THERMODYNAMICS 2 FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERS BY ENGR.

JD GANOTISI
PURE SUBSTANCE LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION
THERMODYNAMICS 2 • It is the amount of heat added to or remove from the pure
LECTURE 01 substance to convert it from saturated liquid to saturated
vapor or saturated vapor to saturated liquid with temperature
PURE SUBSTANCE remaining constant.
• It is a working substance that has a fixed chemical • It is inversely proportional to the temperature or pressure of
composition throughout even though there is a change in substance.
phase.
• It cannot be separated by physical means such as filtration. SATURATION TEMPERATURE, tsat
• Some examples of pure substance include water, nitrogen, • It is the temperature at which a pure substance changes its
helium, and carbon dioxide. phase.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PURE SUBSTANCE HOMOGENEOUS IN SATURATION PRESSURE, Psat

COMPOSITION • It is the pressure at which a put substance changes its
• It means that the composition of each part of the system is phase.
the same as the composition of every other part.
EXAMPLE 1.1
HOMOGENEOUS IN CHEMICAL AGGREGATION Water boils at 179.91 deg. °C at a pressure of 1000 kPa.
• It means that the chemical elements must be combined Steam condenses at 39 deg. °C at 0.0070 MPa.
chemically in the same way in all parts of the system.
• It is also known as variation in position. STEAM
• It is also known as vapor.
INVARIABLE IN CHEMICAL AGGREGATION • It is the gaseous phase of a pure substance that is in contact
• It means that the state of chemical combination of the with the liquid phase, or that is in the vicinity of state where
system does not change with time. some of it might be condensed.

PHASE OF PURE SUBSTANCE PHASE CHANGE OF STEAM

• It is identified as having a distinct molecular arrangement SUBCOOLED LIQUID OR COMPRESSED LIQUID SUBCOOLED
that is homogeneous throughout and separated from the LIQUID (SCL)
others by easily identifiable boundary surfaces. • Its actual temperature is lower than the saturation
temperature corresponding to the existing pressure.
IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS TRIPLE POINT 𝒕𝒂𝒄𝒕 < 𝒕𝒔𝒂𝒕
• Triple point of a substance refers to the state at which
substance can coexist in solid, liquid, and gaseous phase in COMPRESSED LIQUID (CL)
equilibrium. • Its actual pressure higher than the saturation pressure
• For water, the triple-point temperature and pressure are corresponding to the existing temperature.
0.01°C and 0.6117 kPa, respectively. 𝑷𝒂𝒄𝒕 < 𝑷𝒔𝒂𝒕

CRITICAL POINT Note: The names subcooled liquid, and compressed liquid are used
• Critical point refers to that state of substance at which liquid interchangeably.
and vapor coexist in equilibrium.
• For water: SATURATED LIQUID (SL)
Critical pressure: 22.12 MPa • It is a liquid substance that has its temperature equal to the
Critical temperature: 374.15°C saturation temperature at a given pressure; or
𝑚3 • It is a liquid substance that has its pressure equal to the
Critical specific volume: 0.00317 saturation pressure at a given temperature.
𝑘𝑔
• It is pure liquid and has no vapor content.
𝒕𝒂𝒄𝒕 = 𝒕𝒔𝒂𝒕
𝑷𝒂𝒄𝒕 = 𝑷𝒔𝒂𝒕
𝒙 = 𝟎%
𝒚 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎%

WET VAPOR MIXTURE (WVM)

• It is a combination of liquid and vapor with the temperature
equal to the saturation temperature at a given pressure.
• It is a combination of liquid and vapor with the pressure
equal to the saturation pressure at a given temperature.
• It is also known as wet steam.
𝒕𝒔𝒂𝒕 = 𝒕𝒂𝒄𝒕
𝑷𝒔𝒂𝒕 = 𝑷𝒂𝒄𝒕
𝟎% < 𝒙 < 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
SENSIBLE HEATING 𝟎% < 𝒚 < 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
• It refers to the heating of substance in single phase. It
causes rise in temperature of substance. In case of cooling SATURATED VAPOR (SV)
in above conditions it shall be called sensible cooling. • It is a vapor at the saturation conditions (saturation
temperature and saturation pressure).
LATENT HEATING
• It is also known as dry steam.
• It is the heating of substance for causing its phase change
• 100% vapor and no moisture content.
without any change in its temperature. If heat is extracted for
𝒕𝒂𝒄𝒕 = 𝒕𝒔𝒂𝒕
causing phase change without any change in its temperature
𝑷𝒂𝒄𝒕 = 𝑷𝒔𝒂𝒕
it will be called latent cooling.
𝒙 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝒚 = 𝟎%

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SUPERHEATED VAPOR (SHV)
• It is a vapor having a temperature higher than the saturation STEAM TABLES
temperature corresponding to the existing pressure. • These are defined as the thermodynamic data that contain
𝒕𝒂𝒄𝒕 > 𝒕𝒔𝒂𝒕 the properties of water or steam. These data are commonly
used by engineers and architects.
PROPERTY DIAGRAMS FOR PHASE-CHANGE PROCESSES
The T-v Diagram • These include thermodynamic properties of water including
liquid and solid phase.
• For uniformity, we will be using Steam Tables (SI Units) by
Keenan, Keyes, Hill, and Moore.

Tables needed:
Table I: Saturation Temperatures...............................p. -7
Table II: Saturation Pressures…………………………p. 8-1.3
Table Ill: Vapor (Superheated Vapor) ........................p. 14-103
Table IV: Liquid (Compressed Liquid or Subcooled Liquid) .......p. 104-
107

Following are the thermodynamic properties of steam which can

be found in the Steam Tables:
• P = Absolute pressure (MPa);
• t = Saturation temperature (°C);
• 𝒖𝒇 = specific internal energy saturated liquid (kJ/kg);
• 𝒖𝒇𝒈 = specific internal energy of vaporization (kJ/kg);
The P-v Diagram
• 𝒖𝒈 = specific internal energy of saturated vapor (steam)
• (kJ/kg);
• 𝒉𝒇 = specific enthalpy of saturated liquid (kJ/kg);
• 𝒉𝒇𝒈 = specific enthalpy or latent heat of vaporization
(kJ/kg);
• 𝒉𝒈 = specific enthalpy of saturated vapor (steam)
(kJ/kg);
• 𝒔𝒇 = specific entropy of saturated liquid (kJ/kg K);
• 𝒔𝒇𝒈 = specific entropy of vaporization (kJ/kg K);
• 𝒔𝒈 = specific entropy of saturated vapor (steam) (kJ/kg
K);
• 𝒗𝒇 = Specific volume of saturated liquid (m3 /kg);
• 𝒗𝒈 = Specific volume of saturated vapor (steam) (m3 /kg).

EXAMPLE1.2
The T-s Diagram

INTERPOLATION
• When one of the values is not given in the tables of
properties, interpolation is required.
• Interpolation is an estimation of a value within two known
The h-s Diagram values in a sequence of values.

EXTRAPOLATION
• Extrapolation is an estimation of a value based on extending
a known sequence of values or facts beyond the area that is
certainly known.

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EXAMPLE 1.5
Determine the degrees of superheat of steam with t = 200.39°C, P =
1.44 MPa. At 1.44 MPa, tsat = 196.39°C.

QUALITY (x)

• It is also known as the dryness fraction or dryness factor

quality of wet vapor or wet steam.
• It is the percent by weight that is saturated vapor.
𝒎𝒈
𝒙=
𝒎𝑻

Where:
𝒎𝒈 = mass of saturated vapor (SV)
𝒎𝑻 = total mass of mixture

PERCENT MOISTURE (y)

GUIDELINES FOR CHECKING STEAM CONDITION • The percent moisture of wet vapor is the percent by weight
that is saturated liquid.
𝒎𝒇
𝒙=
𝒎𝑻

Where:
𝒎𝒇 = mass of saturated liquid (SL)
𝒎𝑻 = total mass of mixture

RELATIONSHIP OF x AND y
𝒎𝑻 = 𝒎𝒈 + 𝒎𝒇
𝒎𝑻 = 𝒙𝒎𝑻 + 𝒚𝒎𝑻
𝒙 + 𝒚 = 𝟏. 𝟎

EXAMPLE 1.6
Calculate the dryness fraction (quality) of steam which has 1.5 kg of
water in suspension with 50 kg of steam.

EXAMPLE 1.3
Specify the phase of the steam with the following conditions:
1. t = 100°c, P = 1.44 MPa
2. t = 220°C, P = 2.318 MPa, x = 1.0
3. P = 1.0 MPa, s = 5.5865 kJ /kgK
4. P = 0.5 MPa, h = 2000 kJ /kg
5. t = 55°C, y = 1.0
DEGREES SUBCOOLED, °SC

• It is also known as degree of subcooling or subcooling

degree.
• It is the difference between the saturation temperature for
the given pressure and the actual subcooled liquid
temperature.
°𝐒𝐂 = 𝒕𝒔𝒂𝒕 − 𝒕𝒂𝒄𝒕

DEGREES OF SUPERHEAT, °SH

• It is also known as degree of superheating.
• It is the difference between the actual temperature of
superheated vapor and the saturation temperature for the
existing pressure.
°𝐒𝐇 = 𝒕𝒂𝒄𝒕 − 𝒕𝒔𝒂𝒕

EXAMPLE 1.4
Given steam with t = 170°C and P = 1.00 MPa, determine the condition
of the steam and the degrees subcooled. At 1.00 MPa, tsat =179.91°C.

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EXAMPLE 1.7
A 0.0856 m3 drum contains saturated water and saturated vapor at
370°C.
a. Find the mass of each if their volumes are equal.
b. Determine the quality using values in (a).
c. Find the volume occupied by each if their masses are equal.
Note:
𝒗𝒈 at 370°C = 0.004925 m3 /kg
𝒗𝒇 at 370°C = 0.002213 m3 /kg

THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF WET VAPOR MIXTURE

𝒗 = 𝒗𝒇 + 𝒙𝒗𝒇𝒈 𝒐𝒓 𝒗 = 𝒗𝒈 + 𝒚𝒗𝒇𝒈
𝒖 = 𝒖𝒇 + 𝒙𝒖𝒇𝒈 𝒐𝒓 𝒖 = 𝒖𝒈 + 𝒚𝒖𝒇𝒈
𝒉 = 𝒉𝒇 + 𝒙𝒉𝒇𝒈 𝒐𝒓 𝒉 = 𝒉𝒈 + 𝒚𝒉𝒇𝒈
𝒔 = 𝒔𝒇 + 𝒙𝒔𝒇𝒈 𝒐𝒓 𝒔 = 𝒔𝒈 + 𝒚𝒔𝒇𝒈
where:
𝒗𝒇𝒈 = 𝒗𝒈 − 𝒗𝒇
𝒖𝒇𝒈 = 𝒖𝒈 − 𝒖𝒇
𝒉𝒇𝒈 = 𝒉𝒈 − 𝒉𝒇
𝒔𝒇𝒈 = 𝒔𝒈 − 𝒔𝒇

EXTERNAL WORK DONE DURING EVAPORATION (𝑾𝒆𝒗𝒂𝒑 )

• When water is evaporated to form saturated steam, its
volume increases from 𝒗𝒇 to 𝒗𝒈 at a constant pressure, and
thus external work is done by steam due to increase in
volume.
• The energy for doing the work is obtained during the
absorption of latent heat.
• This work is called external work of evaporation.
𝑾𝒆𝒗𝒂𝒑 = 𝑷(𝒗𝒈 − 𝒗𝒇 )

Note:
• At low pressure 𝒗𝒇 is very small and neglected, hence,
𝑾𝒆𝒗𝒂𝒑 = 𝑷(𝒗𝒈 )

• In case of wet steam with dryness fraction x,

𝑾𝒆𝒗𝒂𝒑 = 𝑷𝒙(𝒗𝒈)

INTERNAL LATENT HEAT (𝑸𝑳,𝒊𝒏𝒕 )

• The latent heat consists of true latent heat and the work of
evaporation.
• This true latent heat is called the internal latent heat and
may also be found as follows:
𝑸𝑳,𝒊𝒏𝒕 = 𝒉𝒇𝒈 − 𝑾𝒆𝒗𝒂𝒑

EXAMPLE 1.11
Compute for the enthalpy, internal energy, entropy, and volume of wet
steam with 80% quality at 50°C and mass of 2 kg.

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MOLLIER DIAGRAM EXAMPLE 1.17

• It is also known as enthalpy-entropy diagram or h-s diagram. Determine all the thermodynamic properties of steam having h = 3034
• It is a graphical representation of a functional relationship kJ/kg ands= 7.51 kJ/kg-K using (a) Mollier Chart, and (b) T-s Diagram.
among thermodynamic properties wherein enthalpy serves
as the ordinate and entropy as abscissa.
• It was created by Dr. Richard Mollier, in 1904.
• Mollier diagram was a logical extension of the t-s diagram
(Temperature vs Entropy) first proposed by Gibbs, retaining
the advantages of T-s diagrams but introducing several new
advantages.
• His diagram is more widely used than any other entropy
diagram, since the work done on vapor cycles can be scaled
from this diagram directly as a length; whereas on T-s
diagram it is represented by an area.

EXAMPLE 1.18
Determine all the thermodynamic properties of saturated steam at 0.10
MPa □sing (a) Mollier Chart, and (b) T-s Diagram.
The T-s Diagram

EXAMPLE 1.19
EXAMPLE 1.16 Determine all the thermodynamic properties of steam at y = 4% and t =
Determine all the thermodynamic properties of steam at 0.09 MPa and 60°C using (a) Mollier Chart, and (b) T-s Diagram
370 °C using (a) Mollier Chart, and (b) T-s Diagram.

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REFERENCES

• Thermodynamics An Engineering Approach, 9th Edition by

Yunus A. Çengel, Michael A. Boles, and Mehmet Kanoğlu.
• Thermodynamics 2 by Hipolito B. Sta. Maria, Raymundo M.
Melegrito, Nelson M. Pasamonte, Renato M. Siapno.
• Thermodynamics, 6th Edition by Virgil Moring Faires, Clifford
M. Simmang, and Alexander V. Brewer.
• Problems on Thermodynamics, 6th Edition by Virgil Moring
Faires, Clifford M. Simmang, and Alexander V. Brewer.
• Steam Tables (SI Units) by Joseph H. Keenan, Frederick G.
Keyes, Philip G. Hill, and Joan G. Moore.

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