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Mohammad Upal Mahfuz
Weisi Guo (Eds.)
329
Bio-inspired Information
and Communication
Technologies
12th EAI International Conference, BICT 2020
Shanghai, China, July 7–8, 2020
Proceedings
123
Lecture Notes of the Institute
for Computer Sciences, Social Informatics
and Telecommunications Engineering 329
Editorial Board Members

Ozgur Akan
Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey
Paolo Bellavista
University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
Jiannong Cao
Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China
Geoffrey Coulson
Lancaster University, Lancaster, UK
Falko Dressler
University of Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany
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UCLA, Los Angeles, USA
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Princeton University, Princeton, USA
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City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong
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Lin Lin Mohammad Upal Mahfuz

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Weisi Guo (Eds.)
Bio-inspired Information
and Communication
Technologies
12th EAI International Conference, BICT 2020
Shanghai, China, July 7–8, 2020
Proceedings
123
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Yifan Chen Tadashi Nakano
University of Electronic Science Osaka University
and Technology of China Osaka, Japan
Chengdu, China
Mohammad Upal Mahfuz
Lin Lin Resch School of Engineering
Tongji University University of Wisconsiin-Green Bay
Shanghai, China Green Bay, WI, USA
Weisi Guo
School of Engineering
Cranfield University
Cranfield, UK
ISSN 1867-8211 ISSN 1867-822X (electronic)

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Preface
We are delighted to introduce the proceedings of the 12th EAI International Conference
on Bio-inspired Information and Communications Technologies (BICT 2020). Con-
sistent with the goal of prior editions, BICT 2020 aims to provide a world-leading and
multidisciplinary venue for researchers and practitioners in diverse disciplines that seek
the understanding of key principles, processes, and mechanisms in biological systems
and leverage those understandings to develop novel information and communications
technologies (ICT). This year, due to the safety concerns and travel restrictions caused
by COVID-19, EAI BICT 2020 took place online in a livestream.
In addition to the main track targeting broad and mainstream research topics, BICT
2020 included four special tracks with focused research topics, including (1) Internet of
Everything, organized by Qiang Liu (University of Electronic Science and Technology
of China, China); Intelligent Internet of Things and Network Applications, organized
by Fan-Hsun Tseng (National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan); Intelligent Sensor
Network, organized by Peng He (Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommuni-
cations, China) and Yue Sun (Chengdu University of Technology, China); and Data-
Driven Intelligent Modeling, Application and Optimization, organized by Hengyu Li
and Jianguo Wang (both Shanghai University, China). BICT 2020 also included the
workshop on Applications, Testbeds, and Simulation Design for Molecular Commu-
nication (ATSDMC 2020) organized by M. Şükrü Kuran (Bahcesehir University,
Turkey), H. Birkan Yilmaz (Polytechnic University of Catalonia, Spain), and Ali Emre
Pusane (Bogazici University, Turkey). We appreciate all the special track and work-
shop chairs for their tremendous efforts to organize the excellent special tracks and
workshop.
This year, we received 56 paper submissions and accepted 20 papers as full papers
and 8 papers as short papers. We appreciate our Program Committee (PC) members for
their hard work in reviewing papers carefully and rigorously. With our congratulations
to the authors of accepted papers, the BICT 2020 conference proceedings consists of 28
high-quality papers.
The organization of the BICT 2020 conference proceedings relies on the contri-
butions by Organizing Committee members as well as PC members. It was our priv-
ilege to work with these respected colleagues. Last but not least, special thanks go to
the EAI, particularly Karolina Marcinova, for helping us organize BICT 2020 and
publish these proceedings successfully.
July 2020 Yifan Chen

Tadashi Nakano
Lin Lin
Mohammad Mahfuz
Weisi Guo
Organization
Steering Committee
Imrich Chlamtac University of Trento, Italy
Jun Suzuki University of Massachusetts, USA
Tadashi Nakano Osaka University, Japan
Organizing Committee
General Chair
Yifan Chen University of Electronic Science and Technology
of China, China
TPC Chair and Co-chairs

Tadashi Nakano Osaka University, Japan
Lin Lin Tongji University, China
Weisi Guo University of Warwick, UK
Mohammad U. Mahfuz University of Wisconsin-Green Bay, USA
Sponsorship and Exhibit Chair

Hui Li University of Science and Technology of China, China
Local Chair
Hao Yan Shanghai Jiao Tong University, China
Workshop Chair
Yutaka Okaie Osaka University, Japan
Publicity and Social Media Chairs

William Casey Carnegie Melon University, USA
Adriana Compagnoni Stevens Institute of Technology, USA
Publications Chair
Qiang Liu University of Electronic Science and Technology
of China, China
Web Chair
Yue Sun Chengdu University of Technology, China
viii Organization
Tutorial Chair
Peng He Chongqing University of Posts
and Telecommunications, China
Conference Manager
Karolina Marcinova EAI
Technical Program Committee

Andrew Adamatzky University of the West of England, UK
Pruet Boonma Chiang Mai University, Thailand
Chang-Byoung Chae Yonsei University, South Korea
Chi-Cheng Chang National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan
Yifan Chen University of Electronic Science and Technology
of China, China
Chi-Yuan Chen National Ilan University, Taiwan
Hsin-Hung Cho National Ilan University, Taiwan
Chang Choi Chosun University, South Korea
Chun Tung Chou University of New South Wales, Australia
Hans-Günther Döbereiner Universität Bremen, Germany
Douglas Dow Wentworth Institute of Technology, USA
Andrew Eckford York University, Canada
Preetam Ghosh Virginia Commonwealth University, USA
Isao Hayashi Kansai University, Japan
Henry Hess Columbia University, USA
Jong-Hyouk Lee Sangmyung University, South Korea
Xiuhua Li Chongqing University, China
Reza Malekian Malmö University, Sweden
Parisa Memarmoshrefi University of Goettingen, Germany
Takahiro Nitta Gifu University, Japan
Chun-Wei Tsai National Sun Yat-sen University, China
Fan-Hsun Tseng National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan
Chenggui Yao Shaoxing University, China
Chia-Mu Yu National Chiao Tung University, Taiwan
Contents
Main Track
Clock Synchronization for Mobile Molecular Communication

in Nanonetworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Li Huang, Lin Lin, Fuqiang Liu, and Hao Yan
A Cooperative Molecular Communication for Targeted Drug Delivery. . . . . . 16

Yue Sun, Yutao Hsiang, Yifan Chen, and Yu Zhou
Performance of Diffusion-Based MIMO Molecular Communications

and Dual Threshold Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Zhiqiang Lu, Qiang Liu, Kun Yang, and Yuming Mao
Binary Concentration Shift Keying with Multiple Measurements

of Molecule Concentration in Mobile Molecular Communication . . . . . . . . . 42
Yutaka Okaie and Tadashi Nakano
Real-Time Seven Segment Display Detection and Recognition Online

System Using CNN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Autanan Wannachai, Wanarut Boonyung, and Paskorn Champrasert
A Novel Method for Extracting High-Quality RR Intervals from Noisy

Single-Lead ECG Signals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Shan Xue, Leirong Tian, Zhilin Gao, and Xingran Cui
Leak-Resistant Design of DNA Strand Displacement Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . 80

Vinay Gautam
Chessboard EEG Images Classification for BCI Systems Using Deep

Neural Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Ward Fadel, Moutz Wahdow, Csaba Kollod, Gergely Marton,
and Istvan Ulbert
Special Track on Data Driven Intelligent Modeling, Application

and Optimization
Causal Network Analysis and Fault Root Point Detection

Based on Symbolic Transfer Entropy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Jian-Guo Wang, Xiang-Yun Ye, and Yuan Yao
x Contents
Personalized EEG Feature Extraction Method Based on Filter Bank

and Elastic Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Jian-Guo Wang, Zeng Chen, and Yuan Yao
Release Rate Optimization Based on M/M/c/c Queue in Local

Nanomachine-Based Targeted Drug Delivery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Qingying Zhao and Min Li
Research on Course Control of Unmanned Surface Vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

Xinming Hu, Huaichun Fu, and Qixing Cheng
Design and Experiment of a Double-Layer Vertical Axis Wind Turbine. . . . . 152

Qixing Cheng and Xinming Hu
Real-Time Obstacle Detection Based on Monocular Vision for Unmanned

Surface Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Zhang Rui, Liu Jingyi, Li Hengyu, and Cheng Qixing
Special Track on Intelligent Internet of Things

and Network Applications
A Method of Data Integrity Check and Repair in Big Data

Storage Platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Jiaxin Li, Yun Liu, Zhenjiang Zhang, and Han-Chieh Chao
A Study of Image Recognition for Standard Convolution and Depthwise

Separable Convolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Fan-Hsun Tseng and Fan-Yi Kao
A Novel Genetic Algorithm-Based DES Key Generation Scheme . . . . . . . . . 199

Min-Yan Tsai, Hsin-Hung Cho, Chi-Yuan Chen, and Wei-Min Chen
Developing an Intelligent Agricultural System Based on Long

Short-Term Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Hsin-Te Wu, Jun-Wei Zhan, and Fan-Hsun Tseng
Special Track on Intelligent Sensor Networks
Detection of Atherosclerotic Lesions Based on Molecular Communication . . . 221

Meiling Liu, Yue Sun, and Yifan Chen
Design for Detecting Red Blood Cell Deformation at Different Flow

Velocities in Blood Vessel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
RuiZi Zhang, Yue Sun, and Yifan Chen
Contents xi
Intelligent Power Controller of Wireless Body Area Networks Based

on Deep Reinforcement Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Peng He, Zhenli Liu, Lei Fu, Zhongyuan Tao, Jia Liu, Tong Tang,
and Zhidu Li
Special Track on Internet of Everything
Target Tracking Based on DDPG in Wireless Sensor Network . . . . . . . . . . . 253

Yinhua Liao and Qiang Liu
A Fuzzy Tree System Based on Cuckoo Search Algorithm

for Target Tracking in Wireless Sensor Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Qing Xia, Junjun Lin, Qiang Liu, and Supeng Leng
Sensor Scheme for Target Tracking in Mobile Sensor Networks . . . . . . . . . . 275

Hao Dong and Qiang Liu
Workshop on Applications, Testbeds, and Simulation Design

for Molecular Communication
Molecular MIMO Communications Platform with BTSK for In-Vessel

Network Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Changmin Lee, Bon-Hong Koo, and Chan-Byoung Chae
Preliminary Studies on Flow Assisted Propagation of Fluorescent

Microbeads in Microfluidic Channels for Molecular
Communication Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
M. Gorkem Durmaz, Abdurrahman Dilmac, Berk Camli, Elif Gencturk,
Z. Cansu Canbek Ozdil, Ali Emre Pusane, Arda Deniz Yalcinkaya,
Kutlu Ulgen, and Tuna Tugcu
Comparative Evaluation of a New Sensor for Superparamagnetic

Iron Oxide Nanoparticles in a Molecular Communication Setting . . . . . . . . . 303
Max Bartunik, Harald Unterweger, Christoph Alexiou, Robert Schober,
Maximilian Lübke, Georg Fischer, and Jens Kirchner
Localization of a Passive Molecular Transmitter with a Sensor Network . . . . 317

Fatih Gulec and Baris Atakan
Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337

Main Track
Clock Synchronization for Mobile
Molecular Communication
in Nanonetworks
Li Huang1 , Lin Lin1(B) , Fuqiang Liu1 , and Hao Yan2

1
Tongji University, Shanghai, China
[email protected]
2
Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
Abstract. Molecular communication (MC) is an emerging communica-

tion method using molecules or particles as signal carriers, which enables
nanomachines to send messages at the nano- or micro-nano scale for
information exchange and collaboration. Clock synchronization between
nanomachines plays an important role in collaboration. The current
researches on the synchronization between nanodevices mainly focus on
fixed MC systems. However, the movement of nanodevices is widespread
in MC systems. A simple but effective scheme for clock synchronization
between mobile nanodevices in mobile MC systems based on diffusion is
proposed. In an equivalent diffusion mobile MC system model, the num-
ber of molecules received by the receiver is related to the transmission
time of molecules and the distance between transmitter and receiver at
the moment that molecules are released. Based on the detected molec-
ular information, the clock offset and the distance between mobile nan-
odevices in nanonetworks are estimated by the least-square method. By
using different types of molecules, the challenge of the varying synthe-
sis time of the molecule is overcome. The simulation results show the
effectiveness of the proposed algorithm.
Keywords: Clock synchronization · Clock offset · Mobile molecular

communication · Least-square method
1 Introduction
The development of nanotechnology has made various applications of

nanomachine-based nanonetworks possible. Nevertheless, the functions of a sin-
gle nanomachine are limited. Molecular communication (MC) is a new commu-
nication mechanism at the nano-scale or micro-scale [6]. The molecules carrying
information are released from the transmitter and propagate to the receiver via
This work was supported in part by National Natural Science Foundation, China
(61971314), in part by Natural Science Foundation of Shanghai (19ZR1426500), and in
part by Science and Technology Commission of Shanghai Municipality (19510744900).
c ICST Institute for Computer Sciences, Social Informatics and Telecommunications Engineering 2020
Published by Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020. All Rights Reserved
Y. Chen et al. (Eds.): BICT 2020, LNICST 329, pp. 3–15, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57115-3_1
4 L. Huang et al.
diffusion. Molecular communication makes nanomachines promising to expand

the capabilities through information exchange and collaboration. For example, in
the targeted drug delivery application in the medical field [17], multiple nanoma-
chines exchange or share information through MC, and release drugs to attack
cancer cells simultaneously.
Clock synchronization between nanomachines plays an essential role in col-
laboration. In the process of collaboration, the time and sequence of the nanoma-
chine’s action response will affect the collaboration. For example, in a targeted
drug delivery application, if the clocks of the nanomachines are not synchronized
when multiple nanomachines release drugs to attack cancer cells simultaneously,
nanomachines cannot respond at the same time, and the drug treatment effect
will be affected. In current researches, it is always assumed that the transceivers
in the MC system are synchronized. In [5], based on the assumption of clock
synchronization, signal detection in a mobile MC system is proposed.
However, the clocks of nanomachines are not all synchronized automatically.
The clocks of different nanomachines may be different. There may be a clock
offset between different nanomachines. Some mechanisms for achieving the syn-
chronization of MC systems have been proposed. In [24], the authors proposed
a method for synchronizing the system by using external noise common to all
cells of a multicellular system. In [1,2], the authors proposed using the quorum
sensing mechanism of bacteria to achieve the synchronization of cluster nodes
in nano-networks. Inhibitory molecules are used to achieve clock synchroniza-
tion in [20,21]. A nanomachine releases inhibitory molecules into the environ-
ment, making it impossible for other nanomachines in the environment to release
molecules. However, all of these synchronization methods need to correspond to
specific molecules or cells.
In [15], the authors proposed a two-way message exchange clock synchro-
nization model, which estimates the clock offset and clock skew by forwarding
multiple sets of handshaking. The authors used a SIMO system to implement
clock difference estimation in systems with uniformly distributed random noise
in [13,18]. In [15,18], both the transmitter and the receiver in the MC system
are fixed, and synchronization between the nanomachines is realized by multiple
rounds of transmission of molecules. In those scenarios, the distance between the
transmitter and the receiver does not change. In [16], the authors consider the
clock synchronization of the MC system with drift. It also focuses on the static
MC system.
The mobile MC system is also a very important scenario that has many poten-
tial applications and has been investigated in literature such as [4,8,9,14,22]. In
mobile MC systems, in addition to the diffusion of molecules, the transmitter
and receiver also move due to Brownian motion so that the distance between
the transmitter and the receiver change over time. Although there have been
so many synchronization algorithms in fixed MC systems, the synchronization
algorithm for mobile MC systems is rare. Because the distance in a mobile MC
system is a variable rather than a constant, it is not possible to implement clock
synchronization directly in a mobile scenario using synchronization algorithms
for fixed MC systems.
Clock Synchronization for Mobile Molecular Communication 5
In [19], the authors proposed a clock synchronization model for a communi-

cation system in which a nanodevice is mobile, and the other is fixed. Assuming
that the propagation time of a molecule is proportional to the transmission dis-
tance, two types of signal molecules are used for bidirectional transmission to
estimate the propagation time. However, multiple rounds of bidirectional trans-
mission of signals take a long time. At the same time, the molecular synthesis
time is not taken into account. Also, in general, it is common both the trans-
mitter and the receiver are mobile in mobile communication systems. But so
far, a synchronization algorithm that is directly applied to a scenario where
nanomachines are all mobile has not been proposed.
This paper proposes a simple but effective clock synchronization mecha-
nism for mobile communication systems in nanonetworks where the transmitter
nanomachine and receiver nanomachine are constantly moving. In a mobile com-
munication system, since the transmitter and the receiver are constantly moving,
the distance between two nanomachines is constantly changing, and the propa-
gation time of molecules at different distances is also changing. The existing syn-
chronization algorithms are not necessarily used in such scenarios. In this paper,
the clock value of the transmitter is encoded into the information molecule using
M-ary Mosk [11]. However, different clocks will get different molecular structures,
so that the diffusion coefficient of the molecule containing clock information is
uncertain. Besides, encoding the clock value into molecules takes time, which
means that the release time of molecules is later than the encoded clock time of
the transmitter. Therefore, to achieve clock synchronization in mobile scenarios,
all these issues will be challenges.
To solve these problems, other different types of molecules with known diffu-
sion coefficients that have been synthesized in advance are released at the clock
time of the transmitter which is encoded into the molecules are used. Because
distance changes over time, to reduce the impact of the change of distance, all
types of molecules are released only once. The receiver estimates the clock off-
set between the transmitter and the receiver by detecting the clock information
in the molecules containing clock information and the number of other types
of molecules with known diffusion coefficients which have been synthesized in
advance. The contributions of this paper are as follows:
1. In the clock synchronization process, the synthetic time when the transmitter
encodes the clock into the molecule and the effect of the molecular structure
change on the diffusion coefficient are considered. By using different types
of molecules released at the clock time of transmitter which is encoded into
molecules, the challenge for the practical varying molecular synthesis time
and diffusion coefficient are solved.
2. Based on the waveform of the molecular signal, by using the least-square
method, the clock offset and the initial distance between the transmitter and
the receiver is estimated.
Combining the above two points, clock synchronization in a mobile scenario is

achieved.
6 L. Huang et al.
The rest of the article is organized as follows. Section 2 presents the system
model. The clock synchronization mechanism is proposed in Sect. 3. Section 4
presents the simulation results. Section 5 finally summarizes the article.
2 System Model
We consider an unbounded three-dimensional fluid environment with constant
temperature and viscosity. The entire nanonetwork includes a clock reference
nanomachine and multiple nanomachines that require clock correction. In this
paper, the clock reference nanomachine is modeled as a moving spherical trans-
mitter with radius aTx , denoted by Tx; the nanomachines that require clock
correction are modeled as receivers with multiple receiving antennas which are
passive observers with radius aRxi , denoted by Rx. Molecules can enter and
leave the passive observers freely. The transmitter nanomachine and the receiver
nanomachines obey the Brownian motion with the diffusion coefficients Dtx and
Drx , respectively. In order to form our system, we make the following assump-
tions about the system:
1. It is assumed that the nanomachines in the network do not collide with each
other, or affect the movement of molecules in the environment.
2. The transmitter can release multiple types of molecules simultaneously. The
receiver has multiple receiving antennas, and each antenna can detect mul-
tiple types of molecules simultaneously. The idea of multiple antennas was
proposed in [18]. It is assumed that the distance between the nanomachines
is much larger than the radius of the nanomachines. Therefore, the distances
between the transmitter nanomachine and each receiving antenna on receiver
nanomachines are the same.
3. The signal molecules are released from the center of the spherical transmitter,
and the molecules can propagate to the receiver by diffusion. The diffusion
process of each molecule in the environment is independent of each other, and
the impact of collisions between molecules is negligible.
4. The time interval between the two clock synchronizations of the network is
long enough, and there is no inter-symbol interference.
Because the movement of molecules is independent of the nanomachines in the
network, the clock reference nanomachine calibrates all nanomachines in the
network independently. At the same time, the receiver nanomachines in the
nanonetwork do not affect the detection of molecular signals by other receiver
nanomachines. We only consider the case where the clock reference nanomachine
corrects the clock of one of the receiver nanomachines in the network. Due to
Brownian motion, the positions of the transmitter and receiver change over time.
d(t) is used to denote the distance between the transmitter and the receiver when
the transmitter clock time is t, as shown in Fig. 1.
The transmitter releases a molecular pulse at any time t, with the number of
released molecules Q, and the diffusion coefficient Dm . At this time, the initial
distance between the receiving antenna and the transmitter is d(t). After the
Fig. 1. Mobile communication system model for synchronization. Colorful balls repre-
sent different types of molecules. (Color figure online)
propagation time τ , the receiver receives information molecules. The channel

impulse response at each receiving antenna given Q released molecules can be
expressed as [7]
vobs Q d2 (t)
si (t, τ ) = 3 exp(− ), (1)
(4πD τ ) 2 4D τ
where vobs = 4π 3
3 aRxi , and si (t, τ ) = 0, for τ ≤ 0. Here D is the equivalent
diffusion coefficient of the relative motion of the signal molecule and the receiver,
D = Drx + Dm [3]. si (t, τ ) is the average number of molecules received by the
ith antenna.
The noise exists due to the free diffusion of the molecules governed by Brown-
ian motion. Assuming that the time between two network synchronization oper-
ations of the network is very long. We do not consider the influence of the signal
molecules sent by the source transmitter. As for the Brownian noise, it is usu-
ally modeled by binomial distribution [23]. According to [4], the Brownian noise
ni (t, τ ) received by ith antenna is modeled as a Gaussian distribution with a
mean of 0 and a variance of si (t, τ ) when si (t, τ ) is very large, i.e.
ni (t, τ ) ∼ N (0, si (t, τ )). (2)
The noise is non-stationary and signal-dependent [10]. Therefore, after propaga-

tion time τ , the number of molecule arriving at the receiver is
Si (t, τ ) = si (t, τ ) + ni (t, τ ). (3)
It is assumed that the receiver has M receiving antennas. The signal received
by the receiver is the average of the signals received by the M antennas. Hence,
1 1
M M
S(t, τ ) = Si (t, τ ) = s(t, τ ) + ni (t, τ ), (4)
M i=1 M i=1
8 L. Huang et al.
where
vobs Q d2 (t)
s(t, τ ) = exp(− ), (5)
(4πD τ )
3
2 4D τ
where S(t, τ ) represents the average number of observed molecules of the receiver
after the propagation time τ of molecules. s(t, τ ) is the number of molecules after
the propagation time τ in theory. Since n (t, τ ) is independent and identically
distributed Gaussian noise, according to theMlaw of large numbers, when the
1
number of antennas is close to infinity, M i=1 ni (t, τ ) is close to 0. Thus the
influence of noise on the signal is weakened. According to (5), when the number
of signal molecules received by the receiver reaches the maximum, the corre-
sponding theoretical peak time is
d2 (t)
tpeak = , (6)
6D
which is defined as the propagation delay.
3 Proposed Clock Synchronization Mechanism

In order to synchronize the clock of the transmitter and the receiver, the clock
offset φ is needed. When the MC system starts clock synchronization process, it
is assumed that the clock of the transmitter at this time is Tt0 , the clock of the
receiver is Tr0 and the initial distance between transmitter and the receiver is
d(Tt0 ). The clock offset φ is defined as
φ = Tr0 − Tt0 . (7)
We consider sending the clock value Tt0 of the transmitter to receivers, and
receivers adjust their clocks so that the clocks of the nanomachines in the entire
system are the same. Like other research papers on clock synchronization [15],
[18], the clock value of the transmitter is encoded into the information molecule
using M-ary Mosk [11]. Each information molecule includes a head, a tail, and
n chemical bit elements, where n=log M. All these parts are linked to the same
molecule by chemical bonds. Assume that the synthesized molecule is molecule
A with diffusion coefficient DA .
However, encoding the transmitter clock into A molecules takes time ε, that
is, the release time of A molecules is later than the encoded clock time Tt0 of
the transmitter. Different clocks will get different molecular structures so that
the diffusion coefficient DA is uncertain. As described in [12], the synthesis time
required for the same molecule is different, which means the synthesis time ε of
a molecule is uncertain. Besides, in a MC system, molecules are released from a
transmitter to a receiver through diffusion, and the propagation time of a signal
cannot be ignored. Therefore, in a MC system, before the receiver nanomachine
corrects its clock based on the received transmitter clock value, the propagation
time of the molecule also needs to be obtained.
Suppose that after the propagation time of A molecules τA , the receiver clock
is tr,A . Then the clock offset φ between the transmitter and the receiver can be
expressed as
φ = tr,A − τA − Tt0 − ε. (8)
The receiver detects and extracts the clock Tt0 of the transmitter in A
molecules, and the clock of the receiver is known. If only A molecules are used
to get the clock offset between the transmitter and the receiver, φ, ε, and prop-
agation time are needed. However, both φ and ε are random numbers, and the
distribution of them cannot be obtained. Therefore, even if the propagation time
of the A molecule is known, clock offset is difficult to obtain.
In this paper, in order to obtain the clock offset φ, in addition to the A
molecule, another different I types of molecules with diffusion coefficient Di
{i = 1, 2..., I} are also used, which have been synthesized and can be released at
transmitter clock Tt0 . That means I + 1 types of molecules will be released from
transmitter. As shown in Fig. 2, when the system starts clock synchronization,
the A molecules begin to synthesize. At the same time, other I types of molecules
are simultaneously released. The number of I types of molecules and A molecules
released by the transmitter are Q.
Tt0: (a) Tt0 is encoded into A molecules; (b) other molecules are released.
Tt0+ε: Type A molecules are synthesized and then released immediately.

ε
The receiver samples the
Transmitter
number of molecules
clock
that arrive. The clock information in the
τpeak,A
τpeak,i A molecule is extracted.
Receiver
clock
Tr0 = Tt0 +Φ tr,i = Tt0 +Φ+τpeak,i
Fig. 2. The clock relationship between transmitter and receiver. ε is the synthesis time
of A molecules. The receiver uses the sampling results of other molecules and the clock
information Tt0 extracted from the A molecule, and uses the least-square method to
estimate the clock offset and the distance between the transmitter and the receiver.
Type A molecules are only used to transmit the clock Tt0 of the transmitter.
The another I types of molecules are used to estimate clock offset and dis-
tance. Since the I types of molecules are released simultaneously, the initial dis-
tance between the transmitter and the receiver is the same. The receiver detects
molecules in the environment. The clock information Tt0 carried in the molecule
A is extracted. And the receiver counts the number of I types of molecules arriv-
ing at the receiver. Suppose the propagation time of type-i molecules is τi , the
receiver clock is tr,i . Then the clock offset φ between the transmitter and the
receiver can be expressed as
τi = tr,i − φ − Tt0 . (9)

10 L. Huang et al.
Substitute (9) into (5),
vobs Q d2 (Tt0 )
s(Tt0 , τi ) = exp(− , (10)
(4πDi (tr,i − φ − Tt0 ))
3
2 4Di (tr,i − φ − Tt0 )
where Di = Drx + Di , Tt0 is the clock of the transmitter when the type-i
molecules are released.
For the I types of molecules, the receiver counts the molecules arriving at
the receiver at the receiver clock time tr,i = {tr1,i , ...trm,i } {i = 1, 2..., I}. Then
mI observations of I types of molecules are obtained, donated by {S1,i , ..., Sm,i }
{i = 1, 2..., I}. There are two unknowns parameters in (10), φ and d(Tt0 ). To
obtain the unknown parameters, the least-square method can be used. For type-i
molecules, {S1,i , ..., Sm,i } are used.

m
vobs Q
{dî (Tt0 ), φ̂i } = arg min ( 3
d(Tt0 ),φ j=1 (4πDi (tr,i − Tt0 − φ)) 2
(11)
d2 (Tt0 )
exp(− ) − Sj,i )2 .
4Di (tr,A − Tt0 − φ)
For the type-i + 1 molecules, φ̂i and dî (Tt0 ) can be used as the initial values
of the least-square method, where
(i − 1)φ̂ i−1 + φ̂i

φ̂i = , (12)
i
(i − 1)dî−1 (Tt0 ) + dî (Tt0 )

dî (Tt0 ) = . (13)
i
The final estimated clock offset and distance are
(I − 1)φ̂ I−1 + φÎ

φÎ = , (14)
I
(I − 1)dÎ−1 (Tt0 ) + dÎ (Tt0 )

dÎ (Tt0 ) = . (15)
I
As stated in Sect. 2, the received signal is affected by additive Gaussian noise. To
mitigate the influence of the noise, one receiver is considered to have 20 antennas.
4 Simulation Results
In order to evaluate the performance of the proposed synchronization mecha-
nism, the simulation results using MATLAB will be presented in this section.
The effect of different parameters on the accuracy of the clock offset estimation
will also be analyzed. The simulation parameters are given in Table 1.
The mean square error (MSE) is a measure that reflects the degree of differ-
ence between the estimate and the actual value. The smaller the mean square
Table 1. System parameters used for numerical results
Parameter Definition Value

Dtx Diffusion coefficient of transmitter 50 μm2/s
Drx Diffusion coefficient of receiver 30 μm2/s
Di Diffusion coefficient of A molecule 100 μm2/s −1000 μm2/s
aTx Radius of transmitter 0.2 μm
aRxi Radius of antenna 0.4 μm
Q Number of A molecule released by the 5000
transmitter
φ Preset value of clock difference 15 s
ε Synthesis time of A molecule 3s
error, the closer the representative estimator is to the estimated amount. For l
actual values xi i = 1, ..., l and corresponding estimated values x̂i i = 1, ..., l, the
mean square error is
1
l
M SE = (xi − x̂i )2 . (16)
l i=1
The simulation results mainly evaluate the performance of the synchronization
mechanism and the influence of various parameters on the system performance
by using the mean square error.
101
I=1
I=2
100 I=4
MSE of estimated clock offset
10-1
10-2
10-3
10-4
10-5
10-6
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Initial distance d(T t0 ) ( m)
Fig. 3. The relationship between the initial distance d(Tt0 ) and the MSE of estimated
φ. I indicates the number of other types of molecules used.
12 L. Huang et al.
Figure 3 shows that the performance of the proposed clock offset estimation
algorithm for φ. The performance of the algorithm is mainly related to the
distance between the transmitter and the receiver when molecules are released.
As the distance increases, the MSE of the estimated φ increases. This is because
as the distance gradually increases, the number of signal molecules received by
the receiver gradually decreases, and the received signal is gradually increased
by the influence of noise. Also, the type of molecules released will also affect
the performance of the algorithm. The more types of molecules released, the
better the estimation performance of the algorithm. This is because the I types
of molecules are released at the same time, and the initial distance d(Tt0 ) and
clock offset φ between the transmitter and the receiver are the same. Different
molecules are affected by noise differently. Using multiple types of molecules can
reduce the effect of noise on overall synchronization performance.
I=1
I=2
RMSE of estimated distance d ( m)
101
100
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Fig. 4. The RMSE of estimated initial distance d(Tt0 ).
In Fig. 4, the root mean square error (RMSE) of the proposed clock offset
estimation algorithm for d(Tt0 ). As with the estimation of the clock offset, the
RMSE of estimated distance is also mainly affected by the distance between
the transmitter and the receiver at the moment of molecular release. And the
more types of molecules released, the better the estimation performance of the
algorithm.
In Fig. 5, the algorithm proposed in this paper is applied in two scenarios.
One scenario does not consider the synthesis time of the molecule, and the other
scenario considers the synthesis time of the molecule. It can be seen that the
clock synchronization performance obtained after considering the effect of molec-
ular synthesis time is better. Also, the algorithm proposed in this paper is also
compared with the current synchronization algorithms in fixed MC systems.
Blind synchronization algorithm proposed in [18]

Regardless of the molecular synthesis time
The synthesis time of the molecule is considered
MSE of estimated clock offset

100
32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50
Fig. 5. The algorithm proposed in this paper is applied to two different scenarios, one
considers the synthesis time of molecules and the other does not consider the synthesis
time of molecules. And the blind synchronization algorithm proposed in [18].
Compared with the blind synchronization algorithm used in [18], the proposed
synchronization algorithm in this paper has better performance. This is because
more types of molecules are used in this paper and the clock of the transmitter is
directly transmitted to the receiver. As Fig. 5 shown, three types of molecules are
used. This relatively increases the requirements for the functions of transmitter
and receiver nanomachines.
The above simulation results show that the synchronization mechanism pro-
posed in this paper has good performance in a certain range. However, when the
distance between the transmitter and receiver is large enough, the MSE of esti-
mated φ will also be very large so that the estimated clock offset is not accurate.
To obtain better performance, more types of molecules can be used. But it will
improve the requirements for the functions of the transmitter and receiver. From
both Figs. 3 and 4, it can be seen that, for the proposed clock synchronization
mechanism, the effect of distance between the transmitter and the receiver is
greater than that of the number of types of molecules released.
5 Conclusion
In this paper, we investigate the clock synchronization between the transmit-

ter and the receiver in a mobile MC system. The clock offset and the distance
between transmitter and receiver is estimated by releasing multiple types of
molecules. The transmitter clock value is encoded into signal molecules. The
synthesis time of molecules is taken into account. The clock offset between the
transmitter and receiver is estimated by the least-square method. The initial
14 L. Huang et al.
distance, and the number of the type of molecules released will affect the per-
formance of the MC system. Simulation results show that the synchronization
mechanism proposed in this paper has good performance. In our future work,
we will continue to study clock synchronization mechanisms and performance in
more practical mobile MC systems in nanonetworks.
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A Cooperative Molecular Communication
for Targeted Drug Delivery
Yue Sun1,2(B) , Yutao Hsiang1 , Yifan Chen2 , and Yu Zhou3

1
Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu, China
[email protected], laoxiang [email protected]
2
University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China
[email protected]
3
Beijing Institute of Collaborative Innovation, Santa Clara, USA
[email protected]
Abstract. The lack of actively targeted nanoparticles and a low drug

concentration in lesions are two of the main problems in drug delivery.
This paper proposes a cooperative molecular communication system for
drug delivery, electromagnetic control in the lead with bacteria follow-
ers. The leading particle is consisted by two function: could be controlled
by electromagnetic field, and release attractant molecules. This coopera-
tive scheme provides actively targeted ability by electromagnetic control,
furthermore it expands the impact range of chemotactic substances to
improve the chemotactic efficiency. To approach the specific position, this
paper proposes electromagnetic field to control the nanoparticles, while
bacteria could search the larger concentration positions and get closer
to the leading particles. This paper develops mathematical modelling for
the proposed model, as well as the self-adapted concentration gradient
field searching algorithm. Finally, this paper performs biologically realis-
tic simulation experiments to evaluate the performance of the proposed
model.
Keywords: Molecular communication · Cooperative communication ·

Targeted drug delivery
1 Introduction
The possibility of engineering nanoparticles that selectively detect and deliv-
ery to the cancer cells has been developed for last a few decades. However,
[1] revealed that a median of 0.7% of the injected dose (ID) of the nanopar-
ticles reached the tumor, and delivery efficiency has not well improved. If we
improve delivery efficiencies, the injection volume of drug encapsulation strat-
egy for nanoparticles would decrease. Biodegradable semiconductor materials
[2] combined with bio-inspired molecular communications (MC) [3,4], will find
important applications in controllable drug delivery. More important, the process
Supported by Chengdu University of Technology.
c ICST Institute for Computer Sciences, Social Informatics and Telecommunications Engineering 2020
Published by Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020. All Rights Reserved
Y. Chen et al. (Eds.): BICT 2020, LNICST 329, pp. 16–26, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57115-3_2
A Cooperative Molecular Communication for Targeted Drug Delivery 17
of targeted drug delivery process can be viewed as a molecular communication

system that uses principles beyond classical electromagnetism [3]. An engineered
transmitter releases nanoparticle into a fluid propagation medium. These drug
nanoparticles are regarded as information carrier; thus, the concentration of
nanoparticles is encoded as message. The propagation of particles is divided
into passive (e.g., diffusion) or active (e.g., with molecular motors) transport
mechanism. The reception process donates that particles eventually received at
a selectively receiver (e.g., ligand-based receptors), where messages are decoded.
Under this framework of MC, it delivers drug messages (healing actions) from
the transmitter location (injection site) to the receiver location (targeted site).
In [6], magnetism-sensitive molecules are used as the information carrier,
which can be controlled to some extent by an external field and observed and
monitored in real-time with existing imaging technology, the corresponding MC
scheme is named touchable communication (TouchCom). However, only a few
numbers of particles can be controlled by external electromagnetic filed. In
[5], they proposed a leader-follower-based MC, follower bio-nanomachines move
according to the attractant gradient established by leader bio-nanomachines.
We follow part of the idea leader-and- follower in [5]. As different from [5], the
followers are bacteria and the leading particle is the in the motion by external
electromagnetic filed.
Cooperative Communication is a technology used relay nodes multi-user envi-
ronment and the multiple-input multiple-output system to increase the commu-
nication capacity this is proposed by [7]. Here we define the source node for
the leading particle, the relay nodes denotes that be released by leading particle
as attractant molecules to enhance the efficiency .In the drug delivery appli-
cation, various methods could be considered in precise delivering the drugs,
the chemotaxis model has been created by [8–10], the electromagnetic model
for the molecular is also had been established by [8] and other models such
as the hydrogen-bonding based electronic transmission system created by [11].
However, their models are hardly ever mentioned and tested the cooperative
communication system. Cooperative molecular communication system could be
the effective MIMO system for high capacity transmitting too. While we are
putting quantitative concentration particles in an environment, the particles
could attract the bacteria in damaged tissue or the bacteria already included
the drugs and around the attractant. As result, the position with larger concen-
tration would attract more bacteria than the position with less concentration
so the number of bacteria around the destination is much larger than with no
attraction source. Based on the it we propose a model which explicating the
chemotaxis to enhance the efficiency of the molecular communication system.
Inside the human body, there’re innumerable cross of vessels and to get to the
precise position of destination there’s an effective navigating system by control-
ling the electromagnetic field. The whole system is proposed by [6], the Touch-
Com devices and testing show the practicability of this model. So, we assume
that there’s a kind of particle is the derivative of an organic molecule and bac-
teria could be attracted by it. And it should be merged by the metal ion so
18 Y. Sun et al.
the electromagnetic devices could control the positions, velocity and accelerate
of the source particle. While it’s getting closer to the destination, the leading
particle will release attractant molecules. During its route, the bacteria injected
before will randomly act, when the attractant molecules’ concentration reached
the bacteria’s minimum sensing band, the bacteria they attracted would try to
get closer to the attractant. And then the bacteria follow the particles to the
destination. Here we show the Fig. 1 to reveal the details of our model.
Fig. 1. The illustration of cooperative molecular system.
The paper is organized as follows. In Section, we present the architecture

of proposed cooperative molecular communication system included bacteria fol-
lowers and electromagnetic field controlled leading particles. In Section, we will
propose the mathematical model for this section. In section, we evaluate the
efficiency of this cooperative MC system by simulation results.
2 Section Basic Model
Now let’s assume that there’s a kind of particle is benefit to the bacteria’s living
so if the bacteria contact with larger concentration position than it possessed
then the bacteria would try to get closer to this position. With the standard
concentration distribution function let’s set an upper concentration limit for the
bacteria so when the increase of concentration is greater than it, the bacteria
would get to the largest concentration position. Based on these we create an
simulate environment, Fig. 2 shows a typical concentration distribution in human
vessel and Fig. 3 shows the actually mathematical model of the concentration
distribution function. So, in the local area the distribution of the concentration
could be considered as:
− x2 +y 2
( )
M
C= 3 e 4Dt (1)
(4Dπt) 2
A Cooperative Molecular Communication for Targeted Drug Delivery 19
According to [12,13], the parameter D is the diffusion coefficient of the

molecule, the M is numbers of attractant released by relay node in a period time.
As the time t is becoming infinite the concentration is becoming uniformed in
the local area. However, this circumstance is not permitted because there’s no
difference for the bacteria, so we set a limited time TB for the bacteria to find
the particle’s position. If it doesn’t find it in the limited time, we consider it
would not find the particle forever and record zero for it.
Fig. 2. A circumstance in human vessel while the injected area’s concentration is

greater than the area does not inject the particles.
Fig. 3. A typically mathematical model of concentration distribution.
While the particles have injected in the vessel, we consider they could release
and dissolve themselves stably into ionic state and both the particles and the
bacteria would keep relative static in the blood flow. The ionic particles carry
electron so electromagnetic field could control the ionic particles’ direction and
velocity. In limited time the particles keep themselves united and only release
a small part of themselves into the plasma so there’s a definite concentration
difference between local position and bacteria’s position. To control the parti-
cles’ position precisely, it’s considerable to calculate the exactly results of the
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[104] De Natura Hominis; de Salubri Victus Ratione; de Natura
Muliebri; de Morbis, ii., iii.; de Superfœtatione.
[105] De Flatibus; de Locis in Homine; de Arte; de Diæta; de
Insomniis; de Affectionibus; de Internis Affectionibus; de Morbis,
i.; de Septimestri Partu; de Octimestri Partu; Epidemiorum, ii., iv.,
vii.; de Humoribus; de Usu Liquidorum.
[106] Epistolæ; Thessali Legati Oratio; Oratio ad Aram;
Atheniensium Senatus-Consultum.
[107] De Genitura; de Natura Pueri; de Morbis, iv.; de
Mulierum Morbis; de Virginum Morbis; de Sterilibus.
[108] Epidemiorum, v., vii.; de Corde; de Alimento; de
Carnibus; de Septimanis; de Natura Ossium; de Glandulis; de
Medico; de Decenti habitu; Præceptiones; de Anatomia; de
Dentitione; de Exsectione Fœtus; de Visu; de Crisibus; de Diebus
Criticis; de Medicamentis Purgativis.
[109] Hippocrat. Coi Comment. etc., Theod. Zuingeri studio.
Basil, 1579.
[110] See his additions to Ackerman’s Dissertation, in his
edition of the Works of Hippocrates.
[111] § 122, tom. i., p. 172 (ed. Bekker), where see the note of
Heindorf.
[112] Galeni Opera, tom. v., pp. 2, 16; ed. Basil.
[113] Œuvres Complètes, etc., tom. i., p. 320.
[114] The argument turns principally on the meaning of the
expression, τι πότε λέγει Ἱπποκράτης τε καὶ ὁ ἀληθὴ λόγος, which
M. Littré contends signifies, “ce qu’Hippocrate et la raison
pourraient dire.” Now I must say that, to me, the words of Plato
here quoted do not warrant the interpretation which M. Littré puts
upon them; and, not satisfied with my own judgment on this point,
which happens in the present instance to be an important one, I
applied to one of the best authorities in Britain on the minutiæ of
the Greek language for his opinion, and was happy to find that it
entirely corresponded with my own. Having alluded in the text to
the prolixity of the discussion which M. Littré enters into on this
occasion, I trust that eminent scholar will not be offended
(provided these pages ever meet his eyes) if I introduce here an
anecdote of the celebrated Kuster. Having been shown a work in
which the quantity of argumentation and reflection greatly over-
balanced the amount of facts and references, he laid it aside with
the remark, “I find nothing here but reasoning: non sic itur ad
astra.”
[115] Galeni Opera, tom. v., p. 119; ed. Basil.
[116] Comment. vii.; et sect. vii., 53 et seq.
[117] See under Hippocrates in Smith’s Greek and Roman
Biographical and Mythological Dictionary.
[118] “In all paroxysms, or sharp fits of intermitting diseases,
we must take away meat, for then to give it is hurtful.”
[119] “The belly is naturally hottest in winter and the spring,
and most addicted to rest. Consequently in these seasons a
greater proportion of food is to be allowed, because the inward
heat is stronger, which is the reason that a more plentiful food is
necessary. This difference may be seen in such as are old, and in
such as are lusty and well-grown bodies.”
[120] “Those things that are or have been justly determined by
nature, ought not to be moved or altered, either by purging or
other irritating medicines; but should be left alone.”
[121] “Things evacuated and purged are not to be estimated
by the multitude and quantity, but by their fitness to be avoided
and sent forth; and must be such as are not too troublesome to
the patient to bear. Though, where it is necessary, we must
proceed in evacuating, even to swooning and fainting, if the
patient can bear it.”
[122] “Those who are grieved in any part of the body, and are
scarce sensible of their grief, have a distempered mind.”
[123] “When the upper parts of the throat or gullet are sore, or
a breaking out of small tumours does arise in the body, we ought
to look upon the excrements; for if they are choleric, the body is
also sick; but if they are like the excrements of sound persons,
the body may be nourished without danger.”
[124] “When that which ought to be evacuated is discharged
by spontaneous vomiting and diarrhœa, it is useful and easily
endured; but when otherwise, the contrary. This is equally true
with regard to every vessel,” etc.
[125] “They in whom the greatest vigor of the disease is
immediately perceived, are to be immediately sparingly supplied
with food; but from those in whom it occurs later, the food must at
that time, or a little earlier, be abstracted. Previously, however, we
must nourish more freely, that the sick may be supported.”
[126] “Whilst the crisis is forming, and when it is complete,
nothing ought to be moved or to be introduced, whether by
purgatives or other irritants; but all should be left at rest.”
[127] “They who are accustomed to daily labor, although even
weak or old, endure it more easily than the robust or young, who
are even accustomed to it.”
[128] “In regard to the seasons, if the winter has been dry and
cold, and the spring moist and warm, in summer acute fevers,
ophthalmias, and dysenteries must necessarily occur, chiefly,
however, among females and men of pituitous temperament.”
[129] Tom. v., p. 399; ed, Basil.
[130] “The state of the air being, upon the whole, dry, with a
south wind, which was just contrary to what happened the year
before, when the north chiefly prevailed; there were but few
inflammatory fevers, and these were of a mild disposition, very
few being attended with hemorrhages, and much fewer, if any,
with death.” (p. 4.)
“They affected children, young persons, and those who were
arrived at years of maturity, and especially those who used much
exercise, yet but few women.” (Ibid.)
“Before the summer, and even during that season, nay, in
winter likewise, there were many who had been disposed to a
phthisis who were now afflicted with that disease,” etc. (Ibid.)
“The extremities were generally very cold, there was seldom
any heat in them.” (p 3.)
[131] Præfat. Gloss.
[132] Comment. in Libr. de Fract.
[133] In Lib. Prognos. Comment.
[134] Tom. v., p. 89; ed. Basil.
[135] Comment. in Lib. de Fract.
[136] Deipnos, ii., 7.
[137] De Propr. Lib., in III. Epid., Comm. ii., Præf.
[138] Bibl. Med., p. 1, 29, 59.
[139] The inhabitants of Asiatic Ionia, and the islands
adjoining, were all colonists from Attica. (See in particular
Thucyd., i., 12; and also Herodot. viii., 44; and Heraclides, de
Politiis.) Dr. Coray supposes that Hippocrates represents himself
as being a European, in consequence of his having composed
this treatise in Europe, at a distance from his native country. But
there is no necessity for this supposition, as Hippocrates, being of
Grecian descent, would naturally enough consider himself a
European, since the great body of the Greeks were Europeans.
Coray mentions a striking instance of Haller’s incapacity to form a
correct judgment on the works of Hippocrates, from want of a
proper acquaintance with the Greek language.—Discours
Préliminaire, etc., p. lvi.
[140] De Placit. Hippocr., et Platon. ix.; de Diff. Resp., iii., 7.
[141] Ap. Foës., p. 197.
[142] Galeni Opera, tom. v., p. 652; ed. Basil.
[143] Opera, tom. v., p, 578; ed. Basil.
[144] Ibid., p. 170.
[145] In Prædict. i., Comm. i., 4.
[146] V. Galen, in Exeges. in vocibus ἐκλούσθω, σφάκερος,
etc.
[147] Præfat. Gloss. Hippocrat.
[148] Gynæc., tom. i., P. I., p. 13.
[149] In vita Hippocrat.
[150] Ad Nepotian. de vita Cleric., Ep. ii., p. 13, tom. i.; ed.
Paris, 1643.
[151] Orat. Funebr., in Cæsarium Fratrem.
[152] Sub voce Hippocrates.
[153] Epist. ad C. Jal. Callistum.
[154] Thesmophor., l. 240.
[155] De Legg. iv., l. vi., p. 134; ed. Tauchnitz.
[156] Tom. ii., p. xlviii.; Add. et Corrig.
[157] Tom. v., p. 526; ed. Basil, etc. Elsewhere he quotes it as
being undoubtedly genuine.—De Placit. Hippoc. etc., ix., 1.
[158] Hist. Med., p. 283.
[159] See Polybius, as quoted by Littré, l., c.; also section iii. of
the Preliminary Discourse.
[160] Saturnal., vii., 6.
[161] Hist. Animal., iii., 3.
[162] In Boerhaav., Meth. Stud. Med.
[163] De Placit. Hippocrat. et Plat., vi., 3; et Opera, tom. v., p.
22; ed. Basil.
[164] De Nat. Facult., tom. i., p. 87.
[165] Opera, tom. v., p. 329; ed. Basil.
[166] See English translation of Paulus Ægineta, Book I., p.
549.
[167] See Galen, tom. v., p. 2.
[168] See further, under No. 1.
[169] Opera, tom. v., pp. 17, 29.
[170] See Paulus Ægineta, I., 50.
[171] I., 3.
[172] Sect. ii., near the beginning.
[173] Comment. in III. Epidem.
[174] Ad Hippocrat. de Aëre, Aquis, Locis, § 65.
[175] De Vulneribus superciliis allatis. Lips., 1741.
[176] Lehre von den Augen-krankheiten. Wien, 1813.
[177] In VI. Aphor., 3, Comm. vi.; Meth. Med., iv., 6.
[178] Hist. Med., i., 3, 4, 60. His language is particularly
strong: “Maximè genuinus ab omnibus judicatur.”
[179] In his Commentary on this work.
[180] Book iv., 44. See the authorities quoted in the
Commentary on this chapter in the English edition. Schulze
properly remarks, that the composition which he recommends as
an application to certain sores resembles the Ægyptiacum of
modern times.—Hist. Med., i., 3, 4, 63.
[181] Comment in Lib. de Nat. Human.
[182] They are as follows: “Continuari cum libello de
hæmorrhoidis manifeste spurio, ideoque ipsum esse spurium,
Galenus jam notat in Gloss., s. v. πήρινα et στρυβλήν.” Now, as
stated above, Galen does not say a word against the authenticity
of these works.
[183] Comment i., in Hipp. Prognost. The quotation prefixed to
this work in the editions of Vander-linden and Frobenius, in which
Galen is stated to have held this work not to be genuine, is
admitted by Littré to be of no authority.
[184] Morb. Diuturn., i., 4.
[185] See Menage in Diogen. Laert., p. 241.
[186] See § 66, tom. vii., p. 359: ed. Bekker.
[187] See all these authorities as quoted by Ackerman.
[188] Hist. de la Méd., i., iii., 4.
[189] It may appear a singular idea that the earth is supported
on air, and yet it was very generally held by the learned men of
antiquity. The poet Lucan thus alludes to this doctrine:
“Dum terra fretum terramque levabit

Aer.”
Pharsal., i., 89.
And in like manner Ovid:
“Nec circumfuso pendebat in aere tellus

Ponderibus librata suis.”
Met., I., 11.
Bentley remarks, in his note on the passage in Lucan, “Omnis

poetarum chorus hoc prædicat ut et philosophorum veterum.”
[190] Morb. Chron., i.
[191] Corp. Human. Appell., ii., 1.
[192] See under θήριον and κρημνόι.
[193] They refer apparently to Deipnos, ii., 7, where Athenæus
quotes a treatise of Hippocrates περὶ τόπων, but he evidently
means by it the work “de Aëre, Aquis, Locis.” It is to be borne in
mind that Athenæus often makes his references in a loose
manner.
[194] De Facult. Natur., ii.
[195] Censura Libr. Hippocrat., p. 115.
[196] Comment. in Epidem., ii., 3. See also Le Clerc, Hist. de
la Méd., iii., 17; and Sprengel, Hist. de la Méd., tom. i., p. 325,
etc. A passage, which we shall see below, in the Prognostics (§
15) puts it beyond a doubt that venesection was part of the
routine of practice pursued by Hippocrates in cases of
pneumonia. See also (and this passage is very decisive) de
Diæta in Morb. Acut., § 5; and Galen’s Commentary, pluries.
[197] The strongest argument in favor of its being a production
of the Cnidian school is the mode of treating pneumonia here laid
down, which certainly in so far agrees with what Galen says of
Cnidian practice in such cases, namely, that those authorities
omitted bleeding and purging. See Opera, tom. v., p. 87.
[198] See under Ἱππωκράτης. The meaning of the passage,
however, is somewhat doubtful.
[199] Comment, in Lib. Vict. Acut., i., p. 43; ed. Basil.
[200] Zuinger, however, stands up for its genuineness.
Hippocratis Vigenti duo Comment., etc., p. 386. He gives a most
elaborate analysis of it.
[201] These dreamy views of human life look very much like
an anticipation of the Fourierism of the present day. So true is the
hackneyed saying, “there is nothing new under the sun!”
[202] Hist. de la Méd., i., iii., 13.
[203] Hippocrates, in his treatise ‘On Diet in Acute Diseases,’
says decidedly that the ancients—that is to say, his predecessors
—had written nothing of any value on the subject of Dietetics (§
1). From this we may infer that the present work was not known in
his days; for it can scarcely be supposed that he would have
spoken so disparagingly of it.
[204] Galen quotes it as a portion of the work on Diet. See
Opera, tom. v., p. 377; ed. Basil.
[205] This idea is well explained and enlarged upon by
Alexander Aphrodisiensis.—Probl. i., 118. This writer must not be
confounded with the commentator on Aristotle.
[206] Zuinger points out a striking mark of the connection
between it and the work ‘On Diet:’ op. sup. laud. p. 549.
[207] Amstel., 1658.
[208] Oneirocritica, etc. Lutetiæ, 1603.
[209] Σκιᾱς ὄναρ ἄνθρωποι. Pind. Pyth., viii.
[210] Comment. in Libr. de Diæt. Acut., i.
[211] Tom. v., pp. 306, 614, etc.; ed. Basil.
[212] See the Syd. Soc. edition of Paulus Ægineta, Vol. I., p.
264.
[213] Galen, by the way, mentions that Euryphon, the
celebrated Cnidian physician in the days of Hippocrates, was in
the practice of treating empyema with the actual cautery.—
Comment. in Aphor., vii., 44. This is a strong confirmation of the
opinion that this treatise must have emanated from the Cnidian
school.
[214] See the Syd. Soc. edition of Paulus Ægineta, Vol. I., p.
354.
[215] I presume it was the rib itself that was perforated, and
not the intercostal space. The term τρύπανον was generally
applied to the trepan. The epithet τρυγλητήριον, or, as Foës
proposes to read it, τρωλοδυτήριων, is probably derived from
τρώγλη, a hole, and δύω, to penetrate; joined together, they
would signify a trepan for boring holes.
[216] Morb. Acut., iii., 17.
[217] De Humor., Comment. in VI. Epidem.
[219] The silphium, indeed, is mentioned among the remedies
for this case in the treatise “On Regimen in Acute Diseases” (7),
but not the other articles.
[220] Ad Epidem., vi., 6, 27.
[221] Hippocrat. Opera, i., p. 318.
[222] The opinions on this subject are given very fully by Aulus
Gellius. Noctes Atticæ, iii., 10.
[223] I should mention that Zuinger pronounces, without the
slightest hesitation, in favor of their genuineness: op. sup. laud.
pp. 188, 199.
[224] De Difficult. Respir., ii., 8; ibid., iii., 1.
[225] Comm. Epid., vi., 2, 15.
[227] See series of papers in illustration of it, published in the
Medical Gazette for the year 1847, by Dr. Wardel. On one point I
cannot agree with this writer; he says, the fever was of a
continued character, whereas in all the cases which I met with it
was decidedly remittent.
[228] VIII., 4.
[229] Institut., Orat. iii.
[230] De Perfect. in Virt.
[231] § 27.
[232] It cannot but appear singular that so distinguished a
person as Robert Boyle should have found fault with Hippocrates
for relating so many cases of which the issue was fatal. He says,
“Revera penes me non parum Hippocratis auctoritate decedit,
quod in scriptis suis tot ægrotorum epiphonema ipsos mortuos
esse legerem.”—Exer. v., de Utilitate Philosoph. Exper., p. 192.
On the other hand, Mart. Lister justly defends Hippocrates: “A me
sane absit illa quorundam nuperorum scriptorum jactantia, qui
nihil exhibent, nisi quod bonum eventum habuit; errores et
infortunia caute abscondunt, aliter autem nobis profuit magnus
Hippocrates, apud quem fere non nisi casus funesti occurrunt, ac
si iidem potioris doctrinæ essent.”—Exercit. de Hydrope.
[233] Acut. Morb., iii., 17.
[234] Perspiratio dicta Hippocrati.
[235] By Nature, the ancient philosophers understood an
immaterial principle diffused through all the works of creation, that
is to say, an internal principle of motion and of rest, which
presides over the growth and nourishment of all substances. It is
well defined by Aristotle in different parts of his works. See De
Anima, ii., 4; and Auscultationes Naturales, pluries. That truly
learned and ingenious author Bishop Berkeley, in his “Siris,”
describes nature as being mind so fuddled with matter as to have
lost its consciousness. Probably, the distinction between a
material and immaterial principle as the cause of the vital
phenomena was not so well understood until after Plato and
Aristotle had cultivated mental philosophy with so great success;
for, as we shall see in the next section, Hippocrates seems to
identify mind with heat, that is to say, he confounds the cause of
motion and of change with its first instrument, or co-cause
(συνάιτιον).
[236] See the references given by Gruner, Ackerman, and
Littré.
[237] See Musonius, Ap. Stobæi Sentent., xviii. It occurs
frequently in Galen.
[238] Des Maladies de la France dans leurs Rapports avec les
Saisons, p. 193. Paris, 1840.
[239] Natural. Facult., ii., 8; de Placit. Plat. et Hippocrat., viii.,
5.
[240] Opera, tom. v., pp. 257, 479; ed. Basil.
[241] Deipnos, ii., 46.
[242] Zuinger considers it in the light of extracts from the Note-
book of Hippocrates (or Hippocratea Adversaria).
[243] Ad Aphor. v., 37.
[244] De Fœtus fabricat.
[245] Comment. in Libr. de Fract. ap. Foës, p. 147.
[246] Somnium Scipionis, i., 6.
[247] Vol. i., p. 386; ed. Kühn.
[248] Even Zuinger admits that, both in style and matter, these
treatises are unlike the genuine works of Hippocrates.
[249] Vol. i., p. 371; ed. Kühn.
[250] Ibid., p. 387.
[251] Ibid., p. 420.
[252] In Gloss. in voce ἄλφιτα, etc.
[253] See Foës, Œconom. Hippocrat. in voce κιών.
[254] Bibl. Græc., ii., 24, p. 801.
[255] Aristotle refers this opinion to Leophanes, De
Generatione Animalium, v., 1.
[256] De Placit. Hippocrat. et Plat., ix.
[257] Comment., tom. xv., p. 224; ed. Kühn.
[258] Noct. Attic., iii., 16.
[259] Ap. Foës; ed. Hippocrat.
[260] Comment. in Galen; ed. Dietz.
[261] Hist. Med., P. i., iii., 2, 257.
[262] In Boerhaav. Meth. Stud. Med., i., 3, p. 594.
[263] De Placit. Hippocrat. et Platon.
[264] De Acut., i., 7; de Chron., i., 13.
[265] See Galen, de Facult. Natural., i.; de Diff. Febr., ii.; de
Usu Pulsuum, i.; and Alexander Trallian, i.
[266] In Epidem. Comm., iii., 29, etc.
[267] See the remarks on this passage in the next section.
[268] De Cosmopœa.
[270] Καλὸν καὶ αγαθὸν. See the Annotations on Mitchell’s
Aristophanes as to the import of this expression. I quote from
memory.
[271] I quote here from memory, not having leisure to search
the passages in Galen’s works where this saying occurs. It is a
maxim, however, which he frequently repeats.
[272] One word (ἰχθύη) which occurs in this work is in the
Glossaries of Galen and Erotian. This is likely to be an
interpolation.
[273] Tuscul. Disputat., v., 35.
[274] In vita Platonis.
[275] I have always looked upon the “Epistolæ Græcanicæ” as
being a species of literary composition allied to the
Declamationes of the Romans, that is to say, that they were mere
exercises in composition. On the latter, see Quintilian, Instit.
Orator., iv., 2. We possess a volume of these Declamations under
the name of Quintilian, but they are not generally admitted to be
genuine. They are exercises on themes prescribed in the schools
of rhetoric. The subjects were sometimes historical events,
connected with the lives of distinguished personages. The poet
Juvenal alludes to Declamations in several places, as in Satir. i.,
16; x., 167; vi., 169; vii., 161. The Satyricon of Petronius Arbiter
opens with a powerful invective against the declaimers of the day,
whom the author holds to have been the corrupters of all true
eloquence.
[276] Scaliger, Menage, Gruner, and Littré, although they
regard the Epistles as spurious, admit that they are “very ancient.”
[277] See Diog. Lært. ix. Ælian. Var. Hist. iv., 20.
[278] Chemical Essays, vol. iv., Essay 7.
[279] Ocellus Lucanus, On the Universe.
[280] Αόγοι γὰρ ἀσώματοι τυγχάνουσι τούτων.
[281] Ocellus Lucanus, On the Universe.
[282] Ibid.
[283] Timæus Locrus, On the Soul of the Universe.
[284] Diogenes Laertius, Life of Pythagoras. That Monad and
Duad, in the symbolical language of Pythagoras, signified Mind
and Matter, is positively stated by Philo Judæus. Ἑπόμενος δ'
ἀκολουθίᾳ ύσεως κἀκεῖνο λέξω ὅτι μουὰς εἴκων αἰτίου πρώτου,
δυὰς δε παθητῆς καὶ διαιρετῆς ὕλης.—De Specialibus Legibus. It
may be proper to mention here that it is not true, as has been
often stated in modern works, that Pythagoras himself taught the
same system of the world as Copernicus; the first person who did
so was Philolaus the Pythagorean philosopher. See Diogenes
Laertius.
[285] Jamblichus, Life of Pythagoras, § 27. I have adopted the
emendation of the text proposed by Obrechtus.
[286] Ovid’s Metamorph., translated by Dryden, Book xv.
[287] Plato, in his Timæus.
[288] Ἐκμαγεῖον. Harris, in his Philosophical Arrangements,
translates this word by “impression”; but it does not, strictly
speaking, signify impression, but the substance which receives
the impression. Wax, for example, is not the impression of the
seal, but the substance which receives the impression. Matter, in
like manner, is not the impression of forms, but the substance
which receives the impression.
[289] Plato, in his Timæus.
[290] Ibid. These opinions regarding the elements and the first
matter are expressed with much precision and clearness; but, in
other parts of his Timæus, it must be admitted that he betrays
some confusion of ideas on this subject, as is remarked by his
illustrious pupil Aristotle (De Ortu et Interitu, ii., 1). A translation of
part of Plato’s Timæus regarding the elements, may be seen in
the Somnium Scipionis of Macrobius, lib. i.
[291] Apuleius the Platonic Philosopher, On Natural
Philosophy.
[292] Idem, On the Universe.
[293] Cicero, On the Nature of the Gods, ii., 33.
[294] Plotinus, Ennead ii., 4.
[295] Plotinus, Ennead ii., 6.
[296] Proclus, Inst. Theol., 72.
[297] Plutarch, On the Opinions of the Philosophers.
[298] Galen, On the Elements, etc., ii.
[299] Galen, Commentary on the Nature of Man.
[300] Idem, On the Elements, etc.
[301] Philo, on the Creation of the World.
[302] On the Indestructibility of the Universe.
[303] On the Creation.
[304] On a Contemplative Life.
[305] Haly Abbas, Theor., i., 5.
[306] Auscult. Natur., i., near the end.
[307] Categor.
[308] On Birth and Death, ii., 1.
[309] Auscult. Phys., iv.
[310] Simplicius, Comment. in Auscult. Nat., iv.
[311] Ammonius, Comment. in Porphyr. Introd.
[312] Ibid.
[313] Theophrastus, On Fire.
[314] Ibid.
[315] Cicero, Quæd. Acad., i., 6.
[316] Cicero, Quæd. Acad., i., 7.
[317] Diogenes Laertius, in the Life of Zeno the Stoic. The
reader must take care not to confound him with Zeno the Eclectic.
[318] Seneca, Ep. 65.
[319] Seneca, Nat. Quæst., ii., 15.
[320] Seneca, Nat. Quæst., iii., 10.
[321] Lactantius, Div. Inst., iii., 3.
[322] See under ἀρχαι.
[323] Plutarch, Concerning the Opinions of the Philosophers.
[324] Simplicius, Comm. in Aristot. Auscult. Nat., p. 7; ed. Ald.
[325] Marcus Antoninus, iv., 46.
[326] Ibid.
[327] Ibid.
[328] Manilius, Astron., iii., 53:—
“Principium rerum et custos natures latentûm

Cum tantas strueret moles per inania mundi:
* * * * *
Aëraque et terras flammamque undamque natantem
Mutua in alternum præbere alimenta juberet.”
[329] Lucretius, Of the Nature of Things, Book i., translated by

Creech.
[330] Cicero, Acad. Quæst., i., 2; Galen, de Elementis.
[331] Diogenes Laertius, Life of Democritus.
[332] Ἡ ὔλη ἄποιος. Galen, de Element. ex Hippocrat.
[333] The eternity of matter is a doctrine which was
maintained by all the ancient philosophers and by several of the
Christian fathers of the church, but is generally rejected by our
modern divines as being, in their opinion, contradictory to
Revelation. But were it really so, it would hardly have found an
advocate in the learned and pious author of “Paradise Lost.” That
such was truly his opinion can now admit of no doubt, from what
he states on the subject in his treatise on Christianity, published
some years ago by the present Archbishop of Canterbury; and
the same might have been inferred from more than one passage
in his great poem. The Jewish philosopher, Philo, seems to admit
the eternity of matter, although he denies the eternity of the world.
(On the Creation.)
[334] “There are varieties,” says Strabo, “of the watery
element; for this kind is saltish, and that sweet, and fit for drink;
and others again poisonous, salutary, deadly, cold, and hot.”—
Geograph., xvii., 1. See also Aristot., Meteorol.
[335] Aristotle inquires whether the atmosphere be a single
substance or many, and if many, of how many it consists.
(Meteorol., i., 3.) I may be allowed to remark in this place, that
Galen’s ideas regarding respiration are wonderfully accurate, and
not very different from those now entertained by the profession.
Thus he compares the process of respiration to combustion, and
says it produces the same change upon atmospheric air. He
further agrees with modern physiologists in considering it as the
vital operation by which the innate (or animal) heat is preserved.
(De Respiratione.) Compare this treatise with Baron Cuvier’s
admirable section on Respiration and observe on how many
points these two great physiologists agree. (Leçons d’Anatom.
Compar., 26.)
[336] Timæus.
[337] De Igne.
[338] De Partibus Animalium, ii., 2. His great commentator,
Averrhoes the Arabian, states this distinction very correctly. See
Cantic. Avicennæ, tr. v.
[339] Lucan’s Pharsalia, i., 157, 606.
[340] De Carnibus. (See the preceding section.) In like manner
Phornutus says, “our souls are fire.” (De Nature Deorum, ap.
Gale’s Opuscula Mythologica, p. 142.) Such is also said to have
been the doctrine of Hippocrates and Democritus. See Macrobius
(Somnium Scipionis, i., 14); and Nemesius (de Nat. Hominis). In
the Hippocratic treatise De Septimadibus, which M. Littré has
discovered in Latin, the essence of the soul is held to be heat.
(Ed. Littré, i., p. 391.)
[341] De Partibus Animalium, ii., 7.
[342] De Anima, ii., 4.
[343] Ὄτι πᾶν ἐκ πάντος γινέσθαι πέφυκε.—Aristot. de Ortu et
Interitu. et Auscultationes Naturales, i.
[344] See Simon’s Chemistry, vol. i., p. 118, and the
authorities there referred to.
[345] Baron Cuvier says: “En un mot, toutes les fonctions
animales paroissent en reduire à des transformations de fluides;
et c’est dans la manière dont ces transformations s’opérent, que
gît le véritable secret de cette admirable économie.”—Leçons
d’Anatom. Comp. lib. i.
[346] It will be readily understood that allusion is here made to
the diseases ossification and osteosarcoma.
[347] The same application of this myth is made by
Eustatheus, the commentator on Homer (ad Odyss., iv., 417), and
by Heraclides Ponticus (Gale’s Opuscula Mytholog., p. 490). The
words of Heraclides are very striking: “That hence it was with
good reason that the formless matter was called Proteus; and that
Providence which modified each being with its peculiar form and
character was called Eidothia.”
[348] De Sapient. Vet., cap. xiii.
[349] Op. cit., iv.
[350] These opinions of Newton bear a strong resemblance to
those of Strabo, as expressed in the following passage: “Since all
things are in motion and undergoing great changes, it is to be
supposed that neither does the earth always remain the same, so
as neither to be augmented nor diminished; nor yet water; nor
that either always possesses the same seat, for that a change of
one thing into another seems very much according to nature. For
that much earth is converted into water, and much water into
earth.”—Geograph., xvii., 1.
[351] See p. 120, Ray Society’s edition.
[352] See Simon’s Chemistry, vol. i., p. 5; Sydenham Society’s
edition. The etymology of the term protein is there given from
πρωτέυω, I am first; but it may more properly be derived from
Proteus, to which, as we have mentioned above, the first matter
was likened.
[353] Lucretius, de R. N., i., 48.
[354] I have always looked upon the story of the Sirens as
being one of the most beautiful fictions in the Homeric poems. By
the two Sirens I cannot but think that the poet meant to represent
Philosophy and Melody, these being, as it were, the handmaids of
Poetry. They assail the virtue of Ulysses with no vulgar
temptations, by assuring him that they were well acquainted with
all the martial exploits in which he had been engaged, and that he
would leave them “much delighted, and with an increase of
knowledge.”
Ἀλλ’ ὄγε τερψάμενος νεἰται καὶ πλέιονα ἐιδώς.

Odyss, xii., 188.
[355] Diogenes Laertius, in fact, states that Xenophanes, the

founder of the school, held the doctrine of the four elements. On
the Eleatic philosophy, see further, Aristotle (de Xenophane; and
Metaphys., i., 5); and, of the modern authorities Ritter (History of
Ancient Philosophy, vol. i.,) and Grote (Hist. of Greece, tom. iv., p.
518, etc.) Whether or not these modern authors, however, have
rightly apprehended the doctrine of Xenophanes and
Anaximander with regard to the elements, may, I think, be justly
doubted. Dr. Thirlwall gives a very judicious exposition of the
ethical opinions of the Eleatic philosophers, but does not touch on
their physical. (Hist. of Greece, § 12.)
[356] M. Littré is inclined to give the Pythagorean philosopher,
Alcmæon, the credit of priority in broaching the philosophical
theory which runs through this treatise. His only authority,
however, on this point is Plutarch (De Placit. Philos., v., 30);
whereas Galen, as he admits, says expressly that Hippocrates
himself is the author of this theory. Now, I must say that, of the
two, Galen appears to me to be the better authority, being
profoundly skilled both in medical and philosophical literature. But
further, neither Diogenes Laertius in his life, nor any other writer
who has noticed Alcmæon, says anything of his having
promulgated the theory of the Crasis.
[357] Tom. i., p. 567.
[358] See Note, p. 191.
[359] The invention of bread must have been very ancient, as
is obvious from the circumstance of its being referred to a
mythological name, that is to say, Demeter or Ceres. The ancients
would appear to have paid great attention to the manufacture of
bread. See Athenæus Deipnos, iii., 26; and Paulus Ægineta, B.
I., 78, Syd. Soc. edition.
[360] The maza was a sort of pudding or cake made from
barley-meal mixed up with water, oil, milk, oxymel, hydromel, or
the like. It also was a very ancient invention, for it is mentioned in
one of the works of Hesiod, which is universally allowed to be
genuine, I mean the Opera et Dies, 1., 588.
[361] We have stated in our brief sketch of the Life of
Hippocrates, that he studied the application of gymnastics to
medicine under the great master of the art, Herodicus. He was a
native of Selymbra in Thrace, and is generally represented as the
father of medicinal gymnastics; but, as we have mentioned
above, this statement must be received with considerable
allowance, since there is every reason to believe that the
Asclepiadæ applied exercises to the cure of diseases.
[362] He means both the pilot and physician.
[363] Καθαρὸς ἄρτος ἢ συγκομιστός. There has been some
difference of opinion regarding these two kinds of bread; but it
appears to me probable that the former was made of flour from
which the bran had been entirely excluded, and the other from
flour containing the whole of the bran. Later authorities called the
one siligo, and the other autopyrus. See Paulus Ægineta, Vol. I.,
p. 121.
[364] He alludes here to the secretions and humors in the
body. See the Commentary of Heurnius.
[365] See Littré, h. 1.
[366] Meaning probably the diaphragm, with its membranes.
See the Commentary of Heurnius, p. 92.
[367] Meaning the mammæ, according to Heurnius.
[368] Such as the spleen and lungs.
[369] Although I shall touch cursorily on this subject in my
annotations, I cannot deny myself the pleasure of setting down
here the following passage from the treatise of Longinus “On the
Sublime.” It is to be borne in mind that it was written by a noble-
minded Greek, who lived at the court of an Oriental despot, and
must have been a daily observer of the effects which he so
feelingly depicts. Who does not lament to think of a generous
mind placed under circumstances where cowardice is honored
and courage debased? And what more melancholy picture of
human misery can be imagined than that which is here exhibited
of the bodily and mental powers in a state of arrested
development from the effects of confinement?
Ἥμισυ γάρ τ' ἀρετῆς (κατὰ τὸν Ὅμηρον) ἀποαίνυται δύλιον
ἦμαρ· ὥσπερ οὖν (εἴγε γησὶ, τοῦτο πιστόν ἐστι) ἀκούω τὰ
γλωττόκομα, ἐν οἱς οἱ Πυγμαῖοι καλούμενοι νάνοι τρέφονται, οὐ
μόνον κωγύει τῶν εγκεκλεισμένων τὰς αὐξήσεις, ἀλλὰ καὶ συνάγει
διὰ τὸν περικείμενον τοῖς σώμασι δεσμόν· οὒ τως ἅπασαν
δουλείαν, καὶ ἦ δικαιοτάτη, ψυχῆς γλωττόκομον, καὶ κοιόν δή τις
ἀποφήναιτο δεσωπτήριον.—§ 39.
[370] M. Littré thus states the four principal points to which
Hippocrates here directs attention:
“1st. Il cherche quelle est, sur le maintein de la santé et la
production des maladies, l’influence de l’exposition des villes par
rapport au soleil et aux vents.
“2d. Il examine quelles sont les propriétés des eaux, bonnes
ou mauvaises.
“3d. Il s’efforce de signaler les maladies qui prédominent
suivant les saisons, et suivant les alternatives que chacune
d’elles épreuve.
“4th. Enfin, il compare l’Europe et l’Asie, et it rattache les
différences physiques et morales qui en séparent les habitants,
aux différences du sol et du climat.”
He goes on, however, to state, that these four questions,
although neatly put, are merely sketched, and half insinuates that
it is a defect in the work, that it merely contains our author’s
assertions, without the corresponding proofs. In a modern work,
he remarks, the mode of procedure would be different; for it would
be expected that the general truths should be supported by
detailed and prolonged statistics on particular facts. It is to be
borne in mind, however, that the work of Hippocrates was
probably meant merely as a text-book, on which were grounded
his public prelections, wherein would, no doubt, be given all the
necessary proofs and illustrations. In this respect, it resembles
the esoteric works of Aristotle, of which the author of them said
that when they were published the contents of them, in one
sense, were not communicated to the public, as they would be
unintelligible without the illustrations by which they were
accompanied when delivered in his school. In conclusion, I would
beg leave to remark that, if the work of Hippocrates, in its present
form, appear defective when compared with what a modern work
on the same subject would be expected to be, it has also peculiar
traits which would hardly be matched in a modern composition. In
a modern work we might have a greater abundance of particular
facts, and a more copious detail of individual observations, but
would there be such an exuberance of general truths, of grand
results, and of original reflections?
[371] The classical reader is referred to Theophrastus’ treatise
De Signis Aquarum et Ventorum, for much interesting information
on this subject.—See also Galen, Op. tom. v., p. 346, 347, ed.
Basil.
[372] I. 105.
[373] It appears to me, however, that the meaning of Longinus
in this place is rather overstrained.
[374] Coster, Défense des (Œvres de Voiture, etc., p. 194.
[375] Réponse à l’Apologie de Voiture, par Coster, p. 54.
[376] Memoria Scythica, in Comm. Petropol. p. 377–78.
[377] P. vi., p. 35.
[378] Notæ in Longinum.
[379] Comment, in vetus Monument, p. 415.
[380] Nosol. Meth. p. 365.
[381] De maribus inter Scythas morbo effeminatis, etc., p. 28.
[382] Hipp. de Aere, etc., t. ii., p. 326.
[383] Morb. Târd. iv., 9.
[384] Hist. of Greece, pluries.
[385] The part in parenthesis is rather obscure. In the old
French translation it is rendered thus: “Elles sont très différentes
entre elles par leur nature, et il arrive d’ailleurs une infinité de
changemens qui sont tous divers.” On these changes, see Aphor.
iii., 2–15.
[386] I have translated this passage agreeably to the reading
suggested by Coray, that is to say, ὀυκ ἐδωδὸς, which appears to
be a great improvement, although it is not adopted by Littré.
Without the negation (ὀυκ) the contrast between the first and the
last clause of the sentence is entirely lost. It will be remarked that
I have translated ἀριστητάι, eating to excess. The ἄριστον, or
dinner, was a meal which persons of regular habits seldom
partook of, and hence Suetonius mentions it as an instance of
Domitian’s gormandising propensities, that he was in the habit of
taking dinner.—See Vita Domitiani; also Paulus Ægineta, B. I.,
109.
[387] It will be remarked that our author uses meteorology and
astronomy almost as synonymous terms. In his time meteorology

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Web and Internet Economics 16th International

Reversible Computation 12th International Conference RC

Intelligent Information Processing X 11th IFIP TC 12

Virtual Augmented and Mixed Reality Design and

Enterprise, Business-Process and Information Systems

Structural Information and Communication Complexity

Virtual Augmented and Mixed Reality Industrial and

Theory and Applications of Models of Computation 16th

Editorial Board Members

Lin Lin Mohammad Upal Mahfuz

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ISSN 1867-8211 ISSN 1867-822X (electronic)

July 2020 Yifan Chen

TPC Chair and Co-chairs

Sponsorship and Exhibit Chair

Publicity and Social Media Chairs

Technical Program Committee

Clock Synchronization for Mobile Molecular Communication

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Design and Experiment of a Double-Layer Vertical Axis Wind Turbine. . . . . 152

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Li Huang1 , Lin Lin1(B) , Fuqiang Liu1 , and Hao Yan2

Abstract. Molecular communication (MC) is an emerging communica-

Keywords: Clock synchronization · Clock oﬀset · Mobile molecular

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