Graticule
Graticule
Graticule
Page 1 of 25
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources
Page 2 of 25
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources
Your notes
Tissue from an onion is as a solid specimen, and can be prepared here using iodine stain
Page 3 of 25
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources
Page 4 of 25
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources
Your notes
Page 5 of 25
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources
Page 6 of 25
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources
Drawing Cells
To record the observations seen under a microscope, a labelled biological drawing is often made Your notes
Biological drawings are line drawings which show specific features that have been observed when the
specimen was viewed
There are a number of rules/conventions that are followed when making a biological drawing
The drawing must have a title
The magnification under which the observations shown by the drawing are made should be
recorded if possible
A scale bar may be used
A sharp pencil should be used
Drawings should be on plain white paper
Lines should be clear, single lines without sketching
No shading should be used
The drawing should take up as much of the space on the page as possible
Well-defined structures should be drawn
Only visible structures should be drawn, and the drawing should look like the specimen
The drawing should be made with proper proportions
Structures should be clearly labelled with label lines that:
Do not cross
Do not have arrowheads
Connect directly to the part of the drawing being labelled
Are on one side of the drawing
Are drawn with a ruler
Drawings of cells are typically made when visualizing cells at a higher magnification power, whereas
plan drawings are typically made of tissues viewed under lower magnifications (individual cells are
never drawn in a plan diagram)
Plant cell biological drawing
Page 7 of 25
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources
Page 8 of 25
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources
Exam Tip
When producing a biological drawing, it is vital that you only ever draw what you see and not what you
think you should see!
Page 9 of 25
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources
Magnification Calculations
Your notes
Magnification Calculations
Magnification is the number of times that a real-life specimen has been enlarged to give a larger
view/image
E.g. a magnification of x100 means that a specimen has been enlarged 100 times to give the image
shown
The magnification (M) of an object can be calculated if both the size of the image (I), and the actual size
of the specimen (A), is known
Page 10 of 25
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources
Units can be multiplied or divided by a factor of 1000 when converting between mm and µm
Page 11 of 25
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources
Worked example
Your notes
A starch grain inside a plant cell was viewed under a microscope at a magnification of x850. The image
of the starch grain captured using the microscope is shown below.
Calculate the actual diameter of the starch grain between points C-D in the image.
Give your answer in μm.
Step 1: Rearrange the equation
We have been asked to calculate actual size, A, so the new equation should be
Actual size = image size ÷ magnification
Step 2: Read and measure relevant values
We need to know the image size and the magnification
The image size has been given in the image as 20 mm
The magnification has been included in the question stem and is x850
Step 3: Convert any units
The actual diameter of a structure inside a cell would normally be measured in μm
The image size has been given in mm, so we need to convert this to μm
Page 12 of 25
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources
Exam Tip
Magnification calculations will usually involve measuring images on a page, so you must have a ruler
with you in an exam!
Be aware that the unit conversions given above only work if the initial measurement is taken in mm,
not in cm. Any measurements taken in cm will need to be converted into mm before multiplying by
1000 to give μm.
Some exam questions may expect you to use a scale bar to calculate the magnification of an image.
Remember that you can use a scale bar to find both actual size (written on the scale bar) and image size
(the measured length of the bar), so these values can be used to calculate magnification using the
equation M = I ÷ A
Page 13 of 25
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources
In the diagram, two stage micrometer divisions of 0.1 mm, or 100 μm, are visible
Each 100 µm division is equal to 40 eyepiece graticule divisions
Page 14 of 25
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources
Page 15 of 25
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources
Worked example
Your notes
A student viewed some onion cells under a microscope.
The image below shows the cells with an eyepiece graticule (left) and the eyepiece graticule alongside
a stage micrometer (right).
Note that each large division on the stage micrometer here is 100 μm, and each small division is 10 μm.
Use the stage micrometer to calibrate the eyepiece graticule and calculate the actual length of the cell
labelled C-D in the image.
Step 1: Calculate the size of each eyepiece division
There are 40 graticule divisions per large micrometer division, or per 100 μm
1 graticule division = no. of μm ÷ no. of graticule divisions
= 10 ÷ 40
= 2.5 μm
This value can now be used as a magnification factor
Step 2: Calculate the length of the cell
Specimen size = no. of graticule divisions x magnification factor
Page 16 of 25
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources
Exam Tip
The calculations involving stage micrometers and eyepiece graticules are often seen in exam
questions, so make sure that you are comfortable with how to calibrate the graticule and calculate the
length of an object on the slide.
Note that both of the examples given above are carried out at the same magnification, so the
magnification factor calculated during calibration is 2.5 in both cases. This may not always be the same
in an exam.
Page 17 of 25
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources
Resolution
The resolution of a microscope is its ability to distinguish two separate points on an image as
separate objects; this determines the ability of a microscope to show detail
If resolution is too low then two separate objects will be observed as one point, and an image will
appear blurry, or an object will not be visible at all
The resolution of a microscope limits the magnification that it can usefully achieve; there is no
point in increasing the magnification to a higher level if the resolution is poor
The resolution of a light microscope is limited by the wavelength of light
Visible light falls within a set range of light wavelengths; 400-700 nm
The resolution of a light microscope cannot be smaller than half the wavelength of visible light
The shortest wavelength of visible light is 400 nm, so the maximum resolution of a light
microscope is 200 nm
E.g. the structure of a phospholipid bilayer cannot be observed under a light microscope due to
low resolution:
The width of the phospholipid bilayer is about 10 nm
The maximum resolution of a light microscope is 200 nm, so any points that are separated by a
distance of less than 200 nm, such as the 10 nm phospholipid bilayer, cannot be resolved by a
light microscope and therefore will not be distinguishable as separate objects
Electron microscopes have a much higher resolution, and therefore magnification, than light
microscopes as electrons have a much smaller wavelength than visible light
Electron microscopes can achieve a resolution of 0.5 nm
Resolution of light and electron microscopes diagram
Page 18 of 25
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources
Your notes
The resolving power of electron microscopes is much greater than that of light microscopes due to the
smaller wavelength of electrons in comparison to visible light
Comparison of light and electron microscopes
Light microscopes are used for specimens larger than 200 nm
Light microscopes shine light through the specimen
The specimens can be living, and therefore can be moving, or dead
Light microscopes are useful for looking at whole cells, small plant and animal organisms, and
tissues within organs such as in leaves or skin
Electron microscopes, both scanning and transmission, are used for specimens larger than 0.5 nm
Electron microscopes fire a beam of electrons at the specimen
Transmission electron microscopes (TEM) fire electrons through a specimen
Scanning electron microscopes (SEM) bounce electrons off the surface of a specimen
The electrons are picked up by an electromagnetic lens which then shows the image
Electron microscopy requires the specimen to be dead, meaning that they can only be used to
capture a snapshot in time, and not active life processes as they occur
Electron microscopes are useful for looking at organelles, viruses and DNA as well as looking at
whole cells in more detail
Comparing light & electron microscopes table
Page 19 of 25
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources
Page 20 of 25
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources
Page 21 of 25
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources
Worked example
Your notes
Using a scale bar to calculate actual size
A lab technician observed bacterial cells with an electron microscope, and produced the image
below.
The scale bar measures 2 cm in length, and the length of the technician's image of one bacterial cell
measures 7.6 cm.
Use the information provided to calculate the actual length of a bacterial cell in the image.
Step 1: Use the scale bar to calculate the magnification of the image
The equation triangle for magnification tells us that:
Magnification = image size ÷ actual size
The scale bar measures 2 cm = 20 mm = 20 000 μm
The scale bar represents an actual size of 1 μm
Page 22 of 25
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources
Magnification = 20 000 ÷ 1
= 20 000 Your notes
Step 2: Substitute values into the equation for actual size
Actual size = image size ÷ magnification
The question stem tells us that one cell = 7.6 cm = 76 mm = 76 000 μm
Magnification is ×20 000
Actual size = 76 000 ÷ 20 000
= 3.8
Therefore, the actual length of a bacterial cell in this image is 3.8 μm
Page 23 of 25
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources
Worked example
Your notes
Using lens magnification to calculate actual size
A scientist looked at a sample of red blood cells under a light microscope.
The eyepiece lens of the microscope had a magnification of ×10 and the objective lens had a
magnification of ×40.
The scientist produced a photomicrograph of the blood cells, shown below, in which the red blood
cells have an average diameter of 3 mm when measured using a ruler.
Calculate the average diameter of the red blood cells in the sample. Give your answer in micrometres.
Step 1: Calculate the total magnification of the specimen
total magnification = eyepiece lens magnification × objective lens magnification
10 × 40 = 400
Magnification = ×400
Step 2: Convert the image size into μm
1 mm = 1000 μm
3 × 1000 = 3000
Image size = 3000 μm
Page 24 of 25
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources
Exam Tip
Note that you would be expected to use your own ruler to provide image size measurements in actual
size calculations.
Don't forget to convert units in calculations like this!
Page 25 of 25
© 2015-2024 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers