MODULE -2

Define Solar Radiation. Understand Solar radiations at earth's surface. Understand Solar Radiation
Geometry:

Solar Radiation:
Solar radiation refers to the electromagnetic energy emitted by the sun, which travels through space
and reaches the Earth. It encompasses a wide range of wavelengths, including visible light, infrared,
and ultraviolet radiation. This energy is fundamental to life on Earth and serves as the primary driver of
various atmospheric and surface processes, including weather patterns, climate dynamics, and the
functioning of ecosystems.
Understanding Solar Radiation at Earth's Surface:
When solar radiation reaches the Earth's surface, it interacts with the atmosphere, land, and water
bodies. Factors such as atmospheric composition, cloud cover, and surface characteristics influence
the amount and distribution of solar radiation that reaches different regions of the Earth. This incoming
solar radiation provides the energy necessary for processes like photosynthesis, heating of the Earth's
surface, and the generation of wind and ocean currents.
Understanding Solar Radiation Geometry:
Solar radiation geometry refers to the spatial and angular distribution of solar radiation as it interacts
with the Earth's atmosphere and surface. Several key concepts help understand solar radiation
geometry:

Definitions of Solar Geometry Terms:

Declination:
Declination refers to the angle between the rays of the sun and the plane of the Earth's equator. It
represents the solar position north or south of the equator. The declination angle changes throughout
the year due to the tilt of the Earth's axis relative to its orbit around the sun. It is an essential parameter
in determining the position of the sun in the sky at different times of the year.
Hour Angle:
Hour angle is the angular distance between the sun and a reference meridian at a specific point on the
Earth's surface. It is measured westward from the local meridian and is expressed in degrees or time
units. Hour angle indicates the position of the sun relative to the observer's local solar noon, with
positive values indicating times before solar noon and negative values indicating times after solar noon.
Altitude Angle:
Altitude angle, also known as solar elevation angle or solar altitude, refers to the angle between the
direction of the sun and the horizontal plane at a specific location on the Earth's surface. It represents
the height of the sun above the horizon and varies throughout the day as the sun's position changes.
Altitude angle influences the intensity of solar radiation received at the Earth's surface.
Incident Angle:
Incident angle, also known as solar incidence angle or solar zenith angle, refers to the angle between
the direction of incoming solar radiation and a surface perpendicular to the Earth's surface. It
represents the angle at which solar radiation strikes a surface and influences the amount of energy
absorbed or reflected. Incident angle is affected by the orientation and tilt of the surface relative to the
sun's position.
Zenith Angle:
Zenith angle is the complementary angle of the altitude angle, representing the angle between the
direction of the sun and the vertical line directly overhead (zenith) at a specific location on the Earth's
surface. It indicates how high the sun is in the sky and is measured from the zenith to the point directly
below the sun. Zenith angle is used in conjunction with altitude angle to determine the position of the
sun relative to an observer.
Solar Azimuth Angle:
Solar azimuth angle refers to the angle between the direction of the sun and a reference direction
(usually due north) in the horizontal plane at a specific location on the Earth's surface. It represents the
compass direction of the sun relative to the observer's position and is measured clockwise from the
reference direction. Solar azimuth angle is used to determine the orientation of solar collectors, tracking
systems, and other solar energy devices to maximize energy capture.
Solar Irradiance: Solar irradiance refers to the amount of solar radiation received per unit area at a
given location on the Earth's surface. It is typically measured in watts per square meter (W/m²) and
varies based on factors such as time of day, season, and atmospheric conditions.
Principle of Conversion of Solar Energy into Heat and Electricity:
The conversion of solar energy into heat and electricity involves different technologies and principles
tailored to harness the abundant energy provided by the sun. Here's an explanation of how solar
energy is converted into heat and electricity:
Conversion of Solar Energy into Heat:
Solar Thermal Systems: Solar thermal systems utilize the principle of converting sunlight into heat
energy. These systems typically consist of solar collectors, which absorb sunlight and convert it into
heat. There are two main types of solar thermal systems:
Flat-Plate Collectors: These collectors consist of a dark-colored flat surface with tubes running
through it. Sunlight is absorbed by the surface, heating the fluid (usually water or a heat transfer fluid)
flowing through the tubes. The heated fluid is then circulated to provide hot water for domestic or
industrial use, space heating, or to drive a thermal power cycle.
Concentrated Solar Power (CSP): CSP systems use mirrors or lenses to concentrate sunlight onto a
small area, increasing the intensity of solar radiation. This concentrated heat is used to generate steam,
which drives turbines to produce electricity. CSP technologies include parabolic troughs, solar power
towers, and dish/engine systems.
Conversion of Solar Energy into Electricity:
Photovoltaic (PV) Systems: Photovoltaic systems convert sunlight directly into electricity using solar
panels made of semiconductor materials (such as silicon). When sunlight hits the PV cells, it excites
electrons, creating an electric current. This direct conversion of sunlight into electricity is known as the
photovoltaic effect.
Grid-Connected PV Systems: These systems are connected to the electrical grid, allowing excess
electricity generated by the solar panels to be exported to the grid. They can also draw electricity from
the grid when solar production is low.
Off-Grid PV Systems: Off-grid PV systems are standalone systems that are not connected to the grid.
They typically include battery storage to store excess electricity generated during sunny periods for use
during times of low sunlight.
Solar Thermal Electric Systems: In addition to CSP, solar thermal electric systems use solar energy
to produce electricity through various methods such as Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC), Stirling engines,
and thermoelectric generators. These systems convert concentrated solar heat into mechanical energy,
which is then converted into electricity using generators or other power conversion technologies.
Overall, the principle of converting solar energy into heat and electricity involves capturing sunlight
using solar collectors or photovoltaic cells and transforming it into usable forms of energy, including
heat for thermal applications or electricity for powering homes, businesses, and industries. These
technologies play a crucial role in reducing reliance on fossil fuels and mitigating climate change by
harnessing clean and renewable solar energy resources.
Photovoltaic Electric Conversion:
Photovoltaic (PV) electric conversion is a method of directly converting sunlight into electricity using
photovoltaic cells, commonly known as solar cells. These cells are made of semiconductor materials,
most commonly silicon, and exploit the photovoltaic effect to generate an electric current when exposed
to sunlight. Here's how photovoltaic electric conversion works:
Photovoltaic Effect:
The photovoltaic effect is a phenomenon where certain materials generate an electric current when
exposed to light. It occurs due to the interaction between photons (light particles) and electrons in the
semiconductor material of the solar cell.
When photons from sunlight strike the surface of the solar cell, they transfer their energy to electrons in
the semiconductor material, causing them to become excited and break free from their atomic bonds.
The free electrons create an electric current as they move through the semiconductor material,
producing a flow of electricity.
Construction of Photovoltaic Cells:
Photovoltaic cells are typically made of layers of semiconductor materials, usually silicon. Silicon can
be doped with impurities to create regions with an excess of electrons (n-type) and regions with a deficit
of electrons or "holes" (p-type).
When n-type and p-type materials are combined, a junction is formed where electrons can flow from the
n-type region to the p-type region when exposed to sunlight.
Metal contacts on the top and bottom of the cell collect the generated electricity and allow it to be
transferred to an external circuit.
Generation of Electricity:
When sunlight strikes the surface of the photovoltaic cell, it penetrates into the semiconductor material
and interacts with the electrons.
The energy from the photons is absorbed by the semiconductor material, causing electrons to move
and create an imbalance of charge between the n-type and p-type regions, resulting in the flow of
electric current.
This electric current can be harnessed to power electrical devices, charge batteries, or feed into the
electrical grid.
System Components:
PV systems consist of multiple photovoltaic cells connected together to form solar panels or modules.
These panels can be installed on rooftops, ground-mounted structures, or integrated into building
materials.
Additional components such as inverters are used to convert the direct current (DC) electricity
generated by the solar panels into alternating current (AC) electricity suitable for use in homes,
businesses, and the electrical grid.
Applications:
Photovoltaic electric conversion is widely used for both grid-connected and off-grid applications,
including residential, commercial, and utility-scale solar power systems.
PV systems can provide clean and renewable electricity, reduce dependence on fossil fuels, and
mitigate greenhouse gas emissions associated with conventional energy generation.
Photovoltaic electric conversion is a key technology in the transition to sustainable energy systems,
offering a reliable and environmentally friendly way to generate electricity from sunlight. Continued
advancements in PV technology and manufacturing processes are making solar energy increasingly
competitive and accessible worldwide.

Construction and Working of Flat Plate Collectors and Solar Concentrating Collectors:
1. Flat Plate Collectors:
Construction:
Flat plate collectors are the most common type of solar thermal collectors used for capturing solar
energy for heating purposes. They consist of the following components:
Absorber Plate: Typically made of metal, such as copper or aluminum, the absorber plate is coated
with a selective surface that absorbs sunlight efficiently while minimizing heat loss.

Transparent Cover: A glass or plastic cover is placed over the absorber plate to create a greenhouse
effect and reduce heat loss through convection and radiation. The cover allows sunlight to pass through
while trapping heat inside the collector.
Insulation: The back and sides of the collector are insulated to minimize heat loss and improve overall
efficiency.
Fluid Tubes: Fluid-carrying tubes or channels are attached to the absorber plate to carry a heat
transfer fluid (usually water or a mixture of water and antifreeze) that absorbs the heat from the
absorber plate and carries it to a storage tank or heat exchanger.
Working:
The operation of a flat plate collector involves the following steps:
Sunlight Absorption: Sunlight passes through the transparent cover and is absorbed by the absorber
plate. The selective surface coating on the absorber plate efficiently absorbs solar radiation, converting
it into heat.
Heat Transfer: The absorbed solar energy heats up the absorber plate, which, in turn, transfers heat to
the fluid circulating through the tubes. As the fluid absorbs heat, its temperature rises.
Fluid Circulation: The heated fluid circulates through the collector via the tubes, carrying the absorbed
heat to a storage tank or heat exchanger.
Energy Utilization: The hot fluid can be used directly for space heating, domestic hot water, or other
thermal applications. Alternatively, it can be used to heat a separate fluid loop in a hydronic heating
system or transfer heat to a secondary medium (such as air or water) through a heat exchanger.
Applications:
Flat plate collectors are commonly used for various residential, commercial, and industrial applications,
including:
● Domestic hot water heating
● Space heating in buildings
● Pool heating
● Preheating of process water in industries
● Solar air conditioning systems
2. Solar Concentrating Collectors:

Construction:
Solar concentrating collectors use mirrors or lenses to concentrate sunlight onto a small area,
increasing the intensity of solar radiation. They typically consist of the following components:
Reflective Surfaces: Mirrors or lenses are used to concentrate sunlight onto a focal point or line.
These reflective surfaces can be arranged in various configurations, such as parabolic troughs, solar
power towers, or dish/engine systems.
Receiver: The concentrated sunlight is focused onto a receiver located at the focal point of the
collector. The receiver absorbs the concentrated solar energy and converts it into heat.
Heat Transfer System: A heat transfer fluid (such as oil or molten salt) is circulated through the
receiver to absorb the concentrated solar heat. The heated fluid is then used to generate steam, which
drives a turbine to produce electricity in concentrated solar power (CSP) systems.
Working:
The operation of solar concentrating collectors involves the following steps:
Sunlight Concentration: Sunlight is reflected or refracted by the mirrors or lenses to concentrate solar
radiation onto a receiver located at the focal point of the collector.
Heat Absorption: The concentrated solar energy is absorbed by the receiver, heating up the heat
transfer fluid circulating through it. The receiver may be a tube containing the heat transfer fluid or a
solid structure with a high thermal capacity.

Heat Transfer: The heated heat transfer fluid is circulated to a heat exchanger, where it transfers its
thermal energy to a secondary fluid (such as water) to generate steam.
Electricity Generation: The steam produced by the heat transfer fluid is used to drive a turbine
connected to a generator, producing electricity.
Applications:
Solar concentrating collectors are primarily used for large-scale electricity generation in concentrated
solar power (CSP) plants. These plants can be used for utility-scale power generation and are often
integrated into the electrical grid. CSP systems have the following applications:
● Utility-scale electricity generation
● Grid-connected power plants
● Industrial process heat
● Solar desalination plants
Solar thermal energy storage systems
In summary, both flat plate collectors and solar concentrating collectors harness solar energy for
various applications, including heating and electricity generation. While flat plate collectors are suitable
for small-scale thermal applications, solar concentrating collectors are used for large-scale electricity
generation in CSP plants.
Refer the videos :https://youtu.be/wvl0QAQCJyc?si=C2fPLTFGiUTBesJq

https://youtu.be/dKJg5eoMnTg?si=Eue3n_jNHF_S6DH3

Applications of Solar Energy:

Solar energy offers a diverse range of applications across various sectors, including residential,
commercial, agricultural, and industrial. Here are some key applications of solar energy:
Space Heating and Cooling:
Solar thermal systems can be used for space heating by capturing sunlight with flat plate collectors or
solar concentrating collectors. Heat generated can be used directly or stored for later use.
Solar cooling systems utilize solar thermal energy to power absorption chillers, providing cooling for
buildings during hot weather.
Solar Distillation:
Solar distillation utilizes solar energy to purify water through the process of evaporation and
condensation. It is particularly useful in areas with limited access to clean water or as a means of
desalination.
Solar Cooking and Furnace:
Solar cookers harness sunlight for cooking food without the need for conventional fuels. They come in
various designs, such as box cookers, parabolic cookers, and panel cookers.
Solar furnaces concentrate sunlight using mirrors or lenses to achieve high temperatures for industrial
processes such as metallurgy, ceramics, and materials testing.
Solar Pumping:
Solar-powered pumps are used for water pumping in remote areas where grid electricity is unavailable
or unreliable. They are commonly used for irrigation, livestock watering, and domestic water supply.
Greenhouses:
Greenhouses equipped with solar panels or transparent materials can harness solar energy for heating,
lighting, and powering ventilation systems. Solar energy helps regulate temperature and humidity
levels, promoting plant growth and extending growing seasons.
Agriculture and Industrial Process Heat:
Solar energy is used in agriculture for crop drying, water heating, and greenhouse operations. It
provides a sustainable alternative to fossil fuels for meeting agricultural energy needs.
In industries, solar thermal systems are employed for process heating and steam generation, reducing
reliance on conventional energy sources and lowering greenhouse gas emissions.
Illustrations of Solar Power Stations and Solar Desalination Plants:
Solar Power Stations:
● Ivanpah Solar Power Facility (California, USA)
● Noor Solar Power Complex (Morocco)
● Topaz Solar Farm (California, USA)
● Solar Energy Generating Systems (SEGS) (California, USA)
● Kamuthi Solar Power Project (Tamil Nadu, India)
Solar Desalination Plants:
● Al Khafji Solar Desalination Plant (Saudi Arabia)
● Al Khafji Solar Power Plant & Desalination Facility (Saudi Arabia)
● Al Ghubrah Power and Desalination Plant (Oman)
● Shouhang Dunhuang 100 MW CSP & Desalination Project (China)
● Negev Energy-Ashalim Power Station (Israel)
These solar power stations and desalination plants demonstrate the scalability and versatility of solar
energy in providing electricity and fresh water in various regions around the world, contributing to
sustainability and environmental conservation efforts.

Short answer questions

1 How does solar distillation utilize solar energy to produce clean water?
2. Name two types of solar cookers commonly used for cooking food with sunlight.
3. What is the purpose of solar furnaces, and how do they achieve high temperatures?
4. Describe the function of solar-powered pumps and provide an example of their use.
5. How do greenhouses utilize solar energy to benefit plant growth and extend growing seasons?
6. In which sectors is solar energy commonly used for agricultural applications?
7. Name one industrial process where solar thermal systems are used for heat generation.
8. Provide an example of a solar power station located in California, USA.
9. Name one solar desalination plant and its location outside of the Middle East region.

1. Answers

1. Solar distillation purifies water through evaporation and condensation.

2. Box cookers and parabolic cookers.
3. Solar furnaces achieve high temperatures for industrial processes such as metallurgy and
materials testing by concentrating sunlight using mirrors or lenses.
4. Solar-powered pumps are used for water pumping, such as for irrigation or domestic water supply
in remote areas.
5. Greenhouses utilize solar energy for heating, lighting, and ventilation, promoting plant growth and
extending growing seasons.
6. Solar energy is commonly used in agriculture for crop drying, water heating, and greenhouse
operations.
7. Solar thermal systems are used for process heating in industries such as metallurgy and ceramics.
8. Ivanpah Solar Power Facility.
9. Shouhang Dunhuang 100 MW CSP & Desalination Project located in China.
3-Mark Questions and Answers:

1 What is the significance of the declination angle in solar geometry?

Answer: The declination angle represents the solar position north or south of the equator and changes
throughout the year due to the Earth's axial tilt, crucial for determining the sun's position in the sky.

2. Explain how the altitude angle influences solar radiation intensity.

Answer: The altitude angle, or solar elevation angle, indicates the height of the sun above the horizon
at a specific location. It directly affects the intensity of solar radiation received on the Earth's surface,
with higher angles resulting in more direct sunlight and increased radiation intensity.

3. What role does the incident angle play in solar energy absorption?

Answer: The incident angle, also known as the solar incidence angle, represents the angle at which
solar radiation strikes a surface. It influences the amount of energy absorbed or reflected by the
surface, with optimal energy absorption occurring when the incident angle is perpendicular to the
surface.

4. Define zenith angle and its relationship with the altitude angle.

Answer: The zenith angle is the complement of the altitude angle, indicating the angle between the
direction of the sun and the vertical line directly overhead. It helps determine the sun's position in the
sky relative to an observer, with a zenith angle of 90 degrees corresponding to the sun being directly
overhead.

5. How is the solar azimuth angle used in solar energy applications?

Answer: The solar azimuth angle represents the compass direction of the sun relative to an observer's
position on the Earth's surface. It is crucial for determining the orientation of solar collectors, tracking
systems, and other solar energy devices to maximize energy capture by aligning them with the sun's
path throughout the day.

6.Briefly explain Concentrated Solar Power (CSP)

Answer :CSP systems use mirrors or lenses to concentrate sunlight onto a small area, increasing the
intensity of solar radiation. This concentrated heat is used to generate steam, which drives turbines to
produce electricity. CSP technologies include parabolic troughs, solar power towers, and dish/engine
systems.