1 Introduction –

Concept of Stress
Review of Statics

• The structure is designed

to support a 30 kN load
• The structure consists of a
boom and rod joined by
pins (zero moment
connections) at the
junctions and supports
• Perform a static analysis to
determine the internal
force in each structural
member and the reaction
forces at the supports

1-3
Structure Free-Body Diagram
• Structure is detached from
supports and the loads and
reaction forces are indicated
• Conditions for static equilibrium:
∑ M C = 0 = Ax (0.6 m ) − (30 kN )(0.8 m )
Ax = 40 kN
∑ Fx = 0 =Ax + C x
C x = − Ax = −40 kN
∑ Fy = 0 = Ay + C y − 30 kN = 0
Ay + C y = 30 kN

• Ay and Cy can not be determined

from these equations

1-4
Component Free-Body Diagram
• In addition to the complete structure,
each component must satisfy the
conditions for static equilibrium
• Consider a free-body diagram for the
boom:
∑ M B = 0 = − Ay (0.8 m )
Ay = 0
substitute into the structure
equilibrium equation
C y = 30 kN
• Results:
A = 40 kN → C x = 40 kN ← C y = 30 kN ↑

Reaction forces are directed

along boom and rod

1-5
Method of Joints
• The boom and rod are 2-force
members, i.e., the members are
subjected to only two forces which
are applied at member ends
• For equilibrium, the forces must be
parallel to to an axis between the
force application points, equal in
magnitude, and in opposite directions

• Joints must satisfy the conditions for

static equilibrium which may be
expressed in the form of a force
triangle:

∑ FB = 0
FAB FBC 30 kN
= =
4 5 3
FAB = 40 kN FBC = 50 kN
1-6
Stress Analysis
Can the structure safely support the 30
kN load?
• From a statics analysis
FAB = 40 kN (compression)
FBC = 50 kN (tension)

• At any section through member BC,

the internal force is 50 kN with a force
intensity or stress of
dBC = 20 mm P
σ BC = =
50 × 103 N
= 159 MPa
A 314 ×10-6 m 2

• From the material properties for steel,

the allowable stress is
σ all = 165 MPa
• Conclusion: the strength of member
BC is adequate

1-7
Design
• Design of new structures requires
selection of appropriate materials and
component dimensions to meet
performance requirements
• For reasons based on cost, weight,
availability, etc., the choice is made to
construct the rod from aluminum (sall=
100 MPa). What is an appropriate
choice for the rod diameter?
P P 50 ×103 N
σ all = A= = = 500 ×10− 6 m 2
A σ all 100 ×106 Pa
d2
A=π
4

d=
4A
=
(
4 500 ×10− 6 m 2 ) = 2.52 ×10−2 m = 25.2 mm
π π
• An aluminum rod 26 mm or more in
diameter is adequate
1-8
Axial Loading: Normal Stress
• The resultant of the internal forces for an
axially loaded member is normal to a
section cut perpendicular to the member
axis.
• The force intensity on that section is
defined as the normal stress.
∆F P
σ = lim σ ave =
∆A→0 ∆A A

• The normal stress at a particular point

may not be equal to the average stress
but the resultant of the stress distribution
must satisfy
P = σ ave A = ∫ dF = ∫ σ dA
A
• The detailed distribution of stress is
statically indeterminate, i.e., can not be
found from statics alone.

1-9
Centric & Eccentric Loading
• A uniform distribution of stress in a
section infers that the line of action for
the resultant of the internal forces
passes through the centroid of the
section.
• A uniform distribution of stress is only
possible if the concentrated loads on
the end sections of two-force
members are applied at the section
centroids. This is referred to as centric
loading.
• If a two-force member is eccentrically
loaded, then the resultant of the stress
distribution in a section must yield an
axial force and a moment.
• The stress distributions in eccentrically
loaded members cannot be uniform
or symmetric.
1 - 10
Shearing Stress
• Forces P and P’ are applied
transversely to the member AB.
• Corresponding internal forces act in the
plane of section C and are called
shearing forces.
• The resultant of the internal shear force
distribution is defined as the shear of the
section and is equal to the load P.
• The corresponding average shear stress
is, τ =
P
ave
A
• Shear stress distribution varies from zero
at the member surfaces to maximum
values that may be much larger than the
average value.
• The shear stress distribution cannot be
assumed to be uniform.
1 - 11
Shearing Stress Examples
Single Shear Double Shear

P F P F
τ ave = = τ ave = =
A A A 2A

1 - 12
Bearing Stress in Connections
• Bolts, rivets, and pins
create stresses on the
points of contact or
bearing surfaces of the
members they connect.
• The resultant of the force
distribution on the surface
is equal and opposite to
the force exerted on the
pin.
• Corresponding average
force intensity is called
the bearing stress,
P P
σb = =
A td

1 - 13
Stress Analysis & Design Example

• Would like to
determine the stresses
in the members and
connections of the
structure shown.
• From a statics analysis:
FAB = 40 kN
(compression)
FBC = 50 kN (tension)

• Must consider
maximum normal
stresses in AB and BC,
and the shearing stress
and bearing stress at
each pinned
connection
1 - 14
Rod & Boom Normal Stresses
• The rod is in tension with an axial force of
50 kN.
• At the rod center, the average normal stress
in the circular cross-section (A = 314x10-6m2) is
sBC = +159 MPa.
• At the flattened rod ends, the smallest cross-
sectional area occurs at the pin centerline,
A = (20 mm )(40 mm − 25 mm ) = 300 × 10− 6 m 2

P 50 ×103 N
σ BC ,end = = = 167 MPa
A 300 × 10− 6 m 2

• The boom is in compression with an axial

force of 40 kN and average normal stress of –
26.7 MPa.
• The minimum area sections at the boom ends
are unstressed since the boom is in
compression.
1 - 15
Pin Shearing Stresses
• The cross-sectional area for pins at
A, B, and C,
2
 25 mm  −6 2
A =πr =π
2
 = 491× 10 m
 2 

• The force on the pin at C is equal

to the force exerted by the rod BC,
P 50 × 103 N
τ C , ave = = − 6 2
= 102 MPa
A 491× 10 m

• The pin at A is in double shear

with a total force equal to the
force exerted by the boom AB,
P 20 kN
τ A, ave = = − 6 2
= 40.7 MPa
A 491× 10 m

1 - 16
Pin Shearing Stresses
• Divide the pin at B into sections to
determine the section with the largest
shear force,
PE = 15 kN
PG = 25 kN (largest)

• Evaluate the corresponding

average shearing stress,
PG 25 kN
τ B, ave = = = 50.9 MPa
A 491× 10− 6 m 2

1 - 17
Pin Bearing Stresses

• To determine the bearing stress at A in the

boom AB, we have t = 30 mm and d = 25
mm,
P 40 kN
σb = = = 53.3 MPa
td (30 mm )(25 mm )

• To determine the bearing stress at A in the

bracket, we have t = 2(25 mm) = 50 mm
and d = 25 mm,
P 40 kN
σb = = = 32.0 MPa
td (50 mm )(25 mm )

1 - 18
Stress in Two Force Members

• Axial forces on a two force

member result in only normal
stresses on a plane cut
perpendicular to the
member axis.
• Transverse forces on bolts
and pins result in only shear
stresses on the plane
perpendicular to bolt or pin
axis.
• Will show that either axial or
transverse forces may produce
both normal and shear stresses
with respect to a plane other
than one cut perpendicular to
the member axis.

1 - 19
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1.1

In the hanger shown, the upper

portion of link ABC is 3/8 in. thick and
the lower portions are each 1/4 in.
thick. Epoxy resin is used to bond the
upper and lower portions together at
B. The pin at A is of 3/8 -in. diameter
while a 1/4 -in.-diameter pin is used
at C. Determine

(a) the shearing stress in pin A,

(b) the shearing stress in pin C,
(c) the largest normal stress in link
ABC,
(d) the average shearing stress on
the bonded surfaces at B,
(e) the bearing stress in the link at C.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1.2

• The steel tie bar shown is to be

designed to carry a tension
force of magnitude P =120 kN
when bolted between double
brackets at A and B. The bar will
be fabricated from 20-mm-thick
plate stock. For the grade of
steel to be used, the maximum
allowable stresses are: σ =175
MPa, τ =100 MPa, σb =350 MPa.
Design the tie bar by
determining the required values
of (a) the diameter d of the bolt,
(b) the dimension b at each
end of the bar, (c) the
dimension h of the bar.
Stress on an Oblique Plane
• Pass a section through the member
forming an angle q with the normal
plane.
• From equilibrium conditions, the
distributed forces (stresses) on the
plane must be equivalent to the
force P.
• Resolve P into components normal
and tangential to the oblique
section, F = P cosθ V = P sin θ
• The average normal and shear
stresses on the oblique plane are
F P cosθ P
σ= = = cos 2 θ
Aθ A0 A0
cosθ
V P sin θ P
τ= = = sin θ cosθ
Aθ A0 A0
cosθ
1 - 22
Maximum Stresses
• Normal and shearing stresses on an
oblique plane
P P
σ= cos 2 θ τ= sin θ cosθ
A0 A0

• The maximum normal stress occurs when

the reference plane is perpendicular to
the member axis,
P
σm = τ′ = 0
A0

• The maximum shear stress occurs for a

plane at + 45o with respect to the axis,
P P
τm = sin 45 cos 45 = =σ′
A0 2 A0

1 - 23
Stress Under General Loadings
• A member subjected to a
general combination of
loads is cut into two
segments by a plane passing
through Q
• The distribution of internal
stress components may be
defined as,
∆F x
σ x = lim
∆A→0 ∆A

∆V yx ∆Vzx
τ xy = lim τ xz = lim
∆A→0 ∆A ∆A→0 ∆A

• For equilibrium, an equal

and opposite internal force
and stress distribution must
be exerted on the other
segment of the member.
1 - 24
State of Stress
• Stress components are defined for
the planes cut parallel to the x, y and
z axes. For equilibrium, equal and
opposite stresses are exerted on the
hidden planes.
• The combination of forces
generated by the stresses must
satisfy the conditions for equilibrium:
∑ Fx = ∑ Fy = ∑ Fz = 0
∑Mx = ∑My = ∑Mz = 0
• Consider the moments about the z
axis: ∑ M z = 0 = (τ xy ∆A)a − (τ yx ∆A)a
τ xy = τ yx
similarly, τ yz = τ zy and τ yz = τ zy

• It follows that only 6 components of

stress are required to define the
complete state of stress 1 - 25
Factor of Safety

Structural members or Factor of safety considerations:

machines must be • uncertainty in material
designed such that the properties
working stresses are less • uncertainty of loadings
than the ultimate strength • uncertainty of analyses
of the material.
• number of loading cycles
FS = Factor of safety • types of failure
σu ultimate stress • maintenance requirements
FS = = and deterioration effects
σ all allowable stress
• importance of member to
structures integrity
• risk to life and property
• influence on machine function

1 - 26
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1.3

• Two loads are applied to the

bracket BCD as shown. (a)
Knowing that the control rod AB is
to be made of a steel having an
ultimate normal stress of 600 MPa,
determine the diameter of the rod
for which the factor of safety with
respect to failure will be 3.3. (b) The
pin at C is tobe made of a steel
having an ultimate shearing stress
of 350 MPa. Determine the
diameter of the pin C for which the
factor of safety with respect to
shear will also be 3.3. (c) Determine
the required thickness of the
bracket supports at C, knowing
that the allowable bearing stress of
the steel used is 300 MPa.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1.4

• The rigid beam BCD is attached

by bolts to a control rod at B, to a
hydraulic cylinder at C, and to a
fixed support at D. The diameters
of the bolts used are: dB = dD =
3/8 in., dC = 1/2 in. Each bolt acts
in double shear and is made from
a steel for which the ultimate
shearing stress is tU= 40 ksi. The
control rod AB has a diameter dA
=7/16 in. and is made of a steel
for which the ultimate tensile
stress is σU= 60 ksi. If the minimum
factor of safety is to be 3.0 for the
entire unit, determine the largest
upward force that may be
applied by the hydraulic cylinder
at C.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1.5

• Two wooden members of

uniform cross section are
joined by the simple scarf
splice shown. Knowing that
the maximum allowable
tensile stress in the glued
splice is 75 psi, determine
(a) the largest load P that
can be safely supported,
(b) the corresponding
shearing stress in the splice.