BMT Mod 3

Building Materials and Construction 18cv34
Module-3
Lintels and Arches: Definition, function and classification of lintels, Balconies,

chejja and canopy. Arches; Elements and Stability of an Arch.
Floors and roofs: Floors; Requirement of good floor, Components of ground floor,
Selection of flooring material, Laying of Concrete, Mosaic, Marble, Granite, Tile
flooring, Cladding of tiles. Roof;-Requirement of good roof, Types of roof, Elements
of a pitched roof, Trussed roof, King post Truss, Queen Post Truss, Steel Truss,
Different roofing materials, R.C.C. Roof.
LINTELS
A lintel is a horizontal member which is placed across an opening to support the position of the
structure above it. A lintel is thus a sort of beam in which width will be equal to the width of the
wall, and the ends of which are built into the wall. In general, it should be seen that the bearing
of the Lintel i.e., the distance up to which it is inserted in the supporting wall, should be the
minimum on the following three considerations:
1.100mm or
2. Height of lintel or
3.1/10thor 1/12thof the span of lintel
Classification of Lintels:
Lintels are classified into the following types according to the materials of construction:
1. Timber lintels
2. Stone lintels
3. Brick lintels
4. Steel lintels
5. Reinforced and Concrete lintels
Mrs.Vidya V, Asst Prof, Dept of Civil Engg,GAT, Bangalore Page 1

1. Wood or Timber lintels:

These lintels consist of pieces of timber which are placed across the opening. These are used
in hilly areas or in places where timber is easily available. These are structurally weak and
vulnerable to fire. They are also liable to decay more comparative to other types.
A bearing of about 15cm to 20cm should be provided and a minimum thickness of about 80mm
should be provided in case of wooden lintel.
2. Stone lintels:
The thickness of stone lintel is kept equal to 10cm per meter of span with minimum of 15cm.
They are not generally used because
1. The stone possesses low tensile resistance
2. It cracks of subjected to vibratory loads
3. It is difficult to obtain a good stone of required depth and it proves to be costly at places
where the stone is not available.

3. Brick lintels:
These are not structurally strong and they are used only when the opening is small (less than
1m) or loads are light. The thickness of brick lintel varies from 10 to 20cm depending upon
the span.
Bricks having frogs are more suitable for the brick lintels. It is because the frogs filled with
mortar forms key (or joggles) between different layers and thus it increases the shear resistance
of the end joint resulting in the increased strength of a lintel.
A temporary wood support, known as turner piece is used to construct a brick lintel.
4. Steel lintels:
These are provided where the opening is large and where the super-imposed loads are also heavy.
These lintels consist of steel angles or rolled steel joints. The steel angles are used for small spans
and light loading and rolled steel joints is used for large spans and heavy loading.
A steel lintel is preferred when there is no space available to accommodate the rise of an arch.

5. Reinforced Cement Concrete Lintels:

The usual concrete mix for R.C.C.lintel is 1:2:4 (cement: sand: agg). They may be precast or
cast-in-situ up to 1.2 m length of span, a 15cm deep lintel is (thickness -15cms) found to be safe.
As a general rule, add 25mm for every additional 30cm span.
Reinforcement for lintels for ordinary loading:
The number of main bars for a lintel depends upon the load from wall to be carried above and
the span of the opening. The diameter of bar varies with the span.
Up to 1.2m span – 10mm dia
1.2 to .2 span – 12mm dia
2 to 3m span – 16mm dia are used

CHEJJA
It is an extended position and thin slab above doors, windows and ventilators.
Function: The chejja gives protection to the opening space against rain water and direct sunlight.
It is also called as weather shed.
Methods of construction:
1. Centering plates are fixed at the chejja bottom level.
2. Reinforcement bars with proper cover blocks are placed on the centering plates.
3. Side shuttering is fixed
4. In the inner face of the side shuttering height of concrete at the wall side (say 100mm)as
well as at the end of chejja (75mm) wall.
5. Then the concrete will be laid and it will be cured for 28 days.
Canopy or Portico:
It is the space left in front of the door usually it is covered at top by extending the position of the
roof slab.
Function: Generally it is used for parking vehicles.
BALCONY
Balcony It is the extended position of the higher floors.
Function:
It is used for relaxation purpose.
It gives a good architectural appearance to a structure.
Method of construction
1. Construct the walls up to roof level.
2. Centering is placed in front of that wall (outside the building) where portico or
balcony is necessary.
3. The centering is supported by vertical members called jacks or wooden poles.
4. These poles are in turn rests on the hard ground or it should rest on 1 stfloor slab if the
balcony is in 2nd floor.
5. Reinforcement bars are placed on these centering sheets and are properly tied using
binding wires.
6. Finally concrete is laid to the sufficient thickness and properly cured for desired period

MASONRY ARCHES
An arch is a structure which is constructed to span across an opening. It generally consists of
small wedge-shaped units which are joined together with mortar.
Technical terms:
1. Intrados: This is the inner curve of the arch.
2. Extrados: This is the external curve of an arch.
3. Soffit: This is the inner surface of the arch.
4. Voussoirs: These are the wedge-shaped units forming the courses of an arch.
5. Skewback: This is the inclined or splayed surface on the abutment which is so prepared to
receive the arch and from which the arch springs.
6. Crown: This is the highest point on the extrados.
7. Key: This is the wedge-shaped unit at the crown of an arch.
8. Springing points: These are the points from which the curve of an arch springs.
9. Springing line: It is an imaginary line joining the springing points of either end.
10.Abutment: This is the end support of an arch.
11.Piers: These are the intermediate supports of an arcade.
12.Span: This is the clear horizontal distance between the supports.
13. Rise: This is the clear vertical distance between the highest point on the intrados and
the springing line.
14. Centre: This is the geometrical center of the curve of an arch.

Types of arches:
The various types of arches can be classified as follows:

• According to shape
• According to number of centers
• According to workmanship
• According to materials of construction
Classification of arches according to shapes:

1. Flat arch: The apparent shape of this arch is flat and usually the skewback forms an
angle of 60o with the horizontal. It forms an equilateral triangle with intrados as the base.
The intrados is apparently flat, but it is given a slight rise of camber of about 10 to 15mm
per meter width of opening to allow for small settlements. The extrados is kept horizontal
and flat. These are used only for light loads and for spans up to 1.5m.
2. Segmental arch: This is the most common type of arch used for buildings. The center of
arch lies below the springing line. The thrust transferred to the abutment is in an inclined
direction.

3. Semi-circular arch
• The shape of arch curve looks like semi-circle and the thrust transferred to the abutments
is perfectly vertical direction since skewback is horizontal.
• In this type of arch, the Centre lies exactly on the springing line.
4. Horse Shoe Arch:

• Horse Shoe Arch is in the shape of horse shoe which curves more than semi-circle.
• This is generally considered for architectural provisions.
5 . Pointed arch : The other name of pointed arch is Gothic arch.

• In this type of arch two arcs of circles are met at the apex hence triangle is formed.
• This may be either isosceles or equilateral.

5. Venetian Arch:
• Venetian arch is also pointed arch but its crown is deeper than springing’s.
• It contains four Centre’s, all located on the springing line.
6. Florentine arch:
• Intrados of arch is in the shape of semi-circle and rest of the arch is similar to Venetian
arch.
• It has three Centre’s, all located on the springing line.

Classification of arches according to number of centers:

1. One centered arch: Ex: Flat, Segmental, Semi-circular, horse shoe and stilled arches
2. Two centered arch: Ex: pointed arch
3. Three centered arch: Ex: Florentine arch
4. Four centered arch: Ex: Venetian arch
5. Five centered arch:

Classification of arches according to workmanship:

1. Rough brick arches:
• These are constructed with ordinary bricks without cutting to the shape voussoirs.
• The arch curve is provided by forming wedge shaped joints with greater thickness at
extrados and smaller thickness at intrados.
2 Axed or rough-cut arch: This type of arch is constructed from bricks which are cut to a
wedge-shape by means of an arc. The thickness of mortar joints varies from 3mm to 6mm.
3 Gauged brick arches:

In this type arch, bricks are cut to exact shape and size of required voussoir with the help of
wire saw. The bricks are finely dressed and these bricks are joined by lime putty. But, for
gauged brick arches only soft bricks are used. The mortar joints are as thin as 1.50mm to
0.75mm


Classification of arches according to materials of construction:

1. Stone arches: the arches can be constructed in the rubble masonry or ashlar masonry. The
rubble masonry arch is comparatively weak and hence it is used for inferior type of work.
2. Brick arches: these arches can be constructed from ordinary bricks or purpose made bricks. The
ordinary bricks are not cut to the shape of Voussoirs and hence the rough brick arches are
formed. For getting the arch curve, the joints are made wedge shaped with greater thickness at
the extrados and smaller thickness at the intrados.
3. Concrete arches: these arches can be constructed of the precast cement concrete blocks or
monolithic concrete. The blocks are similar to stones and are prepared by casting cement
concrete in specially prepared moulds. The monolithic concrete arches are constructed from cast
in-situ concrete and suitable for big spans.
Based on Workmanship and Construction Materials
1. Stone Arches
Rubble arches
• Rubble arches are very weak and used only for inferior work.
• These are used up to spans of 1m.
• These are made of rubble stones which are hammer dressed, roughly to shape and size and
fixed in cement mortar.
Ashlar Arches
• In this type, the stones are cut to proper shape of voussoirs (a wedge-shaped or tapered
stone used to construct an arch) and fully dressed, joined with cement mortar. Ashlar stones
are also used to make flat arches.

2. Brick Arches
Rough brick arches
• These are constructed with ordinary bricks without cutting to the shape voussoirs.
• It looks unattractive.
• it is not recommended for exposed brick works.
Axed brick arches

• The bricks are cut into wedge shape with the help of brick axe. So, these are roughly
dressed in shape and size.
• Hence, Arch formed by these axed bricks is not very pleasant.
Gauged brick arches
• In this type arch, bricks are cut to exact shape and size of required voussoir with the help of
wire saw.
• The bricks are finely dressed and these bricks are joined by lime putty.
• But, for gauged brick arches only soft bricks are used.
Purpose made brick arches
• The bricks are manufactured, matching with the exact shape and size of voussoirs, to get a
very fine workmanship.
3.Concrete Arches
Precast concrete block arches
In Precast concrete block arches the blocks are cast in molds to the exact shape and size of
voussoirs. For key stone and skewbacks special molds are prepared. These will give good
appearance because of exact shape and size. Cement concrete of 1:2:4 is used.
Monolithic concrete block arches

• Monolithic concrete block arches are suitable for larger span.
• These are constructed form cast-in-situ concrete
• These may be either plain or reinforced, depending upon the span and magnitude of
loading.
• Form work is used for casting the arch. T
• he curing is done for 2 to 4 weeks.
Stability of an arch
An arch transmits the superimposed load to the abutments or piers or side walls through the
combined action of friction between the surfaces of voussoirs and the cohesion of mortar.
Following are the four ways of failure of an arch:

1. Crushing of the masonry
2. Rotation of some joint about an edge
3. Sliding of voussoir.
4. Uneven settlement of abutment or pier.
1. Crushing of the masonry:

In this case, the compressive stress or thrust exceeds the safe crushing strength of the materials
and the arch fails due to crushing of the masonry.
The measures to avoid failure of arch due to this reason are as follows:

a) The material used for construction should be of adequate strength.

b) The size of voussoirs should be properly designed to bear the thrust transmitted through
them.
c) If necessary the voussoirs of variable heights may be provided i.e., less height near crown
and max height at skewback.
2. Rotation of some joint about an edge:
To prevent the rotation of joint, the line of resistance should be kept within intrados and extrados.
The line of thrust should also be made to cross the joint away from the edge so as to prevent the
crushing of that edge. It should fall within the middle third portion of the arch height.
3. Sliding of voussoir:
To safeguard against the sliding of adjacent voussoirs due to transverse shear, the voussoir of
greater height should be provided.
4. Uneven settlement of abutment or pier:
The secondary stresses in the arch are developed due to the uneven settlement of the supports of
arch and to avoid such conditions, the following precautions should be taken
a) The arch should be symmetrical so that unequal settlements of the two abutments or
abutment and pier are minimized.
b) The supports of arch should be strong enough to take or resist the thrust as well as to bear all
the loads transferred to them through the arc.

ROOFS
Introduction
A roof is defined as the upper most part of a building, provided as a structural covering, to
protect the building from weather. The structural elements may be trusses, portals, beams,
slabs, shells or domes and the roof coverings may be A.C. sheets, G.I. sheets, wooden shingles,
tiles, slates etc.
Requirement of a good roofing

• It should be durable against the adverse effects of various agencies such as wind, rain, sun etc.\
• It should grant the desirable insulation against heat.
• It should be structurally stable and sound, it should be capable of taking the loads likely to
come over it.
• It should be well-drained
• It should have efficient water-proofing arrangement.
• It should provide adequate thermal insulation.
• It should have adequate insulation against sound. In short, it must be sound proof from external
agencies
The choice of the type of roof will depend on the climatic conditions, shape of building, availability o
materials, importance of building etc.
Classification of Roofs
It can be divided into 3 categories
1. Flat roofs or terraced roofs
2. Pitched or sloping roofs
3. Curved roofs
FLAT ROOF
1. Flat roof is the one which is either horizontal or practically horizontal with slope less than
10o so that rain water can be drained off easily and rapidly.
2. The construction is same as that of floors except the top surface is made slightly
sloping. It may be of RCC, reinforced brick work, precast concrete units etc.
3. Flat roofs are considered suitable for buildings in plains or in hot regions, where
rainfall is moderate and where snowfall is not there.
4. Efficient water proofing and road drainage is an important requirement of flat roof. In
addition insulating material layer is provided for thermal insulation which is known as
terracing or grading. Usually 1 in 40 to 1 in 60 slopes is provided for RCC roof slab.

Advantages of Flat Roof

1. The construction of roof is simple, Maintenance is easier.
2. They can be easily made fire proof, in comparison to sloped roof
3. The roof can be used as terrace for playing, gardening, sleeping and for celebrating
functions.
4. In a multistoried building, it is good choice so that construction work of upper floors can
be easily started.
5. A flat roof is more stable against high wind.
6. A flat roof is found to be overall economical than a pitched roof.
7. They require lesser areas of roofing material than sloped roof.
8. In multistoried buildings, overhead water storage tanks and other services are located.
Disadvantages of Flat Roof

1. Their span is restricted and cannot be used for large spans without the introduction of
intermediate columns and beams.
2. The dead weight of flat roof is very high and hence is more expensive. Its initial cost is
higher than a pitched roof.
3. They are unsuitable at places of heavy rainfall
4. The cracks are developed on the surface of the roof when the variation in temperature is
high.
5. It is difficult to trace and to rectify the leakage of flat roof.
6. The progress of work is slow compared to pitched roof.
7. They are highly unsuitable for hilly areas.
Types of Flat terraced Roofing

Following are commonly used:
1. Mud–terrace roofing
2. Brick-jelly roofing
3. Mud phaska terracing with tile paving
4. Lime concrete terracing
5. Lime concrete terracing with tile paving
6. Bengal terrace
7. Light weight flat roofing.
Water proofing of flat roofs

All the flat roofs in the modern age are generally constructed of reinforced cement concrete.
This material removes all the defects of flat roofs except that the roof should be made water

proof by employing any of the following methods

1. Finishing
2. Bedding concrete and flooring
3. Mastic asphalt and jute cloth
4. Use of water proofing compounds
SLOPED ROOF OR PITCHED ROOF

• A roof with sloping surface is known as a pitched or sloped roof. These roofs suitable for
buildings in coastal regions or in areas where in rainfall are very heavy.
• Buildings with limited width and simple shape can generally be covered satisfactorily by
pitched roofs.
• In pitched roof a slope of less than 1 in 3 is generally not considered from drainage
point of view.
• In areas of heavy snowfall steeper slopes of say 1 to 1 ½ or 1:1 are provided to reduce
the snow load on roof
• The slope varies according to span, climatic condition, and nature of covering
materials.
PITCHED ROOF
Span: It is the clear distance between the supports of roof truss.

Rise: It is the vertical distance between the top of the ridge and the wall plate.
Pitch: It is the inclination of the sides of a roof to the horizontal plane. It is expressed either in
terms of degrees (angles) or a ratio of rise to span.
Ridge: It is defined as the apex line of the slopping roof.
Eaves: The lower edge of the inclined roof surface is called eaves. From the lower edge (eaves),
the rain water from the roof surface drops down
Hip: It is the ridge formed by the intersection of two sloping surfaces, where the exterior angle is
greater than 180.
Valley: It is a reverse of a hip. It is formed by the intersection of two roof surfaces, making an
external angle less than 180
Verge: The edge of a gable, running between the eaves and ridge is known as a verge.
Ridge piece, ridge beam or ridge board: It is the horizontal wooden member, in the form of
a beam or board, which is provided at the apex of a roof truss. It supports the common rafters
fixed to it.
Common rafters : These are inclined wooden members running from the ridge to the eaves.
Purlins: These are horizontal wooden or steel members, used to support common rafters of a
roof when span is large. Purlins are supported on trusses or walls.
Types of pitched roofs

A) Single roofs
1. Lean-to-roof
2. Couple roof
3. Couple-close roof
4. Collar beam roof or collar tie roof
B) Double or purlin roofs
C) Triple membered or framed or trussed roofs
1. King-post roof truss
2. Queen-post roof truss
3. Steel sloping roof trusses
4. Combination of Kingpost and Queen post truss
5. Mansard roof truss
6. Truncated roof truss
7. Or latticed roof truss
8. Composite roof trusses
A. Single roofs
Single roofs consist of only common rafters which are secured at the ridge (to ridge beam)
and wall plate.These are used when span is less so that no intermediate support is required
for the rafters.
1. Lean-to-roof
• The wall to one side of room is taken higher than the wall to the other side
• A lean to roof is generally used for sheds, out-houses attached to main buildings, verandas
etc. it is suitable for a maximum span of 2.40m
• A wooden wall plate is supported either on a steel corbel or a stone corbel which may
be of stone, brick or steel.
• The rafters are suitably secured on the wall plates and eaves boards, battens and roof
• Coverings are shown in the diagram below.
Mrs.Vidya V, Asst Prof, Dept of Civil Engg,GAT, Bangalore Page
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• Battens are spaced at 15cm c/c. the difference in elevation between the two wall plates is
so kept that the desired slope is obtained. Usual slope is 30o
2. Couple roof
• This type of roof is formed by couple of rafters which slope to both the sides of the ridge
of the roof.
• The upper ends of each pair of rafter is nailed to a common ridge piece and their lower
ends are notched and nailed to the wooden wall plates embedded in the masonry on the
top of the outer walls.
• The couple roof is used when the span is limited to 3.6m.
3. Couple close roof
• This roof is similar to the couple roof except that the ends of the couple of common
rafters is connected by horizontal member called tie beam to prevent tie rafters from
spreading and thrust out of tie wall.
• The tie beam may be a wooden member or a steel rod.
• A couple close roof can be adopted economically up to a span of 4.2 m.
• For increased span or greater loads, tie tendency of tie rafters to sag in tie middle can be
prevented by providing a central rod connecting tie ridge piece and the tie beam. Such
a member is known as tie king rod.

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4. Collar beam roof
• Tie beam is provided at raised level.

• This roof is suitable for spans up to 5m.
• A collar beam is adopted to economies tie space and to increase tie height of a room.
• When tie span increases or when tie load is more tie rafters of tie couple close roof have
tie tendency to bend. This is avoided by raising the tie beam and fixing it at one third to
one half of tie vertical height from wall plate to tie ridge. This raised beam is known as
tie collar beam.
B) Double or purlin roof

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C) .Triple membered or framed or trussed roofs
1) King post truss

• A king post truss consists the following components.
1. Lower tie beam

2. two inclined principal rafters
3. king post
4. two struts
• In this type of truss tie central post is known as king post forms a support for the tie
beam.
• A king post truss is suitable for roofs of span varying from 5m to 8m.
• The spacing of the king post truss is limited to 3m center to center.
• The king post prevents the tie beam from sagging at its center of span.
• Ridge beam is provided at the apex of the roof to provide end support to the common
rafters.
• The common rafters are connected to eaves board at the other end.
Joints in this truss are:
• Joint between the principal rafter and tie beam
• Joint between the king post and tie beam
• Joint at the head and feet of strut.
• Joint between the principal rafters and the King post.

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2) Queen post truss

a. A queen post truss differs from a king-post truss in having two vertical posts, rather than one.
b. The vertical posts are known as queen-posts, the top of which are connected by a
horizontal piece, known as straining beam.
c. The queen posts are the tension members.
d. These trusses are suitable for spans between 8 to 12m.
e. Joints in this truss are:
1. Joint at the head of queen post
2. Joint at the feet
3) Steel truss
a. When the span exceeds 10m, timber trusses become heavy and uneconomical.
b. Steel trusses are more economical for larger spans.
c. However steel trusses are more commonly used these days for all spans small or large since
they are more economical, ease to construct, more rigid, fire proof and permanent.
d. The arrangement and sizes of various steel trusses depends on the span, loading and
wind pressures.

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Steel sections
• For span more than 10m timber will be heavy and uneconomical
• For all the spans also nowadays steel is used since it is more economical, easy to construct ,
fire proof, more rigid, durable
• Steel trusses are available in channels, angles, T- sections and plates
• It is commonly fabricated from angles and plates
Advantages of timber trusses

• Available in required dimensions resulting in minimum wastage of materials
• Light weight
• Can be fabricated to any shape depending on the structural and architectural requirement
• More stronger and rigid
• Members are equally strong in compression as well in tension
• Can be used over any span
• Fire proof, termite proof
• Resistant against any weather conditions
• Durable
• Fabrication is easier and quicker since sections are machined and shaped in workshop

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FLOORING
The solid construction between the plinth level and roof level are known as floors and the
exposed top surfaces of floors are termed as floorings
A floor is composed of two components:

• Base / Subfloor
• Floor covering / Flooring
Base/ Subfloor
• The subfloor is one of the most important floor components.
• It is a layer that provides proper support to the flooring.
• It provides strength and stability to make it support the flooring.
• The ground floor level is first watered and rammed well.
• A cement concrete bed 10 to 15 cm thick is laid and rammed.
• While at first, second, etc. floor level, the RCC slab or wooden floor acts as a subfloor.
Floor Covering or FLOORING

• The floor covering is a covering provided over the subfloor.
• It provides a smooth, clean, impervious, durable, colorful, hard and attractive surface.
• It is the cover which has to offer resistance to wear and tear due to human movement and
movement of furniture, etc.
• Flooring consists of Natural stones, Tiles, etc.
• In general, floor covering is a finishing material applied over a floor or sub floor to provide
a walking surface.
• Flooring is very important as the dull floor will affect your mood and hence happiness.
• The slippery flooring may lead you to slip endangering your safety and a damp proof floor
will be injurious to your health.
Requirement of good floor

• 1. Initial Cost
• 2. Appearance
• 3. Cleanliness
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• 4. Durability
• 5. Damp-resistance
• 6. Sound Insulation
• 7. Thermal Insulation
• 8. Smoothness
• 9. Hardness
• 10. Maintenance
1. Initial Cost.
• A floor covering of marble, granite , special clay tiles, etc is considered to be very
expensive
• Flooring of cork, slate, vinyl tile, etc. is moderately expensive.
• The floors made of concrete and brick offer the cheapest type of floor construction.
2. Appearance
• Flooring should produce the desired color effect and architectural beauty in conformity with
its use in the building.
3. Cleanliness
• A floor should be non-absorbent and capable of being easily and effectively cleaned.
• All joints in flooring should be watertight surface.
greasy and oily substances should not spoil and destroy the flooring materials
4. Durability
• The flooring material should offer sufficient resistance to wear and tear, temperature,
chemical action, etc.
• From the durability point of view, flooring of marble, terrazzo, tiles and concrete is
considered to be of the best type.
• Linoleum, rubber, cork, bricks, wood blocks, etc. can be used where heavy floor traffic is
not anticipated.
5. Damp-resistance
• All the floors, especially ground floors, should offer sufficient resistance against the
dampness in buildings to ensure a healthy environment.
• Normally, floors of clay tiles, terrazzo, concrete bricks, etc. are preferred for use where the
floors are subjected to dampness.
6. Sound Insulation
• According to modern building concepts, a floor should neither create noise when used nor
transmit noise.
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• Sometimes, it is required that any movement on the top floors should not disturb the
persons working on the other floors.
• Suitable flooring is provided which is somewhat noiseless when traveled over.
7. Thermal Insulation:
• It should be possible for a building to maintain constant temperature or heat inside the
building irrespective of the temperature changes outside.
• Thermal insulation is needed to reduce the demand of heating in winter and refrigeration in
summer.
• It is important in the case of wooden floors where heat losses are considerable and in solid
floors with heating pipes or cables where the heat looses at the edges of the floor slab can
be higher.
• Floors of word, cork, etc. are best suited for this purpose.
8. Smoothness:
• The floor covering should be of superior type has to exhibit a smooth and even surface.
• It should not be too slippery which will otherwise endanger safe movements over it,
particularly by aged people and children.
9. Hardness:
• It is desirable to use good quality floor covering, which do not give rise to any form of
indentation marks, imprints, etc.
• when used for either supporting the loads or moving the loads over them.
• Normally, the hard surfaces rendered by concrete, marble, stone, etc. do not show any
impressions, whereas the coverings like asphalt, cork, plastics, etc. do form marks on the
surfaces
10. Maintenance
• It is always desired that the maintenance cost should be as low as possible.
• Generally, a covering of tiles, marble, terrazzo or concrete requires less maintenance cost as
compared to the floors of word blocks, cork, etc.
• It should, however, be noted that the repairing of a concrete surface is more difficult than
the flooring of tiles, marbles. Etc.
Types of flooring
In order to give a pleasuring appearance to the upper surface of the floor, the various materials
are placed on it. It is used to provide for ground floor. The materials used for floor finish or
floor covering or flooring are:

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1. Granolithic finish
2. Mosaic
3. Ceramic
4. Marble
5. Polished Granite
6. Industrial flooring
7. Asphalt
9. Glass
10.Linoleum flooring
11.Cork
12.Rubber etc.
1. Laying of Concrete flooring

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2. Laying of Mosaic tile flooring
• General tile size 20cm*20cm and 20mm thick

• Mosaic tile shall be manufacture under hydraulic pressure of not less than 140kg/cm2
• Preparation of surface: cleaned, wetted
• Laying: laid on cement mortar bed of 1:2 or 1:3 and hardened for a day.
• Cement slurry is applied on this at the rate of 4.4kg/m2
• Tiles should be washed and fixed in this grout one after another
• Each tile being gently tapped with wooden mallet
• Surface of the flooring should be checked
• Cutted to required size if not fitted
• Surplus cement grout should be cleaned off
• Day after laying, cement grout joints should be cleaned with wire brush to a dept of 5mm
• Joints should be grouted with white/pigmented cement
34
• Same cement slurry of very thin layer should be applied on the entire surface to make it
resistant against surface damage & fill pin holes
• Keep wet for min 7 days
• Grounded with coarse grade machine and washed
• Thin Layer of white cement
• Medium grade grinding
• Fine grade grinding/ polishing
• Oxalic acid is dusted off at the rate of 33gm/m2 and rubbed hard with wooden rags
• Wiped with moist rag and dried with soft cloth
• Finished floor should not sound hollow when tapped with wooden mallet
3. Laying of Marble /Granite flooring
• It is a superior type of flooring, used in residential buildings, temples etc where extra
cleanliness is an essential requirement.
• Marble slabs may be laid in different sizes, usually in rectangular or square shapes.
• The base concrete is prepared in the same manner as that for concrete flooring.
• Over the base concrete, 20mm thick bedding mortar of either 1:4 cement sand mix is
spread under the area of each individual slab.
• The marble slab is then laid over it gently pressed with wooden mallet and leveled
• A day after laying the tile fine finishing should be given with fine chisel
White marble

35
4. Granolithic finish:
a. In industrial building, hard wearing surface is sometimes required. This can be
achieved by applying granolithic finish over the concrete topping.
b. Granolithic finish consists of rich concrete made with very hard and tough quality
coarse aggregate graded from 13mm IS sieve.
c. The concrete mix proportion varies from 1:1:2 to 1:1:3 for heavy duty floors to
1:2:3 for public buildings.
d. The thickness of finish may be minimum 25mm when laid monolithically with
the top concrete and 35mm when laid over hardened surface.
5.Ceramic or tiled Flooring:

e. Tiled flooring is constructed from square, hexagonal or other shapes, made of
clay, cement concrete or terrazzo.
f. These are available in different sizes and thickness.
g. These are commonly used in residential Houses, offices etc.
h. This bedding mortar is allowed to harden for 12 to 24 hours. Before laying the
tiles, neat cement slurry is spread over bedding mortar and the tiles are laid flat
over it.
i. The base concrete is prepared in the same manner as that for concrete flooring.
Over the base concrete, 20mm thick bedding mortar of either 1:4 cement sand
mix is spread under the area of each individual slab.
j. The marble slab is then laid over it gently pressed with wooden mallet and
levelled.
Selection of Flooring Material
Following factors are to be carefully considered before selecting the material for flooring of a
particular building
1. Appearance
2. Cleanliness
3. Cost
4. Damp resistance
5. Durability
6. Fire resistance
7. Hardness
8. Maintenance
36
9. Thermal Insulation
10.Slipperiness
1. Appearance: covering should give pleasing appearance; it should produce a desired color
effect and architectural beauty. Floorings of terrazzo, mosaic, tiles and marble give good
appearance.
2. Cleanliness: The flooring should be capable of being cleaned easily, and it should be non-
absorbent. It should have effective resistance against absorption of oil, grease etc.
3. Cost: the cost of the material should be in conformity with the type of building, and its likely
use. Floor coverings of marble etc are very costly and may be used only for residential
buildings.
4. Damp resistance: Flooring should offer sufficient resistance against dampness, so that
healthy environment is obtained in the building. Flooring of concrete, terrazzo, mosaic etc are
preferred for this purpose, while flooring of wood, rubber etc are preferred for this purpose,
while flooring of wood, rubber, etc. are not suitable for damp conditions.
5. Durability: The flooring should have sufficient resistance to wear, temperature changes,
disintegration with time and decay so that long life is obtained. From this point of view,
flooring of marble, terrazzo, concrete etc are considered to be of best type.
6. Fire resistance: This is more important for upper floors. Flooring material should offer
sufficient fire resistance so that fire barriers are obtained between different levels of a building.
7. Hardness: It should be hard so as to have resistance to indentation marks, imprints etc likely
to be caused by shifting of furniture, equipment etc.
8. Maintenance: the flooring material should require leapt maintenance. However, whenever
repairs are required, it should be such that repairs can be done easily with least possible
expenditure.
9. Thermal insulation: the flooring should offer reasonably good thermal insulation so that
comfort is imparted to the residents of the building.
10. Slipperiness: The surface of floor should be smooth but at the same time, it should not be
too slippery.

37

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Building Materials and Construction 18cv34

Lintels and Arches: Definition, function and classification of lintels, Balconies,

Mrs.Vidya V, Asst Prof, Dept of Civil Engg,GAT, Bangalore Page 1

1. Wood or Timber lintels:

Mrs.Vidya V, Asst Prof, Dept of Civil Engg,GAT, Bangalore Page 2

Mrs.Vidya V, Asst Prof, Dept of Civil Engg,GAT, Bangalore Page 3

5. Reinforced Cement Concrete Lintels:

Mrs.Vidya V, Asst Prof, Dept of Civil Engg,GAT, Bangalore Page 4

Mrs.Vidya V, Asst Prof, Dept of Civil Engg,GAT, Bangalore Page 5

Mrs.Vidya V, Asst Prof, Dept of Civil Engg,GAT, Bangalore Page 6

The various types of arches can be classified as follows:

Classification of arches according to shapes:

Mrs.Vidya V, Asst Prof, Dept of Civil Engg,GAT, Bangalore Page 7

4. Horse Shoe Arch:

• This is generally considered for architectural provisions.

5 . Pointed arch : The other name of pointed arch is Gothic arch.

Mrs.Vidya V, Asst Prof, Dept of Civil Engg,GAT, Bangalore Page 8

Mrs.Vidya V, Asst Prof, Dept of Civil Engg,GAT, Bangalore Page 9

Classification of arches according to number of centers:

Mrs.Vidya V, Asst Prof, Dept of Civil Engg,GAT, Bangalore Page 10

Classification of arches according to workmanship:

3 Gauged brick arches:

Mrs.Vidya V, Asst Prof, Dept of Civil Engg,GAT, Bangalore Page 11

Mrs.Vidya V, Asst Prof, Dept of Civil Engg,GAT, Bangalore Page 12

Classification of arches according to materials of construction:

Based on Workmanship and Construction Materials

Mrs.Vidya V, Asst Prof, Dept of Civil Engg,GAT, Bangalore Page 13

Axed brick arches

Monolithic concrete block arches

Following are the four ways of failure of an arch:

1. Crushing of the masonry:

Mrs.Vidya V, Asst Prof, Dept of Civil Engg,GAT, Bangalore Page 15

a) The material used for construction should be of adequate strength.

Mrs.Vidya V, Asst Prof, Dept of Civil Engg,GAT, Bangalore Page 16

Requirement of a good roofing

Mrs.Vidya V, Asst Prof, Dept of Civil Engg,GAT, Bangalore Page 17

Advantages of Flat Roof

Disadvantages of Flat Roof

Types of Flat terraced Roofing

Water proofing of flat roofs

Mrs.Vidya V, Asst Prof, Dept of Civil Engg,GAT, Bangalore Page 18

proof by employing any of the following methods

SLOPED ROOF OR PITCHED ROOF

Span: It is the clear distance between the supports of roof truss.

Types of pitched roofs

3. Couple close roof

Mrs.Vidya V, Asst Prof, Dept of Civil Engg,GAT, Bangalore Page

4. Collar beam roof

• Tie beam is provided at raised level.

B) Double or purlin roof

Mrs.Vidya V, Asst Prof, Dept of Civil Engg,GAT, Bangalore Page

C) .Triple membered or framed or trussed roofs

1) King post truss

1. Lower tie beam

• Joint between the king post and tie beam

• Joint at the head and feet of strut.

• Joint between the principal rafters and the King post.

Mrs.Vidya V, Asst Prof, Dept of Civil Engg,GAT, Bangalore Page

2) Queen post truss