iii. The procedural consideration

i. Mediators’ characteristics and Attributes

Expert Power

A mediator in any conflict resolution should demonstrate power. Power is an omnibus term
connoting different meanings. Anstey (1991) defines power as the capacity to bring about
desired outcomes, or to change the position or stance of another party. Keltner (1994) has
indicated that, power is an intentional communicative influence process that exists universally
among humankind. Various forms of power have been identified in the literature. Power that
could be employed by people at any given situation includes; reward power, coercive power,
legitimate power, financial power, informative power and expert power.

The greatest asset of a mediator is his expert power. The mediator’s competence or knowledge as
well as his understanding of the mediation process and the ethics involved, is basic to the success
of any mediation (Burton, 1990; Hogson, 1999). Keltner (1994) stresses that competence is
critical in the growing demand for mediators. He indicates that, in today’s world, a number of
people from diverse backgrounds such as schoolteachers, doctors, dentists, social workers, and
lawyers want to practice mediation. Many of them have no perception of the fundamental nature
of mediation, the qualifications for effective performance, or the standards of performance. He
further argues that, unless there are ways to identify and develop competent people, the
profession may be overcome with the burden of discouraging consequences of unqualified
persons meddling in disputes. For a mediator to be effective in any mediation, he should be
resourceful. Anything short of this could endanger the process and the outcome of the resolution.
A competent mediator has the ability to define a problem correctly and besides able to identify
 29

the steps to address it. Burton (1987) has pointed out that, a false definition leads to a
dysfunctional process, and an incorrect definition of the cause of a serious conflict leads to the
adoption of procedure by management that are inconsistent with the realities of the conflict. A
wrong approach to a problem based on a wrong definition may lead to a still-born resolution.
The original problem will re-appear (Stone, 1999).

Rothman (1992) asserts that, when symptoms instead of causes are addressed, wounds are
merely bandaged not heal and may fester. An incompetent mediator may adopt a procedure that
may not be of help to the antagonists due to wrong definition of the problem. Keltner (1994)
stresses that, skills are not intuitive and must therefore be initially acquired through training and
honed by experience.

Patience

Finding a creative way of resolving conflict is very complex and can be frustrating. It demands
an extreme patience so as to endure inconveniences as disputants can lose sense of objectivity.
Reconciling or integrating hitherto parties with fractured or broken communication could be an
onerous task. A mediator needs to demonstrate a high sense of patience and must not exert
unnecessary pressure on the parties so as to rush in the process. Hogson (1999) had indicated
that, facilitators need to be patient, mainly because the blunt instruction approach to negotiation
tends to have a limited and short-term effect. When disputants are pushed towards a solution,
they could become stubborn or unmoved. Pulling them towards a resolution may involve more
time, more tolerance and persistence, but it is more likely to achieve a satisfactory and lasting
win-win outcome. An impatient mediator may lose focus, and likely to become judgemental, a
dangerous approach to effective mediation.

Speaking Skill

The ability to speak well in meeting the demands of people at different social settings is a major
incentive necessary for effective conflict management and resolution. How we speak sends
signals about our credibility and how we are in the minds of our listeners, who use such images
as the basis to make an informed judgment either to accept or reject our views. A mediator
should peak with conviction and sincerity and with the appropriate pace and pitch and should not
only be mindful of what to say but also on how best to say it. A skillful communicator briefly
paces his speech from time to time, and from one point to another. This enables him to think
about what to say next. It also affords his audience the opportunity to organize their thoughts
methodically and to follow with rapt attention. A mediator needs to vary his tone to avoid mono-
tone that could be boiling and noisy to the parties. Audience feels at home and desire to listen,
when a person speaks with a friendly voice. The pace and the pitch used by a mediator have a
major motivating force on disputants in coming out with the best options that address their
problems. A speaker’s credibility is affected by the skills with which the message is delivered,
 30

the perceived sincerity and credibility of the message, and his rhetorical quality. He should speak
with a warm voice to sustain the interest of his listeners.

Listening skill

A mediator’s perceptiveness is a major key to the success of mediation. A mediator should

exhibit the spirit of listening. Effective listening is a primary tool in any conflict management.
The mediator should listen to verbal and non-verbal cues including; crossed arms (defense),
crossed legs (closed mind), tapping of toes (impatience), body hunched backwards
(uncooperative), a staring eye (angry). According to Keltner (1994), much of the mediator’s time
is spent in listening to what others are saying. The mediator listens well at different levels of
communications and controls the imposition of his thought onto what he hears others saying and
avoids hearing what he wants to hear.

Listening skill enables a mediator to gain much insight into the dynamics of a conflict. Carpenter
and Kennedy (2001) have pointed out that, effective listening equips the listener the opportunity
to acquire more information from what will be provided, gain much insight into parties’
dynamics of the dispute, and the substantive issues. Cowan (1995) has stated that, because of the
emotional nature of confrontations, effective listening requires conscious awareness and control.

Baker et al (quoted in Anstey, 1991:228) define listening as ‘the selective process of attending to
hearing, understanding and remembering of aural symbols. Hearing implies that sound waves
have been recorded. Listening requires understanding. Effective listening enhances mediator’s
understanding of the parties and the mediation process. Poor listening is disincentive to effective
resolution and should be avoided by mediators. Active listening enhances mediators’ ability to
deal with anger. It affords the opportunity to permit venting. Venting has a cathartic effect and
allows the release of pent-up energy, which affords the mediator a chance to restore control
(Cowan, 1995; Pretorius, 1993).

The use of sounds and phrases such as ‘uh-uh’, ‘hmm’, ‘yes I see’, ‘if I understand you’, among
others by the listener, demonstrate to the speaker that his message has been received. Nodding of
the head and the establishment of eye contact without staring, assure the speaker that his message
has been understood.

Empathy

Empathy is a major condition that needs to be manifested if effective mediation is to be

achieved. Empathy demands that a mediator should be able to gaze into the internal frame of
parties. Empathy is a state of being. It is a condition we experience when we are able to see and
hear things from the perspective of others (emic perspective). That is, if we are able to see as if
were behind another person’s eyes, hear things as if we were between another person’s ears, and
experience things as if we were in another person’s shoes (Keltner, 1994).
 31

When we are in empathic state, we feel with people. An empathic mediator builds rapport and
confidence in disputants. Such assurance could impact positively on disputants in an attempt to
reach out a satisfactory outcome.

Questioning Skill
Questioning is a useful communication technique that seeks to sharpen understanding and elicit
for more information. Anstey (1991) indicates that, questioning is perhaps the most useful tool
for a negotiator. It allows the application of pressure, buys time, obtains information, suggests
alternative without commitment, and provides a means of deflecting attack.

Effective questioning enables the mediator to assess the power levels of the disputants, which is
an important prerequisite for the management of struggles. Power as a phenomenon can either
exacerbate conflict or promote the process of mediation. Questioning allows parties to move
from positions to interests for a meaningful resolution. Effective use of questioning by a
mediator contributes to the success of any mediation. The mediator should ask open-probing
questions and avoid judgemental questions which seek to blame.

Reframing

The ability of a mediator to reframe messages that have been provided is a major skill that
facilitates effective mediation. Reframing involves re-wording or re-shaping a message so that
the content is not distorted, but the message is given a similar meaning.

Reframing promotes laundering of words which reduces tension and confrontation. A statement
such as ‘She is a liar’, said by one party could induce a negative response from the other party.
A mediator may re-word the message as ‘You have a different understanding of what happened’.
This may help defuse the inbuilt negative connotation and save the situation from being poised
of anger.

‘I’ Messages

I messages refer to messages that begin with the pronoun ‘I’ as opposed to ‘You’. Messages that
generally begin with the pronoun ‘you’ in mediation process, tend to have inbuilt blaming and
attack signals which could induce similar reaction from others. A ‘you’ massage is usually
interpreted by others to mean that they are in some way deficient or incompetent.

Cowan (1995) indicates that, the delivery of an ‘I’ message rather than ‘you’ message can make
the difference between effective and ineffective communication, and between a confrontation
that de-escalates rather than escalates a conflict. ‘I’ message focuses on your feeling in response
to the behaviour of others. A ‘you’ message focuses on the other person and usually says little
about your feelings. Letting others know how their behaviour affects you is less threatening than
the implication that they are somehow bad or deficient because of their behaviour. A statement
 32

such as ‘You are always missing deadlines’ could be best stated as ‘I am troubled and
discouraged when we fail to meet our deadlines’. This in effect will promote cooperative and
friendly discussion.

Paraphrasing
The technique of paraphrasing is considered a major tool in conflict resolution. In the view of
Keltner (1994), the ability to reflect back to a speaker the essence of the message spoken through
paraphrasing is vital in resolving conflict. Paraphrasing confirms that both the opponents and the
mediator know that they have understood each other accurately. It is the act of restating what
have been said in one’s own words. Literal repetition is not necessary but repetition in the
mediator’s own words could have important effect on clarifying the discussion.

Paraphrasing should be used appropriately so as to achieve its purpose. It is best for a mediator
not to wait until the end of a long message, because the message may be forgotten. It is best to
paraphrase what has been said after each major point. For example, ‘Let me see if I understand
the point, you have just made’. A sentence could be repeated many times until both sides are
satisfied that the point is correctly understood.

Summary skill

Like any other communication skills used in managing conflict, summary has also been
described as a powerful technique which should be adopted to promote effective mediation. A
summary involves a brief narration or account of key points that have been stated. A summary
together with paraphrasing reminds both parties what have been said and agreed or disagreed
upon. An effective summary gives the parties the opportunity to have a quick and a brilliant
insight into the mediation process at any stage. Parties therefore do not lose focus in the
mediation process.

In order for summary to be effective and promote a healthy mediation, account should only be
drawn on chief points without distortion. It will be a disincentive if a mediator focuses on minor
matters. Paraphrasing, reframing and summary serve as feedback to the speaker.

Effective Preparation/Planning

A plan is a careful considered arrangement for carrying out some future activity or a set of ideas
put forward to ensure the attainment of specific goal. A mediation plan requires effective
preparation at all stages. The success or otherwise of mediation to a large extent depends on how
the process has been adequately planned. A mediator should plan the whole process from the
pre-meeting stage, through the actual mediation process, to the drafting of agreement,
implementation and evaluation stage. A venue which is conducive and safe, devoid of distraction
and distortion must be selected for the mediation. Where appropriate, a neutral ground has to be
selected where no party can claim psychological advantage or power. The financial cost involved
as well as the required logistics and time should be factored in the preparation. It should be noted
 33

that if the mediation of a particular conflict is not effectively prepared, it should not be attempted
as it may lead to a still-born resolution.

ii. Disputants/Parties’ Behaviour

Mediation as a conflict resolution mechanism demands both the assistance of a third party and
the efforts of disputants. A successful mediation could not be implanted or imposed on parties.
Parties in mediation are required to demonstrate certain positive spirits so as to guarantee a
meaningful resolution.

Cooperation

In any given conflict resolution process, parties must be cooperative. Disputants must see
themselves as partners in a problem-solving situation who depends on each other for a creative
approach and resolution of the problem at stake. Keltner (1994) has emphasized that, the very act
of communication in negotiation involves some cooperation between the negotiators. If parties
are more cooperative, there is greater possibility of reaching an acceptable agreement.

Hodgson (1996) maintains that when disputants are cooperative, they see the problem as
something that needs to be resolved for their mutual benefit but not a battle to be won. This has a
startling effect on the process. Parties tend to increase their commitment to the goal of the
mediation and justified it by their increased efforts towards its attainment when they are more
cooperative. Parties adopt integrative style as opposed to positional bargaining, recognizing that
the success of the mediation is contingent on their mutual cooperation. An integrative style is an
attitude of giving out something of value by a party in return for a gain from the other party. It
has an element of sacrifice from both parties. Parties work together to fulfill their own needs
without undermining those of the other. With positional bargaining (distributive) style, parties
are hard on their demands and are not prepared to move or unwilling to shift their demands.
Parties’ expectations remain quite divergent. In a situation where the parties take an entrenched
position, it is unlikely to achieve any meaningful outcome. For instance, in 2012, Kofi Annan,
former UN Secretary-General had to quit as a mediator (United Nations-Arab League envoy) in
the Syrian conflict. The reason assigned as reported was that both the government and the
opposition factions had taken an entrenched position which militated against the effectiveness of
the mediation process.

Recognition of legitimacy

Parties in disputes are not enemies in the battlefield, but rather co-partners in a problem-solving
process. It is important that each partner recognizes the legitimacy of the other in the process.
Anstey (1991) indicates that, it is important that parties in a conflict accord each other legitimacy
in the relationship. When one party refuses to acknowledge the other as a player or a
representative in a resolution process, then it dooms the exchange to one of confrontation. No
fruitful outcome would be achieved.
 34

Each party in a conflict has a legitimate role to play and should be recognized as such. A lasting
resolution is achieved when both parties feel ownership of the agreement made.

Information Sharing

Conflict resolution is built on legitimate information sharing. If disputants are interested in a

satisfactory outcome, then they should prepare to share any information that will enhance the
resolution. Effective participation and commitment among individuals and collective actors rest
on shared information. Lack of legitimate and shared information give rise to power struggle. In
an era where people have to filter out a lot of authoritative and speculative information, the
acquisition of legitimate information is considered a great tool in bringing about the desired
resolution. Where parties do not have a common database, speculation and romour become the
order of the day, and conflicts revolved around principles based on guess-work (Anstey, 1991).

Sustainable agreement is based on shared information but not on a manufactured one. A

premature resolution could only be avoided if parties are willing to share information, they know
to be helpful and legitimate.

Power Balance

Mediation could be successful if the power possessed by the parties is relatively equal or
balanced. Power balance takes in various forms and manifests in various ways including; (1) the
understanding of the mediation process, (2) clarity of information, (3) equal time allocation in
the mediation process, (4) freedom to express one’s view without interruption from another
party, (5) as well as the selection of a location considered neutral to the parties. Imbalance power
relation between disputants may cause a party to withdraw from the mediation. If not, agreement
reached may only be temporary. It must be noted that, each party in a dispute has some form of
power that can be adopted or manipulated either for good, or for worse of the resolution process

Voluntary Participation

Mediation by definition is a voluntary process of resolving conflict, for that matter, disputants
should have the freedom or the willingness to participate. An imposition of mediation on parties
runs the risk of premature resolution. Moore (1986) expresses that, parties must not be forced to
negotiate, mediate or settle, either by an external or internal party to a dispute. He argues that,
some courts in family and civil cases go to the extent of ordering parties to try mediation as a
means of resolving their dispute before the courts hear the cases. Attempting mediation does not
however mean that, the parties are forced to settle their differences. Coercing disputants to
resolve their differences by mediation will be a great disincentive and may not achieve its
objectives.
 35

iii. Procedural Dimension

Whether parties will cooperate or otherwise is largely a question of the process. Parties’ views
and understanding of the process involved in mediation are crucial and determining factor of the
mediation outcome.

Impartiality

A major condition for the success of mediation is the need for disputants to recognize the
absence of bias toward one of the parties. Mediators have to address the parties in a similar
manner such as handshake, sit at an equal distance from each party, maintain equal eye contact
and give each of the parties equals peaking time. A process perceived by the parties as impartial
guarantees the success of the mediation as it builds confidence among the disputants.

Neutrality

The process of mediation should be seen as a level play ground to the parties. Neutrality
connotes disinteresting in the outcome of the dispute and the absence of influence over the
outcome. The mediator must be seen as a neutral party. The mediator’s role may in some respect
motivate the disputants in the resolution process, he must however be perceived as a
disinterested person with regard to the outcome. By neutrality, authorities do not mean that a
mediator has no influential role. His duty among others is to assist the parties by clarifying
information and questioning parties with the view to move them from position to interest. He
however has no major influence in the substantive issue. The mediator’s function could be
considered as a lubricant - promoting cooperative exchanges between the partisans.

Independence

Independence is used in the literature to mean the absence of prior relationship between the
mediator and the disputants. Mediators are independent or at least, are accepted by the parties.
Moore (1986) uses the term ‘acceptable’ in place of ‘independence’. In practice, any prior
contact between a mediator and any of the parties must be made known during the mediation
process so as to avoid prejudice when it is later discovered. If a mediator is objected on the
grounds that he is not independent due to any prior contact with any of the parties, he cannot
mediate in the dispute at stake. During the Kenyan disputed elections as indicated elsewhere,
after achieving a temporary solution to the problem, South African Cyril Ramaphosa was
unanimously chosen by Annan team as chief mediator to lead long-term talks. The government
as reported, raised concern about Ramaphosa as having business links with Odinga (one of the
parties in the conflict) and therefore suspicious of his involvement. Given this development,
Ramaphosa withdrew from the talks as a mediator.

Trust
 36

Trust is a key prerequisite for effective conflict resolution. It is the building block of mutual
relationship. Cowan (1995) writes that, trust builds self-esteem, and its absence in organizational
setting results in negative personal, social and performance outcome. If disputants realize that the
system could be trusted, they gain much confidence to approach their problem.

Trust building is a multi-function, ranging from the nature of the introduction of the mediator,
his perceived neutrality and impartiality, as well as his independent character. The absence of
trust in the system may at best cause the withholding of important information by the parties and
at worse cause parties to withdraw from the mediation itself.

Rules of Procedure

Rules in any human relations promote orderliness. In the mediation process, the existence of
ground rules or rules of procedure is of immense importance. Rules of procedure may take the
form of both mandatory and prohibitory. Mandatory rules may include among others, allocation
of time for story-telling and caucusing. Prohibitory rules may take the form of avoidance of
unnecessary interruption and the use of abusive language during the interactive process. An
acceptable principle agreed by the parties become ground rules which regulate the conduct of the
mediation. Where no rules exist, confusion and disorderliness reign supreme.

Drafting of Agreement

Agreement reached in any mediation should be put into writing. A successful outcome of
mediation is usually a signed-written agreement between the parties, drafted by the mediator.
Although the agreement is not a legal, it can be used as a basis for further legal agreement and
action. The agreement must be worded in a simple and plain language, devoid of legal jargons.
The document must indicate specifically what each party will do, when and where in relation
with each issue.

It must be noted that the nature of a particular conflict to a large extent will determine the
conditions that must be satisfied in order to reach a desired outcome. Conflicts are affected by
the environment in which they take place. However, the basic prerequisites of mediation as
outlined may be applicable virtually to all conflict situations.

Question: Examine any 7 prerequisites for effective mediation

 37

REFUGEE AND REFUGEE RELATED CRISIS

Concept of Refugee

Globally, there is no particular class of ethnic group or race labeled as refugees or refugee-
related. In short, no one is born with the status of a refugee. Refugee status is conditioned by a
given situation.

Individuals in society differ markedly in terms of race, religion, nationality, political affiliation
and opinion. Such fundamental differences often result in clash of interest and values. In a
situation whereby a person feels he/she is no longer safe in his/her immediate environment, may
be forced to migrate to a place of safety. Alternatively, natural events such as earthquakes, floods
and drought could also force people to migrate to other settlements besides their homeland. This
brings to focus the concept of refugee and internally displaced persons.

The 1951 UN Convention relating to the status of refugees defined a refugee as a person who is
outside or has fled his/her country of nationality (habitual residence) and is unable or unwilling
to return to that country because of a well-founded fear of persecution based on race, religion,
nationality, political opinion or membership in a particular social group.

It must be noted that, not everyone who migrates from one place to another for whatever reasons
could be described as a refugee. To qualify as a refugee, two basic conditions have to be satisfied
simultaneously.
a. The person must cross international borders. That is, he/she must be outside his/her
country of nationality or habitual residence.
b. The person must have a genuine fear of persecution or threat to his/her life

In this regard, all those who are forced to relocate within a country of habitation/residence as a
result of war and other related circumstances could not be described as refugees. Some
authorities refer to such people as refugee-like, refugee-related or internally displaced. As at
2013, the UNHCR estimated that about 51.2 million people (refugees, internally displayed and
asylum seekers), were forced to flee their homes across the globe by circumstances. According to
UNHCR (2018), 68.5 million people were said to have been displaced as of the end of 2017.
Among them were 16.2 million people who became displaced during 2017 itself, either for the
first time or repeatedly – indicating a huge number of people on the move and equivalent to
44,500 people being displaced each day, or a person becoming displaced every two seconds.
Refugees who have fled their countries to escape conflict and persecution accounted for 25.4
million of the 68.5 million. This is 2.9 million more than in 2016, also the biggest increase
UNHCR has seen in a single year. Asylum-seekers, who were still awaiting the outcome of their
claims to refugee status as of 31 December 2017, meanwhile rose by around 300,000 to 3.1
million.by the close of 2018, UNHCR indicated that global refugee population has reached 70.8
 38

million. People displaced inside their own country accounted. Syria, Afghanistan, South Sudan,
Myanmar and Somalia and Palestine are reputed or known countries with large numbers of
refugees across the globe.

The term refugee also excludes those who cross international borders for ‘greener pastures’ or
seeking for a betterment of life. Such people in some quarters are referred to as ‘economic
migrants’.

Ghana for instance has since the 1990s hosted refugees from Liberia and Togo. An estimated
42,034 Liberian refugees were hosted in the country. As at 2011, Ghana hosted about 3000
refugees mainly from Cote d’Ivoire (GhanaWeb, June 23, 2012).

The refugee and refugee related condition demands a passionate reflection. Almost always,
people are forced to leave their homes without prior warning. They escape without food or
clothes besides what they wear. In Africa in particular, refugees from countries including Sierra
Leone, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Liberia, Burundi, Sudan, Kenya, Ethiopia, Chad and
Zimbabwe are flooded all over the world.

Refugees are generally boxed into overcrowded camps with little supplies, and exposed to
diseases. The refugee condition affects every aspect of the lives of the people; socially (eg. social
disintegration), economically, politically, religiously and psychologically.

In Ghana, Budumburam Camp in the Central Region has become synonymous with refugees
from Liberia. Various refugee camps in Ghana include that of Ampian and Krisan Refugee
Camps. Besides the problems that face refugees, refugee crisis could impact negatively on the
recipient country and her citizens (ripple effects).

MANAGEMENT OF REFUGEE AND REFUGEE RELATED CRISIS

Refugee and refugee related crisis management is all encompassing and requires concerted
efforts from various local and international actors and actresses. The United Nations High
Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) is largely responsible for refugees. UNHCR collaborates
with other Regional Bodies (eg ECOWAS) and Refugee Boards in the various Countries as well
as NGOs in the management of refugee crisis.

Refugee crisis management strategies include the following:

1. Provision of immediate survival needs ie food, clothing and shelter
2. Provision of safety
3. Upholding of basic civil rights, the right to asylum, access to medical care, education, and
employment
4. Repatriation-ensuring safe return to country of origin when conditions stabilize or
normalize
 39

5. Resettlement.
6. rehabilitation
7. reconstruction
8. cerebration of World Refugee Day (20th June every year)

The above strategies could be described as direct response or interventional measures. Crisis
management generally requires both intervention and proactive strategies. As a proactive
measure, the factors that tend to give rise to refugee status have to be tackled. This may include
political tolerance, good governance, mutual recognition and respect, recognition of individual
basic rights, etc.

It must be noted that, the management of refugee crisis does not seek to eliminate the problem as
it is even not possible. Refugee crisis management aims at reducing the frequency, intensity and
scope of the incidence of refugee as well as its ripple effects.

-Effective participation and commitment among individuals and collective actors rest on shared
information.

Disaster Management
As part of Ghana’s disaster reduction and management policy, NADMO, a relatively young
organization was established by Act 517 of 1996 and mandated to manage disasters and similar
emergencies in the country. The organisation is under the Ministry of Interior with the National
Security Council as its governing council.
The specific functions of NADMO include the following:
-Preparation of disaster plans for prevention and mitigating the consequences of disasters as and
when they occur
-Coordination of the activities of various bodies (both local and international support) in
management of disasters
-Social mobilization especially at the community level to support various government
programmes, such as the poverty reduction programme as well as those aimed at the
management of disasters
-Ensuring the establishment of adequate facilities for technical training and the institution of
educational programmes to provide public awareness, warning systems and general preparedness
for its staff and the general public.
-Monitor, evaluate and update national disaster plans
-Ensuring that there are appropriate and adequate facilities for the provision of relief,
rehabilitation and reconstruction after any disaster

Disaster management is a complex social task and demands a multi-approach system from
various actors and actresses. For effective discharge of functions, NADMO has offices dotted
throughout the country, at the national, regional, district to zonal level. Besides, NADMO works
 40

in collaboration with certain agencies include the Ghana Police Service, the Ghana Armed
Forces, Ghana Immigration Service, Ghana National Fire Service, Narcotics Control Board as
well as other non-governmental organizations. In addition, NADMO works in collaboration with
virtually all the Research Institutions in the country including Crop Research Institute-Kumasi;
Soil Research Institute-Kumasi; Savanna Agricultural Research Institute-Nyankpala,Tamale;
Institute of Industrial Research-Accra; Food Research Institute-Accra and Forestry Research
Institute of Ghana.

Whether we have in place a well disaster management organization or not, disasters may occur.
However, it is more dangerous and deadly for a country not having any meaningful disaster
management policy. Management of disasters is a complex social activity and demands a holistic
approach. It demands concerted efforts from governments, NGOs, as well as members of the
society. As indicated by Abbott (2006:13), it is relatively easy to identify natural hazards, but as
the Popocatepetl case history shows, it is not easy to decide how to answer the questions
presented by this volcanic hazard.

Disaster management strategies are interventions meant to contain disastrous situations and
prevent the spill-over effects, as well as proactive measures to prevent a potential risk event or to
minimize the effects of disasters as and when they occur. The strategies include the following:
1. Vulnerability assessment-identification of disaster-prone areas
2. Early warning system-serves as pre-caution and preparation. Early action is however
much preferred to early warnings even though the latter is important
3. Well-funded research bodies/institutions
4. Massive educational campaigns to raise the awareness and consciousness of the populace
with regard to disasters and their management
5. Strong political commitment to disaster management policies
6. Strong legal system capable of enforcing rules/laws governing the activities of people and
organizations
7. Well resourceful and committed disaster management team with well-defined roles and
responsibilities
8. Formation of disaster management clubs and volunteers
9. Introduction of crisis management as a subject at all levels of educational institutions
10. Timely evaluation of disaster management plans especially after a given event

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 41

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