CONJUNCTIONS

A conjunction is the glue that holds words, phrases and clauses together. There
are three different kinds of conjunctions – coordinating, subordinating, and correlative –
each serving its own, distinct purpose, but all working to bring words together. Through
the use of conjunctions, we don’t have to write short, choppy sentences.

Types of Conjunctions
1. Coordinating Conjunctions
They allow you to join words, phrases, and clauses of equal grammatical
rank in a sentence. The most common coordinating conjunctions are for, and,
nor, but, or, yet, and so. A comma is used when a coordinating conjunction is
joining two independent clauses.
e.g. I go to the park every Sunday, for I love to watch the ducks on the lake.
I watch the ducks on the lake and the shirtless men playing soccer.
I don’t go for the fresh air nor for the ducks; I just like soccer.
I always take a book to read, yet I never seem to turn a single page.
I’m dating one of the players, so I watch the soccer game each week.

2. Subordinating Conjunctions
They always introduce a dependent clause, tying it to an independent
clause. A dependent clause is a group of words that cannot stand alone as a
complete sentence. An independent clause, by contrast, can stand alone as a
complete sentence.
They often come first in a sentence. This is because of the nature of the
relationship between the dependent and the independent clause.
In English, there are many subordinating conjunctions. Here are the most
common examples:
Subordinating Conjunctions
After As long as Because Even though Lest
Although As though Before If Now that
As As much as By the time In order that Once
As if As soon as Even if In case Only
Only if So Than Unless Whenever
Provided that Supposing Though Until Where
Since That Till When Whereas
Wherever Whether or not While In the event that

e.g. I can stay out until the clock strikes twelve.

Before he leaves, make sure his room is clean.
I drank a glass of water because I was thirsty.
As I write this letter, I know I must say goodbye.
Life has been happy since I moved to Calamba.

3. Correlative Conjunctions
They are tag-team conjunctions. They come in pairs, and you have to use
both of them in different places in a sentence to make them work. These
conjunction work together (co-) and relate one sentence to another. They connect
two equal grammatical terms. So, if a noun follows “both”, then a noun should
also follow “and”.
Here are some examples of correlative conjunctions:
Correlative Conjunctions
Both / and Either / or Not / but
Whether / or Neither / nor Not only / but also

e.g. I want either the pink sofa or the purple one.

I’ll study both English literature and art history.
 I didn’t know whether you’d want milk or cream, so I grabbed both.
Why do you want to visit neither Ireland nor Scotland?
I took not only the red fan but also the grimoire.

INTERJECTIONS
An interjection is a kind of exclamation inserted into regular speech. Actually, it
is a brief and abrupt pause in speech for expressing emotions. They are unique and have
interesting features:
 Interjections don’t have a grammatical function in the sentence function.
 They usually cannot be modified or inflected.
 They do not have to have a relation to the other parts of the sentence.
 They are highly context-sensitive.
In spoken language, interjections are the words we instantly use to show our
reaction to something which influences our emotion. They are the initial reaction and
sometimes do not even make sense. However, for formal speech or writing, using
interjections is not appropriate.

Rules in Using Interjections

1. Interjections express a sudden mood, emotions, and feeling with emphasis. There
are also many taboo words that are usually used in everyday conversation but not
in formal aspects. These words fall into the category of interjections.
e.g. Wow! That’s an amazing scene.
Aw, I did not want him to come.
What? You never told me that!

2. Some interjections interrupt a conversation or a thought or hold someone’s

attention for a moment. These are just sounds, not words because these sounds do
not make any sense.
e.g. Your, um, shirt has a stain on the back.
 I want to, uh, ask you out on a date.

3. Some interjections express only yes or no.

e.g. Yes! I will most definitely do it.
Nah, we are going.

4. Some interjections are used to get someone’s attention.

e.g. Yo, Alex! Get in the car!
Hey! Will you give me that ball?
Yoo-hoo! Is there anyone?

PHRASES

A phrase is a group of words which has no finite verb in it and acts to complete
the sentence for making it meaningful. According to Oxford Dictionary, a phrase is a
small group of words that form a meaningful unit within a clause. In linguistic analysis, a
phrase is a group of words or possibly a single word that function as a constituent in the
syntax of a sentence, a single unit within a grammatical hierarchy.

Types of Phrases
1. Noun Phrase
A noun phrase is usually assembled centering a single noun and works as
a subject, an object or a complement in the sentence. It consists of a noun and
other words (usually modifiers and determiners) which come after or before the
noun. A sentence can also contain more than one noun phrases.
Noun phrase = noun + modifiers (after or before the noun)
e.g. He is wearing a nice red shirt. (functions as an object)
= det + Adj P + N
She brought a glass full of water. (functions as an object)
 = det + N + Adj + Prep + N
The boy with brown hair is laughing. (functions as a subject)
= det + N + Prep + Adj + N
The girl with blue eyes brought a beautiful chair.
(functions as a subject and as an object)
= det + N + Prep + Adj + N
= det + Adj + N

2. Adjective Phrase
It is a group of words that functions like an adjective in a sentence. It
consists of adjectives and any word that modifies a noun or pronoun. It functions
like an adjective to modify a noun or pronoun in a sentence.
e.g. He is wearing a nice red shirt. (modifies shirt)
= det + Adj
The girl with brown hair is singing a song. (modifies girl)
= Prep + Adj + N
He gave me a glass full of water. (modifies glass)
= Adj + Prep + N
A boy from America won the race. (modifies boy)
= Prep + N

3. Adverbial Phrase
It is a group of words that functions like an adjective in a sentence. It
consists of adverbs or other words such as prepositions, nouns, verbs and other
modifiers that make a group with works like an adverb in a sentence. It functions
like an adverb to modify a verb, an adjective or another adverb.
e.g. He always behaves in a good manner. (modifies behaves)
= Prep + det + Adj + N
They were shouting in a loud voice. (modifies were shouting)
= Prep + det + Adj + N
 She always drives with care. (modifies drives)
= Prep + N
He sat in a corner of the room. (modifies sat)
= Prep + det + N + Prep + det + N
He returned in a short while. (modifies returned)
= Prep + det + Adj + N

4. Verb Phrase
It is a combination of main verb and its auxiliaries in a sentence.
According to generative grammar, a verb phrase can consist of main verb, its
auxiliaries, its complements and other modifiers. Hence it can refer to the whole
predicate of a sentence.
e.g. He is eating an apple.
= Cop + MV
She has finished her work.
= Perfect have + PP MV
You should study for the exam.
= modal should + MV
She has been sleeping for two hours.
= perfect has + PP Cop + prog MV

5. Prepositional Phrase
It consists of a preposition, object of preposition, and may consist of other
modifiers.
e.g. He is on the way.
= Prep + det + N
Jane passed through the ricefield.
= Prep + det + N
Despite complaints, Liza remained composed in her work.
= Prep + N
 Damon plans to visit Elena during summer.
= Prep + N

6. Conjunctional Phrase
It is composed of a conjunction and other words, and functions as a
conjunction in the sentence.
e.g. As soon as Stef came in, Caroline went out.
Our team should work on this project so that we can also plan for our
holiday vacation together.
I will join the graduation ball provided that you attend.
Enzo worked as a part-time server of the bar in order that he could save
more money for his tuition.

7. Interjectional Phrase
There are interjections that have more than one word and thus, called
interjectional phrases.
e.g. What a pity! My cat is dead.
What a pleasure! I got Chris Evans sign my Captain America shield.
Oh, please! Don’t say that again Bonnie.

CLAUSES
Clauses are comprised of a group of words which includes a subject and a finite
verb. A clause contains only one subject and one verb. The subject might be mentioned
or not, but the verb should be distinguishable and present. Merriam-Webster defines
clause as a group of words containing a subject and predicate and functioning as a
member of a complex or compound sentence.

Types of Clauses
1. Independent Clause
 It functions on its own to make a convey meaning and is also known as a
sentence.
e.g. I am Honey.
Can you chop the firewood?
Get the lamp.
Alex smiles.

2. Dependent Clause
It cannot stand on its own because it does not convey a complete thought.
It also known as a subordinate clause because dependent clauses are always
headed by subordinating conjunctions. Dependent clauses are always connected to
independent clauses in order to complete its meaning.
e.g. When I was dating Matt, I attended Taylor Swift’s concert.
I know the person who broke inside my house last night.
Ian will not leave Nina’s side, unless she eats her porridge.
Though he couldn’t train for months, he still won the competition.

SENTENCES

Sentence is the largest unit of any language. It is generally defined as a word or

group of words that expresses a complete idea. Sentences begin with capital letters and
end with a period, or a question mark, or an exclamation mark. They are categorized
according to their structures and functions.

Types of Sentences according to Structure

1. Simple Sentence
 A simple sentence must have a single clause which is independent
e.g. I always dreamed of going to South Korea.
Steven whispered something to me.
The trophy and the medals got stolen last night.

2. Compound Sentence
A compound sentence must have more than one independent clause with
no dependent clauses. Coordinating conjunctions and/or punctuations are used to
link these clauses together.
e.g. I always dreamed of going to South Korea, but I have to finish my studies
first.
Steven whispered something to me, and he giggled endlessly.
The trophy and the medals got stolen last night, so the management
tightened the security.

3. Complex Sentence
A complex sentence contains one independent clause and one or more
dependent clauses. They are joined through subordinating conjunctions and other
connectors.
e.g. My brother knows that I always dreamed of going to South Korea.
Because the crowd was too noisy, Steven whispered something to me.
The trophy and the medals got stolen last night when everyone was
already asleep.

4. Compound-Complex Sentence
A compound-complex sentence is a mixture of the features of compound
and complex sentences in one sentence. It contains at least two independent
clauses and at least one dependent clause.
e.g. My brother knows that I always dreamed of going to South Korea, but I
have to finish my studies first.
Because the crowd was too noisy, Steven whispered something to me, and
 he giggled endlessly.
The trophy and the medals got stolen last night when everyone was
already asleep; so, the management tightened the security.

Types of Sentences according to Function

1. Declarative Sentence
It simply expresses an opinion/feeling or a statement. In other words, it
declares something. It ends with a period.
e.g. I want to be a good teacher.
Paul is very ecstatic today.

2. Imperative Sentence
It is used to make a request or to give a command. It usually ends with a
period, but under certain circumstances, it can also end with an exclamation mark.
e.g. John, get me my reading glasses.
Get out!

3. Interrogative Sentence
It asks a question. It ends with a question mark.
e.g. When will you ask her out?
Is she around?

4. Exclamatory Sentence
It expresses overflow of emotions. These can be of joy, amazement,
sadness, anger and others.
e.g. What a party it is!
I am truly disappointed in you!

CONDITIONALS
 Conditionals or conditional sentences are statements discussing known factors
or hypothetical situations and their consequences. They contain a conditional clause,
which is also known as the if-clause, and the consequence.

Types of Conditionals
1. Real Conditionals
They express factual or habitual conditions which have the possibility to
occur in the future or generally occur in the present.
e.g. If you do not brush your teeth, you will get cavities.
If you do well in the exams, I’ll buy you the latest edition of your favorite
book.
I will surely join the competition if my foot heals.

a. Structures of the Real Conditionals

 For Future Conditions

If + subject + simple present tense … + subject + will/can/may/must +

verb in base form …

Subject + will/can/may/must + verb in base form … + if + subject +

simple present tense …

e.g. If I have the money, I will buy a new phone.

I can make you cry if you keep doing that.
If he goes there, he may get robbed.
You must wear thick clothes if you go outside.

 For Habitual Conditions

If + subject + simple present tense … + subject + simple present tense

 …

Subject + simple present tense … + if + subject + simple present tense

…

e.g. If I receive my salary check, I always buy the necessary things.

Damon usually calls me if he gets a chance.
If Christine makes her assignment on time, Jane rewards her with
a lollipop.
My friend works hard if the compensation is good.

 For Commands

If + subject + simple present tense … + command form (simple

present …

Command form (simple present) … + if + subject + simple present

tense …

e.g. If you receive the relief goods, divide it wisely.

Please send me the letter if you are free this afternoon.
If you are not available, kindly contact another personnel to join
the meeting.
Make me a cup of tea if you do not mind.

2. Unreal Conditionals
They express hypothetical conditions which have no possibility to occur in
the past, present or future but describe what could/might have occurred
supposedly.
e.g. If I were rich, I would attend all EXO concerts.
 If I had a car, I could have saved my bus fare.
We would have reached Aurora today if the storm had not arrived.

a. Structures of Unreal Conditionals

 For Present/Future Conditionals

If + subject + simple past tense … + subject + would/could/might +

verb in base form …

Subject + would/could/might + verb in base form … + if + subject +

simple past tense …

e.g. If I were the president of the Philippines, I would not approve the
Anti-Terror Law.
He might come with us if his schedule were not packed.
If I had the key, I would come to the office early in the morning.
I could win if I joined the championship tournament.

 For Past Conditions

If + subject + past perfect tense … + subject + would/could/might +

have + verb in past participle form …

Subject + would/could/might + have + verb in past participle form …

+ if + subject + past perfect tense …

e.g. If I had bought food, my mother wouldn’t have cooked dinner.

The fox could have caught the rabbit if it had gotten a bit closer.
 If Antoinette had finished the exam on time, she might have
received the highest score.
The bus could have arrived at 6 o’clock in the morning if it had not

been jammed in the traffic.

Had + subject + verb in past participle form … + subject +

would/could/ might + have + verb in past participle form …

Subject + would/could/might + have + verb in past participle form …

had + subject + verb in past participle form …

e.g. Had I arrived earlier, the meeting could have started on time.
Stefan would have told me had he found the necklace.
Had I noticed his feelings for me, I would not have decided to
move out.
Gilbert might have joined the dance troupe had I have not
persuaded him to join the church choir.