Acoustics of auditorium, Radiometry and Photometry

Introduction

David Geffen Hall – A famous concert hall in Lincoln Center, New York City- This concert
hall had opened in 1962 with high expectations but there were multiple problems from the
beginning of the first program. Effects such as echo, overlapping of sound, booming effect,
whispering effect, noise etc. made audience to run out of the auditorium. Many futile attempts
were made to rectify the problems and finally C M Harris from Columbia University was asked to
redesign in 1974. He had redesigned the interior of the auditorium using some fundamental
principles of sound. When it was reopened in 1976 after renovations a special concert was held.
Construction workers, contractors, architects and music critics were the members of audience.
When the orchestra finished everybody impressed and musicians were delighted (and of course
Harris also!). Another similar type of example is Symphony hall in Boston. It is one of the finest
hall in the world having reverberation time 1.8 s. It was planned by Harvard Physicist W C Sabine.
Sabine developed the quantitative foundations for acoustic design by applying physics knowledge!
These two illustrations clearly shows the importance of Physics in the improvisation of acoustic
qualities auditorium. In spite of our growing body of acoustical knowledge, the first concert in
newly completed concert hall is awaited with both anticipation & uncertainty!

Some myths and facts about the concert hall

Myth Fact
Acoustical quality of concert halls improve with age It does not
Decorative gold gilts (gold plates) or statuary or monuments in It is not so
concert halls will contribute for fine acoustics
Ancients were in possession of secret acoustical principles Ancients had no secret
which are unknown to moderns. If we discover them our acoustical insights
concert halls would be vastly improved

Acoustics is the science of sound and deals with the origin, propagation and auditory sensation of
sound. It corresponds to the way sound waves interact with the space around them. If this
interaction is improper then unpleasant effect is produced. Concept of acoustics is ancient but the
science of acoustics is young. The systematic study begun only around 1900.

There are different types of acoustics. They are

 Aero acoustics-study of production and propagation of sound through fluid movement –

ex: musical instruments, air craft,
 Building acoustics- is the science of controlling noise in buildings and thereby create
pleasant auditory experience. Ex: auditoriums, conference halls, class rooms, cinema
theater, concert/symphony halls
  Electro acoustics- a study connected with conversion of sound into electrical signals and
vice versa (recording and reproducing)
 Musical acoustics - explains the way humans hear and feel the musical sound. It involves
the study of musical instruments, the structure of melodies or harmonies, the human ear
and voice, etc. In fact it is a part of architectural (building) acoustics
 Underwater acoustics- study of natural and manmade sound in underwater- ex: SONAR,
underwater communication by whales

Basic terminologies
While discussing sound and its effect we need the knowledge of some of the basic concepts

Speed of sound
Sound waves produce sensation of hearing if their frequency is above 20Hz(normal human). Their
speed is given by

𝛾𝑃
𝑣=√
𝜌

It depends on the bulk modulus of the medium. The following table gives the value of v indifferent
media

Medium velocity m/sec

air (20 C) 343

air (0 C) 331
water (25 C) 1493
sea water 1533
Diamond 12000
Iron 5130
copper 3560
Glass 5640

Based on the frequency sound waves are classified into 3 groups.

Infrasound: These are sounds with frequencies below the normal human range (20-200 Hz) of
hearing
Audible: These are sounds producing sensation of hearing for normal human. The frequency
range is 20-20kHz
Ultrasound: Sound waves with frequencies above the normal human range of hearing are
termed as Ultrasonics. Their frequency range is 20kHz-100kHz
Music and noise

Audible sound is further classified into music and noise. Music produces pleasing effect and
characterized by periodic variation of frequency, line spectrum containing multiple frequencies
and absence of sudden variation in amplitude. On the other hand, noise causes irritation and strain
our ears. It is characterized by abrupt variation of frequency and amplitude, complex spectrum of
frequencies and non periodic vibrations

Intensity and sound level

The intensity I of a sound wave at a surface is the average rate per unit area at which energy is
transferred by the wave through or onto the surface. We can write this as

𝑃
𝐼=
𝐴

The minimum sound intensity for normal hearing is 10×10-12 W/m2 and the maximum intensity is
1 W/m2. This range is too large and hence we chose a new scale of measurement called logarithmic
scale. In this scale intensity is treated as sound level (L) or loudness level. It is given by

𝐼
𝐿 = 10 log dB
𝐼0
Where
I = intensity of given sound and I0 = 10-12 W/m2

In logarithmic scale, the threshold of hearing or threshold of audibility is 0 dB and threshold of

feeling or pain is 120 dB

The audible scale for normal human is therefore

1× 10-12 W/m2 – 1 W/m2 in intensity scale

0 dB – 120 dB in loudness scale

Pitch and Timbre

Pitch of sound is a measure of its shrillness or flatness. It is a physiological quantity (cannot be

measured but can be experienced). It depends on the frequency. Greater the frequency greater is
the shrillness.
Even though two different instruments produce same sound note we can distinguish them. The
characteristic property of sound which enables us to differentiate same note produced by two
different instruments is known as timbre or quality. It depends on the overtones present in the
sound. For ex, violin and guitar may produce sound of same frequency (say 500 Hz) but still their
sound qualities are different.
Reflection and diffraction of sound

An auditorium is an important gathering place for everything from routine announcements to

special performances. Be it a class room, theater, concert hall, business center or house- sound
quality is very important. Sound waves undergo reflection and diffraction when they encounter
some obstacles in the auditorium. Reflection occurs when the obstacle size is large compare to
wavelength. Sound is reflected from walls and ceiling. Diffraction occurs when the obstacle is
small in size. Windows, doors and some un even surfaces diffract the sound. As a result the sound
is diffused in the hall.
Reflection of sound produces two effects namely echo and reverberation
If the time between the original sound and its reflection is long and both can be heard distinctly
then it is called echo.

Reverberation

A listener in an enclosure first hears the sound that comes directly from the source and after a short
time delay the reflected sound. After some time the hall will be full of reflected sound. The multiple
reflection is known as reverberation and the corresponding sound is reverberation sound
Small reverberation is often desirable. It determines the fullness and this fullness is one of the
characteristics of fine hall. However too much reverberation is causes unwanted effects. Hence it
shall be optimized. In this context we define reverberation time

Reverberation time (T)

The time required for sound to decay to 1 millionth of its initial level is known as reverberation
time (T). If I0 is the initial intensity and I is the intensity after 1 T then

𝐼
= 10−6
𝐼0

Reverberation time is also defined as the time interval during which the sound level diminishes by
60 dB
If T is large, the reflected sound persists in the auditorium for a longer duration. It leads to noisy
feeling. On the other hand is T is too small then sound may not reach some parts of the auditorium.
It dies out (vanishes) quickly. This is nothing but dead effect. Hence T should not be too large and
too small. It shall be optimized. For a good auditorium reverberation time shall be in the range 1.5
– 2.0 s. the optimization is achieved by various methods

Reverberation time of world’s best auditorium Boston symphony hall is 1.8 s and David Geffin
Hall is 1.7 s (when they are fully occupied)
The following table gives the T value for different types of halls

Activity hall T (sec)

Conference hall 1 to 1.5
Cinema theater 1.3
Assembly hall 1 to 1.5
Music concert hall 1.5 to 2
Churches 1.8 to 3

Sound absorption

When sound is incident on a material surface part of it is absorbed. The amount of absorption
depends on the nature of the material. The fibrous and porous materials absorb more energy than
solid materials.

The absorption coefficient ( ) of a material is defined as the ratio of sound energy absorbed by
its surface to the total sound energy incident on the surface.

𝐼
𝛼=
𝐼0
Where
I = sound energy absorbed, I0 = sound energy incident

Absorption coefficient  is also expressed in terms of speed of sound (v), volume of the hall (V)
and absorption power (A) as

𝑣𝐴
𝛼=
4𝑉

The entire sound energy incident on an open window is completely transmitted and none is
reflected. Its  is 1. Hence Open Window is an ideal sound absorber and hence taken as reference
for comparison
It may be noted here that the value of  also depends on the frequency of sound. It increases with
the increase in frequency. At 500 Hz the value of  for some selected materials is given in the
table

Absorption power

Absorption power is defined as the product of absorption coefficient and surface area. The SI unit
is sabine
𝑎 = 𝛼𝑖 𝑑𝑆𝑖 .
If there are different materials in a hall, then the total absorption of sound is given by the sum of
absorption power of individual materials.
𝐴 = 𝛼1 𝑑𝑆1 + 𝛼2 𝑑𝑆2 + 𝛼3 𝑑𝑆3 + 𝛼4 𝑑𝑆4 − − −

𝐴 = ∑ 𝛼𝑛 𝑑𝑆𝑛
1

Material 
Open window 1.00
Ventilators 0.10 – 0.50
Stage curtain 0.20
Carpet 0.40
Fibrous plaster 0.30
Concrete 0.17
Marble 0.01
Wood board 0.20

Requisites for acoustics in auditorium

Auditorium, as a building for public gatherings (listing, speech or stage performance) should have
right acoustical quality. The following requirements shall be fulfilled in order to achieve this

• Intensity of sound and loudness need to be same at all places

• Echoes should be absent
• Quality of speech or music must be same and distinct
• Resonance effect shall be eliminated otherwise there will be “boomy” effect
• Echelon effect (interference of reflected sound waves by regular structures such as stair
cases) must be absent
• Absence of unwanted focusing of sound waves due to concave surface (otherwise it leads
to whispering effect)
• Minimum noise level
• Optimized reverberation time
 • Concert halls are typically located in the city centers where outside noise is a major
problem. This external sound will try all possibilities to enter the hall (even through key
hole!). Hence the hall must be shielded properly

Energy transportation in the hall

The sound produced by the source travel at about 345 meters/second and reach the listener as direct
sound. Shortly after the arrival of the direct sound, a series of semi-distinct reflections from various
reflecting surfaces (walls and ceiling) will reach the listener. If the source emits a continuous
sound, the reverberant sound builds up until it reaches an equilibrium level. At equilibrium the
sound energy density E remains same everywhere.
Consider a small element of volume d at source P inside the hall and small surface dS on a wall
at a distance r from the source P

The energy transported to this elemental area dS is given by

𝐸𝑑𝑆 cos 𝜃
𝑒= × 𝑑𝜏
4𝜋𝑟 2

By taking d = 1 we can write

𝐸𝑑𝑆 cos 𝜃
𝑒=
4𝜋𝑟 2

Sabine’s formula

Sabine derived the expression for reverberation time using the following assumptions
i. The enclosure is large enough such that the sound energy is uniformly distributed in it
ii. Sound travels uniformly in all directions with in the hall
iii. Absorption of sound by air is negligibly small

Consider a hall of volume V and absorption power A. The sound produced at the source point is
uniformly distributed as per the assumptions. When the sound stops, the sound level decreases
exponentially. If Em is the energy at the time switching off of the source and E is the energy after
t second then

𝐸 = 𝐸𝑚 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 − − − (1)

If t = T (reverberation time) then E = 10-6 Em. Eq (1) becomes

10−6 𝐸𝑚 = 𝐸𝑚 𝑒 −𝛼𝑇
10−6 = 𝑒 −𝛼𝑇
106 = 𝑒 𝛼𝑇
Take log on both sides we get
ln(106 ) = 𝛼𝑇
6 × 2.303 = 𝛼𝑇 − − − (2)
𝑣𝐴
But 𝛼 =
4𝑉
Eq (2) becomes
𝑣𝐴𝑇
13.818 =
4𝑉
4 × 13.818𝑉
𝑇=
𝑣𝐴
Put v = 345 m/s and simplify

0.162𝑉
𝑇=
𝐴
But 𝐴 = ∑ ∝ 𝑆
0.162𝑉
∴𝑇=
∑∝𝑆

This is Sabine’s formula

Measurement of absorption coefficient

Absorption coefficient of a given material can be determined using Sabine formula as follows

Consider an auditorium of volume V and total surface area S. Let A be the total absorption power.
The reverberation time T1 is
 0.162𝑉
𝑇1 =
𝐴
0.162𝑉
𝐴= − − − (1)
𝑇1

Let the surface S is covered by a material of absorption coefficient. As a result the reverberation
time changes to T2. It is given by

0.162𝑉
𝑇2 =
𝐴 + 𝛼𝑆
0.162𝑉
𝐴 + 𝛼𝑆 = − − − (2)
𝑇2
Substitute (1) in (2) we get
0.162𝑉 0.162𝑉
+ 𝛼𝑆 =
𝑇1 𝑇2
0.162𝑉 0.162𝑉
𝛼𝑆 = −
𝑇2 𝑇1
1 1
𝛼𝑆 = 0.162𝑉 ( − ) − − − (3)
𝑇2 𝑇1
By measuring reverberation time T1 (without material) and T2 (with material) we can calculate the
absorption coefficient of the material

Factors affecting acoustics

There are several factors that affect the sound in auditorium. One must address them while
designing the interior landscape of the auditorium. Some of them are discussed here

Echo and Echelon effect

In the auditorium a listener first hears the direct sound, which travels in a straight line from the
source and then a series of reflections from the side walls and ceiling. If the reflected sound
arrives at least after 50 mS then the listener will here same sound twice. This is known as echo.
An echo is a reflection which is heard as a discrete event. Echo will normally occurs in
auditoriums of larger dimensions.

In the auditorium there will be many identical geometrical structures like stair case steps, rails,
etc. when sound falls on them multiple echoes are formed which leads to the generation of a
new separate sound. This is known as echelon effect and it will affect the quality of the original
sound.
 Echo Echelon effect

Reverberation of sound

As discussed earlier, the multiple reflection of sound by different parts if the hall overlaps with
the direct sound and produces boomy effect. This is known as reverberation. The degree of
reverberation depends on the nature of the diffusing materials present in the hall

Structure borne sound

The sound carried via structure of the building is known as structure borne sound. For ex, the
noise of footsteps across an upper floor that are audible in the room below or adjacent is a
structure-borne sound.

Concave surfaces

The sound produced during the course of performance must be diffused uniformly in the hall.
If there are concave surfaces inside the auditorium they tend to focus the sound to a particular
region. This leads to whispering effect

Lack of diffusing materials

The amount of sound energy absorbed by the material is not same for all. It varies from material
to material. The reverberation time will be too long if there are no sufficient diffusing materials
such as acoustic panels, curtains, porous surfaces, upholstered chairs, carpets etc.

Background noise

Outside noise, air conditioner noise, noise due to doors, people carrying conversations etc act
as background noises. They will affect the quality of sound

Remedial measures

There are several types of solutions that acoustics experts can use to address the problems.
Some of them are
Bass Traps- Acoustic panels

Use bass traps and acoustic panels in the hall. Bass traps are acoustic energy absorbers which
are designed to damp low frequency sound. Even acoustic panels are also energy absorbers.
They absorb mild frequency sound energy. These are essential for recording studios, home
theaters etc

Ceiling clouds

They are suitable absorbing materials suspended parallel to the ceiling. They absorb sound as
it travels upward toward the ceiling and as it bounces off the ceiling back toward the floor.

Diffuser Panels

They are used to diffuse the sound uniformly in the hall

Convex surfaces inside

Providing more convex surfaces inside the hall increases diffusion of sound avoids whispering
effect

Acoustic Foam (to chairs, floors, walls, etc)

By using acoustic foams such as cushions, cloths carpets, wall panels having porous structure
etc it is possible to optimize the reverberation time

Breaking of regular structures or cover the steps by carpets

In order to avoid echelon effect the repeated structures such as steps, rails etc shall be avoided
or at least cover them by means of carpets

In addition to these a proper noise insulation and sound insulation is also required

Sound Insulation (sound proofing)

Sound insulation is a process of sound proofing an enclosed space such as room or hall or offices
or apartments (places where there is partition). This is required especially when there is a need to
keep sound from filtering into or out of the space.

Sound Insulation and Measurement

The passage of sound from one room of a building (source room) into another room (adjacent
room) is termed “sound transmission”
The level of sound insulation provided by a structure such as a wall, window, door, or ventilator
is expressed in different ways. Some of them are

 Weighted difference level (DW),

 Sound reduction index or transmission loss (R),
 Normalized level difference (Dn). Etc.

As mentioned in the earlier section, sound level is measured in dB. The transmission loss varies
with frequency and the loss is usually greater at higher frequencies. The higher the transmission
loss of a wall, the better it functions as a barrier to the passage of unwanted noise.

Sound insulation describes the level of sound lost across the partition. For Ex: If the sound level
in source room is 65 dB and in the adjacent room is 20 dB (barely audible) then sound insulation
is 45 dB Dw.
Methods of sound insulation

The method of sound insulation will depend on the type of noise to be treated and the degree of
sound insulation required. Some of the methods are
 Sound producing machinery like type writers etc. should be placed on absorbent pads
 The engine should be fitted on the floor with a layer of wood or felt between them.
 The walls floors and ceilings should be provided with sound absorbing materials( rock
wool, fiber glass wool, foam panels, POP boards, thermo col etc)
 Usage of double doors and windows with separate frames and having insulating material
in them
 Soft floor finish (carpet, cork, vinyl, rubber, etc.)
 Using double walls with air space between them

Noise and its measurement

Noise is defined as undesired sound which causes disturbance or annoyance to the recipient. In
general human reaction is normal as long as sound level is less than 50dB. Beyond this he will be
disturbed and hence the sound whose level is beyond 50dB is said to be noise. Noise can be
continuous (something like sound coming from nearby factory) or intermittent (like train sound in
railway station)

Noise is measured in - dB(A), “decibel” is a unit in noise measurement. “A” in dB (A) denotes
the frequency weighting in the measurement of noise and corresponds to frequency response
characteristics of the human ear. The most common instruments used for measuring noise are the
sound level meter (SLM), the integrating sound level meter (ISLM) and the noise dosimeter
Impact of noise in multi storied buildings

 Loss of privacy
 Exposure to loud noise can certainly damage your hearing.
 Regular exposure to loud noise has been associated with cardiovascular problems such as
high blood pressure
 Children may be particularly vulnerable to loud noise. A number of studies have found a
link between increased noise exposure and poorer cognitive abilities among children.
 Spending time in noisy environments could lead you to make poor food and drink choices.

Radiometry and Photometry

Radiometry

Radiometry is a study of measurement of the EM radiations (energy) transferred by a source

through a medium to a receiver.
Radiometry uses the laws of geometrical optics in order to treat the propagation of energy from a
source to the surrounding space. The interference and diffraction effects need not be considered in
most of radiometry problems.

Radiometry is divided according to various regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. They are

 ultraviolet radiometry
 intermediate-infrared radiometry
 far-infrared radiometry and microwave radiometry
 visible and near-visible region radiometry

The visible range and near-visible radiometry is called Photometry and is based on the human
perception of light

Radiation quantities

An important part of the design of an optical system is its efficiency in transferring light. One must
be able to specify the amount of energy emitted or received. Many similar quantities are used to
specify the amount of light leaving a source or arriving at a receiver. Some of them are discussed
here

Radiant energy (Q): It is the amount of energy emitted by the point source. SI unit is joule

Radiant power (e): It is the time rate of change of radiant energy. It is also called as radiant
flux. The SI unit is watt
 𝑑𝑄
𝛷𝑒 =
𝑑𝑡
It is actually the radiant energy emitted, reflected, transmitted or received, per unit time.

Radiant intensity (Ie): It is the radiant flux transmitted per unit solid angle. The SI unit is W/sr
𝑑𝛷𝑒
𝐼𝑒 =
𝑑𝛺
It describes the radiant power of a source emitted in a certain direction and does not depend on
area

Radiance (Le): It is radiant power emitted from known unit area of the source per unit solid angle.
(not to be confused with "intensity“). The SI unit is w/m2sr

The radiance is generally a function of position and viewing direction.

Irradiance (Ee): It is the total amount of radiant power incident on a surface area. SI unit is W/m2

Radiant exitance (Me): It is the radiant power emitted or reflected from a certain area. It is given
by
𝑑𝛷
𝑀𝑒 =
𝑑𝑡
Spectral quantities

It is important to define the respective spectral quantities also. They are

• Spectral radiant power Φλ(λ),

• spectral radiant intensity Iλ(λ),
• spectral radiance Lλ(λ),
• spectral irradiance Eλ(λ) and
• spectral radiant exitance Mλ(λ)

Spectral radiant power (or flux) is defined as a source’s radiant power per wavelength interval
as a function of wavelength. Radiant power dΦe emitted in the wavelength interval
between λ and λ+dλ is given by
dΦe = Φ λ (λ) dλ

Spectral irradiance is the irradiance per unit frequency or wavelength interval. It has units of
W / (m2 Hz) or W / (m2 nm),

Spectral Intensity It is radiant intensity per unit frequency or wavelength.

Photometry

A subdivision of radiometry that deals with the measurement of the electromagnetic radiation in
the visible range is called Photometry (based on the human perception of light).

Photometry considers the eye's response characteristic. The sensitivity behavior of human eye
changes for very low radiation levels (scotopic vision), but in terms of photometry, well-lit
conditions (photopic vision) play a major role. Photometry also uses optical radiation detectors
constructed to mimic the spectral response of the eye. Typical photometric quantities are given
here

Luminous power (Φv ) or luminous flux

Even though the source of light emit more energy (radiant energy) our eyes may not perceive
it entirely. ‘How much of it we recognize’ is measured in terms of luminous flux

Luminous flux describes the total light emitted by a light source as perceived by a human visual
system. The luminous flux, also referred to as luminous power, is measured in lumens (lm).

NOTE: Since the visual system is much more sensitive in green-yellow spectrum than in its red part, the
same absolute power of the radiation would cause a stronger sensation of green than of the red light.

Luminous intensity (Iv)

 The luminous intensity is nothing but the luminous flux emitted within a certain solid angle
(3-D space).Its unit is candela (cd) or lumens per steradian (lm/sr).

Luminance (Lv)

Luminance of an object or surface is defined as the luminous intensity emitted per unit area of
that surface in a specific direction. Its SI unit is candela per square metre (cd/m2). Luminance
indicates the degree of brightness over an area, such as from a display device

Luminance should not be confused with illuminance. The amount of light (or luminous flux)
falling on a surface is called illuminance (it is equivalent to illumination)

Luminous exitance or emittance (Mv)

The luminous exitance or luminous emittance is the total flux emitted in all directions from a unit
area of the radiator. Its SI unit is lumens per square meter
𝐹
𝑀𝑉 =
𝑆
Both luminance and luminous exitance are nearly same. While luminance measures the flux
radiated in a particular direction while luminous exitance gives the total flux emitted.

Comparison of Radiometry and Photometry

Radiometry Photometry
Quantity Symbol Unit Quantity Symbol Unit
Radiant Qe Joule Luminous Qv Talbot
energy energy
Radiant e Watt Luminous v Lumen (lm)
power power
Radiant Ie Watt/sr Luminous Iv Cd or lm/sr
intensity power
Radiance Le Watt/m2sr Luminance Lv lm/m2sr
Radiant Me Watt/m2 Luminous Mv lm/m2
exitance exitance
Relation between luminance and radiant quantities

To convert between Radiometric and photometric units one needs to know the photopic spectral
luminous efficiency curve. This curve gives the spectral response of the human eye to various
wavelengths of light.

Spectral luminous efficiency curve - V()

The sensitivity of the human eye to light of a certain intensity varies strongly over the wavelength
range between 380 and 800 nm. Under daylight conditions (photopic), the normal human eye is
most sensitive at a wavelength of 555 nm. This wavelength corresponds to green color. Hence
green color produces the impression of highest "brightness" when compared to light of other
colors.

A graph of spectral sensitivity of human eye under photopic vision versus wavelength is known as
spectral luminous efficiency curve V(λ). It was adopted by the Commission on Illumination
(CIE) as the standard in 1924. By convention, the sensitivity value is normalized to 1 as maximum.
The sensitivity is maximum at 555nm and reduces to 10-5 for wavelengths below 370nm and above
780nm.

For example, Let the photopic sensitivity of the human eye to monochromatic light at 490 nm is
20% of its sensitivity at 555 nm. This means that, this source shall emit five times as much power
to produce the impression of same “brightness” to the human eye as produced by 555 nm source!

Luminous efficacy (Km)

We know that the Luminous flux (v) is the total light perceived by a human visual system and
radiant flux (e) is the radiant energy emitted, reflected, transmitted or received, per unit time.
The ratio of these two is known as luminous efficacy. It is given by
Φ𝑣
𝐾𝑚 =
Φ𝑒

The SI unit is lumens/watt.

This is actually proportional to relative spectral sensitivity function V(λ). As discussed earlier the
sensitivity of human eyes in photopic vision is maximum at wavelength 555 nm and the luminous
efficacy at the wavelength of 555 nm is 683 lumens/watt. This is the maximum possible value
Using Km one can convert watts to lumen for monochromatic sources as follows

Φ𝑣 = 𝐾𝑚 × 𝑉(𝜆)Φ𝑒 − − − (1)
Where
V () = Spectral luminous efficiency
e = radiant flux in watts
v = luminous flux in lumen

Note: Km is also called as scaling factor

Ex:1. Calculate luminous flux of 5mW Red color laser whose spectral luminous efficiency is 0.096
Φ𝑣 = 𝐾𝑚 × 𝑉(𝜆)Φ𝑒
Φ𝑣 = 683 × 0.096 × 0.005 = 0.33 𝑙𝑚

Ex:2. Calculate luminous flux of 5mW green color laser whose spectral luminous efficiency is
0.828
Φ𝑣 = 𝐾𝑚 × 𝑉(𝜆)Φ𝑒
Φ𝑣 = 683 × 0.828 × 0.005 = 2.83 𝑙𝑚

In the above two examples, although both laser pointers have the exact same radiant flux, the
green laser pointer will appear approximately 8.5 times brighter than the red one assuming both
have the same beam diameter

Eq (1) is applicable for only monochromatic source. Conversion from radiometric to photometric
units becomes more complex if the light source is not monochromatic. In this case, the
mathematical quantity of interest is
 𝜆=830𝑛𝑚

Φ𝑣 = 𝐾𝑚 ∫ Φ𝑒,𝜆, 𝑉(𝜆)𝑑𝜆
𝜆=380𝑛𝑚

Inverse Square Law

Illuminance (E) at a distance d from a point source having luminous intensity I is inversely
proportional to square of the distance.

𝐼
𝐸=
𝑑2

For example, if the luminous intensity of a lamp in a given direction is 1000 cd, the illuminance at
2 m from the lamp in this direction is 250 lx. Note that the inverse square law is valid only when
the light source is regarded as a point source. Sufficient distances relative to the size of the source
are needed to assume this relationship.

Lambert’s law (cosine law)

Radiant intensity or luminous intensity observed from an ideal surface is directly proportional to
cosine of the angle between the direction of the incident light and normal to the surface
𝐼𝜃 = 𝐼0 cos 𝜃

Lambertian surface

A surface whose luminance is the same in all directions of the hemisphere above the surface.
There can be two types of Lambertian surface namely reflecting and diffusing surface.
Reflectance

Reflectance is defined as the ratio of the radiant flux reflected from the surface or body of a
material (фr) to the incident radiant flux (фi). Reflectance is denoted by ρ (or p).
𝛷𝑟
𝑝=
𝛷𝑖

Reflectance can be categorized into two types namely specular reflectance (ρs) and diffuse
reflectance (ρd).
Specular reflectance is defined as the radiant flux that is not scattering or diffusing. It is mainly
due to smooth, polished or glassy surfaces. For example, reflection by a mirror.

Diffuse reflectance (also called body reflectance) is defined as the radiant flux that is in a
scattering manner. In this case a part of the incident light enters into the material, undergo multiple
scattering incised the material due to variable RI, part of it is absorbed and finally comes out as
shown in fig (blue color). This kind of reflection gives a matte finish to the surface. For example,
reflection by cinema screen, paper, clay etc
Transmittance

The transmittance of a surface or material is defined as the part of the light that moves through the
other side of the surface. When light passes through any surface or material, it can be transmitted,
reflected, or absorbed.

The ratio of radiant flux transmitted by surface (фt) to the radiant flux received by that surface (фi)
is known as the Transmittance (T)
𝛷𝑡
𝑡=
𝛷𝑖

Transmittance to Absorbance

The transmittance value refers to the amount of light or radiation that passes into the material. The
effect of light absorbance is to reduce the value of the transmitted component as it travels further
through the material.
In a reasonably thick opaque material, the absorptance is such that all of the light is very quickly
absorbed before it has travelled very far. For transparent materials, the effect of absorption is seen
when light passes out of the rear face. At that point, some will have been absorbed and some will
have been reflected back towards the front face due to internal reflectance.

The amount of radiation absorbed can be measured by the transmittance. The relation between
transmittance (t) and absorbance (a) is given by the Beer-Lambert law (Beer’s law).
According to Beer’s Law, the absorbance (a) is formulated as

𝛷𝑖
𝑎 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝛷𝑡
𝛷𝑡
𝐵𝑢𝑡, 𝑡 =
𝛷𝑖
1
𝑎 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑡
𝑎 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 100 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (%𝑡)
𝑎 = 2 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (%𝑡)

Numerical problems

1. A hall of volume 1200 m3 has total absorption equivalent to 480 m2 of open window.
What will be the effect on reverberation time if the audience fill the hall and thereby
increase the absorption by another 480m2 of open window?

0.162𝑉 0.162 × 1200

𝑇1 = = = 0.40 𝑠
∑ 𝛼𝑆 480
0.162𝑉 0.162 × 1200
𝑇2 = = = 0.20 𝑠
∑ 𝛼𝑆 480 + 480
2. A class room has dimensions 20 ×15×5 m3. The reverberation time is 3.5 s calculate
total absorption of surface and average absorption coefficient
0.162𝑉
𝑇=
∑ 𝛼𝑆
0.162𝑉 0.162 × 1500
∑ 𝛼𝑆 = = = 69
𝑇 3.5
There are totally 6 walls in the hall. Their total surface area is
𝑆 = 2(20 × 15 + 15 × 5 + 5 × 20) = 950
69
∝= = 0.07
950

3. The volume of a lecture hall is 12 ×104m3 and reverberation time is 1.5 s. Find the
average absorption coefficient if the surface area is 24000 m2
0.162𝑉
𝑇=
∝𝑎𝑣 𝑆
0.162𝑉 0.162 × 12 × 104
∝𝑎𝑣 = = = 0.54𝑚2 − 𝑠𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝑇𝑆 1.5 × 24000

4. The reverberation time of a hall without and with 500 audience is 1.5 s and 1.4 s
respectively. Calculate the reverberation time for 1000 audience
Without audience
0.162𝑉
𝑇1 = − − − (1)
𝐴
If A/ is the absorbance of each person then, with 500 audience
0.162𝑉
𝑇2 = − − − (2)
𝐴 + 500𝐴′
Divide Eq(1) by Eq (2)
𝑇1 𝐴 + 500𝐴′
∴ =
𝑇2 𝐴
𝐴 + 500𝐴′ 1.5
= = 1.07
𝐴 1.4
𝐴′
500 ( ) = 1.07 − 1 = 0.07
𝐴
′
𝐴
( ) = 0.14 × 10−3 − − − (3)
𝐴
With 1000 audience
0.162𝑉
𝑇3 = − − − (4)
𝐴 + 1000𝐴′
Divide Eq(3) by Eq (1)

𝑇3 𝐴
∴ =
𝑇1 𝐴 + 1000𝐴′
 𝑇3 1
=
𝑇1 1 + 1000 (𝐴′ )
𝐴
𝑇1
𝑇3 = = 1.31 𝑠
𝐴′
1 + 1000 ( 𝐴 )

5. A lecture hall has volume 600 m3 . Its floor area is 120 m2, walls area is 220m2 and
ceiling area is 120m2. The walls, floor and ceiling are covered by materials of
absorption coefficients 0.03, 0.06 and 0.80 respectively. Calculate reverberation time
0.162𝑉
𝑇=
∑ 𝛼𝑆
0.162𝑉
𝑇=
∝1 𝑆1 +∝2 𝑆2 +∝3 𝑆3

0.162 × 600
𝑇= = 0.885 𝑠
0.03 × 220 + 0.06 × 120 + 0.8 × 120

6. A hall has a volume of 5000 m3. It is required to have reverberation time 1.5 s. what
should be the total absorption of the hall?
0.162𝑉
𝑇=
𝐴
0.162𝑉 0.162 × 5000
𝐴= = = 537 𝑂𝑊𝑈
𝑇 1.5

Questions
1. What is reverberation of sound and reverberation time?. Why does it is very important in
acoustics of building?
2. Define reverberation time. Explain why the optimization of reverberation time is required
3. Discuss the role of reverberation in the acoustics of auditorium
4. Explain the terms reverberation and reverberation time and hence deduce Sabine’s
formula
5. Define reverberation time. What should be its optimized value for good acoustics?
6. Based on the assumptions made by Sabine deduce the expression for reverberation time
7. Discuss the absorption of sound and hence define absorption coefficient.
8. What is absorption coefficient? Give the expression for the same in terms of speed of
sound. Explain why open window is considered as ideal absorber
9. Define absorption coefficient and absorption power. What are their SI units
10. What are the requirements for good acoustics in auditorium?
11. Explain echo and echelon effects
12. Discuss how the energy is transported in a hall and hence define energy density
13. Define energy density and give the expression for the same
14. Discuss in brief the growth and decay of sound in auditorium. What do you meant by
fullness and dead effect?
15. Derive Sabine’s’ formula. Mention its limitations
16. Explain in detail how the absorption co-efficient of a material is measured using Sabine’s
formula
17. Discuss in detail factors affecting the acoustics of auditorium
18. Elaborate the role of diffusing material, concave surfaces, structure borne sound in
acoustics
19. Explain whispering effect and resonance effect in the auditorium
20. State the acoustic requirements of auditorium. Explain how these requirements are
achieved
21. Discuss in detail the remedial measures taken to improve the acoustics quality of an
auditorium
22. What do you meant by sound insulation? Why it is required?
23. Discuss sound insulation and its measurement
24. Explain methods of sound insulation
25. Write an explanatory note on noise and its measurement
26. What are the impacts of noise in multistoried buildings?
27. What is radiometry? Mention the different types in radiometry
28. Discuss different radiometric quantities along with proper SI units
29. Define the terms radiant power, radiant intensity, radiance, irradiance, radiant exitance
30. Explain spectral quantities
31. What is photometry? How it is different from radiometry?
32. Discuss different photometric quantities
33. Define the terms luminous flux, luminous intensity, luminance and emittance
34. Distinguish between radiometry and photometry
35. Compare radiometric and photometric quantities
36. Explain luminous efficiency curve and hence luminous efficiency
37. What is luminous efficiency? Give the expression for the same
38. What is scaling factor? Mention its maximum value
39. Explain why the brightness is different for different colors even though their radiant
power is same
40. Explain, with the help of luminous efficiency curve, the conversion of radiometric
quantity into photometric quantity
41. Discuss the conversion of radiometric quantity into photometric quantity for both
monochromatic and multi chromatic sources
42. State and explain inverse square law
43. Explain Lambert’s law and Lambertian surface
44. Explain Cosine law and Lambertian surface
45. What do you meant by reflectance? Discuss different types in reflectance
46. Explain specular reflectance and diffuse reflectance
47. Discuss reflectance and transmittance of light
48. What is transmittance and absorbance? Explain the relation between them
 49. Elaborate the role of reflectance, transmittance and absorbance of light
50. Obtain the expression for absorbance in terms of transmittance using Beer-Lambert law

Some important links for reflectance and transmittance

http://performativedesign.com/definitions/light/reflectance/

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HPNW0we-ft0