Acoustics & Ultrasonic:

Syllabus:
Acoustics: Introduction, Sound, Reflection of sound,
Defects due to reflected sound, absorption of sound,
Sabine’s formula, reverberation theory, Eyring’s
Equation, Doppler Effect.
Ultrasonic: Introduction, Generation of ultrasonic:
Magnetostriction and piezoelectric methods,
determination of velocity of ultrasonic waves (acoustic
grating), applications.
Objective: Illustrate the physics involved in the generation of
sound waves and ultrasonic waves and their applications in
various fields.
 Lecture Plan

• Introduction
• Sound
• Pitch
• Loudness
• Timber
• Reflection of sound
• Defect generation due to reflection.
 Acoustics

• Acoustics is the interdisciplinary science that deals

with the study of all mechanical waves in gases,
liquids, and solids including vibration, sound,
ultrasound and infrasound.
• A scientist who works in the field of acoustics is an
acoustician while someone working in the field of
acoustics technology may be called an acoustical
engineer.
• The application of acoustics can be seen in almost all
aspects of modern society with the most obvious
being the audio and noise control industries.
Sound Waves result from periodic oscillations of air
molecules, which collide with their neighbours and
create a disturbance which moves at the speed of sound.
 Generation of Sound

Sound is made when something vibrates.

• The vibration disturbs the

air around it.
• This makes changes in air
pressure.
• These changes in air
pressure move through
the air as sound waves.
 Generation of Sound

The sound waves cause

pressure changes against
our ear drum sending
nerve impulses to our
brain.
 Properties of Sound wave

• Mechanical wave which propagates in the medium via

alternate compression and rarefactions
• Propagation of sound needs an elastic medium
• Sound waves are longitudinal in nature
• Creates Pressure variation region during propagation
• Can be classified on the basis of frequency as Infrasonic
waves (less than 16 Hz), Audio waves (16 to 20 KHz) and
Ultrasonic waves (greater than 20 KHz)
• Velocity of sound wave depend upon nature and
temperature of the propagating medium
 Components of sound

• Pitch (how high or low)

• Loudness (volume)

• Timbre (tone color)

 Pitch

• The vibration patterns of

some sounds are repetitive.
• Vibration patterns are also
called waveforms.
• Each repetition of a waveform
is called a cycle.
• We can hear frequencies
between 20 hertz or cycles
(vibrations) per second (low
pitches)to 20 kilohertz, i.e.
20,000 Hz (high pitches).
Pitch
• When the frequency of a
sound doubles we say
that the pitch goes up an
octave.
• We can hear a range of
pitches of about ten
octaves.
• Many animals can make
sounds and hear
frequencies that are
beyond what we can
hear.
 “Timbre” (TAM-ber) or tone color

Timber is the
specific property
of sound that
enables us to
determine the
difference
between a piano
and a harp.
 “Timbre” (TAM-ber) or tone color

An extremely broad variety of tone

colors exist because most sounds
that we perceive as pitch actually
contain many frequencies.

The predominant pitch is called

the fundamental frequency
frequency..
Loudness

• To create vibrations energy is

used.
• The greater amount of energy
used the louder the sound.
• The strength of the Changes
in air pressure made by the
vibrating object determines
loudness.
 •As the sound spreads out from its source, the
concentration of power becomes less.

• As the distance from

the source increases
the amount of power
is spread over a
greater area.
• The amount of power
per square meter is
called the intensity of
the sound.
•The picture above is
a wave file of
someone singing.
•The chart on the left
is a representation of
different sounds
around us and their
volume in decibels.
 Acoustic terms

• Noise: creates Unpleasant Sensation

• Musical Noise: Pleasant Sensation
• Pitch: Subjective sensation related with
frequency of sound
• Timber: Subjective sensation related with
quality of sound
• Threshold of Audibility: When I = I0, it’s
intensity level becomes 0 dB. This is called
threshold of audibility.
 Acoustic terms

• Echo: An echo is defect produced due to reflection of

sound. When sound is reflected from reflecting
surface which is either 17 meter away or there is 100
ms gap between original sound and reflected sound
we can distinct between them. Such a reflection of
sound is known as echo.
• Reverberation: A sound produced in a volume is
reflected multiple times from the various surfaces. As
a result sound persists in the volume for some time
of gradually decreasing intensity even the source stop
emitting the sound. This persistence of the sound in a
room due to multiple reflections, even when the
source stops, is known as reverberation.
 Intensity of Sound
• The intensity of a sound (I) is the energy transported by
sound waves in unit time across a unit cross sectional area
normal to the direction of wave propagation.
• The sound intensity is proportional to the square of the
wave amplitude thus;

I α P2

Pressure Amplitude
P2
I=
2 ρ B

Time (ms)
• Where P = Pressure amplitude
• Pressure amplitude of faintest sound is 3 X 10-5 Pa, and
corresponding intensity is 10-16 W/cm2
 Sound Intensity Level

If I and Io represents the intensities of two sounds of

particular frequency and L1 and L0 are their
corresponding measures of loudness;
I
L = log bels
I0

L is called the intensity level and is expressed in bels;

1
1 decibel = bel
10

I
L = 10 log dB
I0
 Sound Intensity Level
•To build a scale of loudness, a reference to be set.
•Let’s Io = 10-16 W/cm2 is taken as a reference intensity.
Now if the intensity of sound wave is I0
I0
L = 10 log dB = 0 dB
I0
This represents the threshold audibility.
If L = 1 dB then I
= 1.26
I0
• It implies that the change in intensity by 26% enhances
the intensity level by 1 db
• Minimum audible intensity is 0 dB
• Maximum audible sound intensity is 130 dB
Some typical sound levels
 Reflection of sound
• Like light, sound gets reflected at the surface of a solid or liquid and follows the
laws of reflection.
i) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
ii) The incident ray, the reflected ray and normal at the point of incidence all lie in
the same plane.
Activity :- Take two pipes of the same length and arrange them on a table near a
wall or metal plate. Keep a clock near the open end of one pipe and try to hear the
sound of the clock through the other pipe by adjusting the position of the pipe.
Now measure the angles of incidence
and reflection. Then lift the second
pipe and try to hear the sound.
It will be seen that the angle of
incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection. The incident ray, the
reflected ray and normal all lie in
the same plane.
 Speed of sound
The speed of sound is different in different media. The speed of
sound is more in solids, less in liquids and least in gases. It is also
depends on temperature of the medium.
Speed of sound in different media at 250C.
State Substance Speed in m/s
Solid Aluminium 6420
Relationship between
Steel 5960
Speed (v), frequency
Iron 5950
(٧) and wave length
Brass 4700
(λ)
Glass 3980
Speed = wave length x Water (Sea) 1531
Liquid
frequency Water (Distilled) 1498
v=λx٧ Ethanol 1207
Methanol 1103
Gas Hydrogen 1284
Helium 965
Air 344
Oxygen 316
 Echo
• If we shout or clap near a reflecting surface like tall
building or a mountain, we hear the same sound again.
This sound which we hear is called echo. It is caused due
to the reflection of sound.
• To hear an echo clearly, the time interval between the
original sound and the echo must be at least 0.1 s.
• Since the speed of sound in air is 344 m/s, the distance
travelled by sound in 0.I s = 344 m/s x 0.1 s = 34.4 m, so
to hear an echo clearly, the minimum distance of the
reflecting surface should be half this distance, that is 17.2
m.
 Reverberation

• Echoes may be heard more than once due to

repeated or multiple reflections of sound from
several reflecting surfaces. This causes persistence of
sound called reverberation.
• In big halls or auditoriums to reduce reverberation,
the roofs and walls are covered by sound absorbing
materials like compressed fibre boards, rough plaster
or draperies.
• Time taken by a sound in a room to fall from its
average intensity to inaudibility is a called the
reverberation time.
 Sabine’s formula

Volume of Hall (V )
Tα
Absorption ( A)
V
T =k
A
V
T = 0.161
A
where A = ∑ aS = aS1 + aS 2 + ...
and
Sound energy absorbed by the surface
a=
total sound energy in cident on the surface
Sabine’s empirical formula for reverberation time:

According to this formula, Reverberation time depends upon

following factors:

1. Nature of surface 2. Physical volume of the hall

3. Co-efficient of absorption

V
T = 0.161
A

V
T = 0.161
a1S1 + a2 S2 + a3 S3 + ..........an S n
Sabine’s theory for reverberation time
Normal

dr
rdθ

rdθ dr
rsinθ

dθ
θ

A B
dS
Area of the shaded portion = r dθ dr

The volume of the element shown in shadow is given by,

dV = rdθ dr × r sin θ dφ = r 2 sin θ dr dθ dφ

If E is energy density, then energy present in the volume,

dW 1 = E r 2 sin θ dθ dφ dr Solid Angle

C
As sound travels uniformly in all three direction, A
A
energy travelling per unit solid angle is given by, ω
α
2
E r sin θ dθ dφ dr B
dW 2 =
4π Area of AB
ω=
r2
The solid angle subtended by ds at dV is, Area of BC
ω=
r2
ds cos θ Area of ABCosα
dΩ = =
r2
r2
Hence the amount of energy that reaches from ds to dV is,

E r 2 sin θ dθ dφ dr ds cos θ
dW 2 = ×
4π r2
E ds
= sin θ cos θ dθ dφ dr
4π
In order to find total energy received by ds in one second above
expression must be integrated for entire volume
π
2 2π v
E ds
∴ W 1 = ∫ dW 1 = ∫ ∫ ∫ sin θ cos θ dθ dφ dr
4π φ =0 θ =0 r =0
Ev ds
=
4
Intensity of sound energy is given as,

Ev
I =
4
If ‘a’ is absorption coefficient , then energy absorbed by ds in one second is

E v a ds
dWA =
4
Then total sound energy absorbed by all surface present inside the hall is given
by,

Ev Ev A
WA =
4
∑ a ds = 4

If growth of energy in the hall is = V dE/dt, then, we can write,

dE Ev A dE 4 Pα vA
V =P− +α E = Qα =
dt 4 dt vA 4P

d 4 Pα α t  dE  α t 4 Pα α t
dt
(
Eeα t =) vA
e 
 dt
+α E  e =
 vA
e Multiplying
both sides by eαt
 Integrating the above equation, we get

αt4P αt
Ee = e +K
vA
Rate of Growth of Energy:
4P
When t = 0, E = 0. and K =−
vA
Substituting this,
4P αt
Eeα t =
vA
(
e −1 )

4P
E=
vA
(
1 − e −α t )

(
E = Em 1 − e −α t )
Rate of Decay of Energy:

Now the source has put off. Then P = 0 and E = Em at t = 0.

E = Em e − α t

Above equation shows that, once the source is put off the sound energy decays
exponentially.
As per definition of reverberation time, at t = T

E
=10−6 i.e. e −αT =10−6
Em

vA
α T = 6 ln10 or T = 6 × 2.3026
4V

0.161 V
∴T =
A

Above equation is Sabine’s formula for reverberation time and exactly similar
to empirical formula given earlier.
Eyring’s Equation:
• Sabine’s formula works for large enclosures.
However, it leads to paradox for highly
absorptive surfaces. For instance when a =
1, all sound energy incident on the surface
is absorbed and T = 0. Such room is called
dead room in acoustical terms.
• Sabine’s formula does not leads to T = 0
when a = 1. Actually, experiments shows
that Sabine’s
T = formula
0.161 Vis valid only for a ≤
0.2. S (− log(1 − a ))

• Eyring proposed modification in the

equation as following,
 Eyring’s Equations

• Sabine’s formula works for large enclosures. However,

it leads to paradox for highly absorptive surfaces. For
instance when a = 1, all sound energy incident on the
surface is absorbed and T = 0. Such room is called
dead room in acoustical terms.
• Sabine’s formula does not leads to T = 0 when a = 1.
Actually, experiments shows that Sabine’s formula is
valid only for a ≤ 0.2.
• Eyring proposed modification in the equation as
following,
0.161 V
T =
S (− log(1 − a ))
 Acoustical Defects and their remedies:

Defect Effect Remedy

Excessive By installing sound absorbing materials at
Bad quality of sound
reverberation proper places
Superposition of Selection of proper shape of the surface
Echoes
sound and covered by sound absorbing materials
Sound of large Elimination of curvilinear interiors or
Sound Foci
intensity is focused at covering the point by high sound
focal point absorbing materials
At these spots
Dead Spots insufficient sound Installation of sound diffusers
intensity is produced
Insufficient Non-uniform A hard reflecting surface near the source or
Loudness distribution of sound loudspeakers
Noise
External noise makes Using enough doors and windows and
(Air borne or
speech or music providing suitable sound insulation to
structure
intelligible building
borne)
 Doppler Effect
• Doppler Effect is the apparent change in the frequency (or wavelength)
of any emitted waves, such as a wave of light or sound as the source of
the wave approaches or moves away from an observer.
• The relative increase in frequency can be explained as follows. When
the source of the waves is moving toward the observer, each successive
wave crest is emitted from a position closer to the observer than the
previous wave. Therefore each wave takes slightly less time to reach
the observer than the previous wave. Therefore the time between the
arrival of successive wave crests at the observer is reduced, causing an
increase in the frequency. While they are travelling, the distance
between successive wavefronts is reduced; so the waves "bunch
together". Conversely, if the source of waves is moving away from the
observer, each wave is emitted from a position farther from the
observer than the previous wave, so the arrival time between
successive waves is increased, reducing the frequency.
 Resting sound source
f s = fo

Frequency fs V=340m/s Frequency fo

source observer
at rest at rest
Sound source moving toward observer

fo > f s
Observer hears
increased pitch
(shorter wave length)

Frequency fo
Frequency fs

source observer
at rest
 Sound source moving away from
observer
fo < f s
Observer hears
decreased pitch
(longer wave length)

Frequency fo Frequency fs

observer
source
at rest
Case 1: Source in motion, Observer at rest:
v
When the source is stationary, Wavelength of the wave is given as, λ=
n
When the source approaches the observer, the apparent wavelength is given by

λ1 =
( v − vs )
n

The apparent frequency is given as,

v v vn Apparent frequency n1 is greater than

n1 = = =
λ1 ( v − vs / n ) ( v − vs ) original frequency n.

If the source moves away from the observer, the apparent wavelength is given by

λ1 =
( v + vs )
n1 =
vn Apparent frequency n1 is less than
n ( v + vs ) original frequency n.
Case 2: Observer in motion, Source at rest:
v
When the observer is stationary, Wavelength of the wave is given as, λ=
n
When the observer approaches the source, the number of waves received is
given by
v0 n
n1 = n +
v
Hence, the apparent frequency is given as,

v0 n ( v + v0 ) n Apparent frequency n2 is greater than

n2 = n + = original frequency n.
v v

If the observer moves away from the source, the apparent wavelength is given by

v0 n ( v − v0 ) n Apparent frequency n2 is less than

n2 = n − = original frequency n.
v v
Case 3: Observer and Source both in motion:
v
When the observer is stationary, Wavelength of the wave is given as, λ=
n
When the observer approaches the source, the number of waves received is
given by
v0 n
n1 = n +
v
Hence, the apparent frequency is given as,

v0 n ( v + v0 ) n Apparent frequency n2 is greater than

n2 = n + = original frequency n.
v v

If the observer moves away from the source, the apparent wavelength is given by

v0 n ( v − v0 ) n Apparent frequency n2 is less than

n2 = n − = original frequency n.
v v
When the observer is stationary the apparent frequency is given as,

vn
n1 =
( v − vs )
When the observer is also moving away from the source with velocity v0 the
apparent frequency is given as,

( v − v0 ) Substitute the =
( v − v0 ) n
n3 = n1 n3
v value of n1 ( v − vs )
Apparent frequency will decrease

When the observer is also moving towards then apparent frequency is given
as,

( v + v0 ) Substitute the
n3 =
( v + v0 ) n
n3 = n1
v
value of n1 ( v − vs )
Apparent frequency will increase
 Doppler Effect

Example The noisy siren.
An ambulance travels down a highway at a speed of 75.0 mi/h, its
siren emitting sound at a frequency of 4.00x102 Hz. What frequency
is heard by a passenger in a car traveling at 55.0 mi/h in the opposite
direction as the car and ambulance:
(a) approach each other and
(b) pass and move away from each others?
First convert the speeds from mi/h to m/s.
 0.447 m/s   0.447 m/s 
vS = (75.0 mi/h)  = 33.5 m/s ; vO = (55.0 mi/h)  = 24.6 m/s
(a)  1.00 mi/h   1.00 mi/h 

 v + vO   345 m/s + 24.6 m/s 

f
(b)O = f 
S

 = ( 4. 00 × 10 2
Hz )  = 475 Hz
 v − vS   345 m/s − 33.5 m/s 

 v + vO   345 m/s + (−24.6 m/s) 


fO = f S  
 = (4.00 ×10 Hz)
2
 = 339 Hz
 v − vS   345 m/s − (−33.5 m/s) 
 Ultrasonic
• What is ultrasonic?
Ultrasound is the sound wave with a frequency above
the audible range of human hearing
i.e, : above 20 KHz up to 5 MHz or more
• Ultrasonic is used in day to day life in many fields:
• cleaning metal parts of instruments, medical
equipments.
• Flaw detection in Metallurgy, Railways, Iron ropes
etc.,
• In Scientific research .
• In Medical field as sonogram of human body.
 FREQUENCY SPECTRUM
• 21 kHz depth sounder
• 25 kHz grasshopper
• 30 kHz submarine detection
• 70 kHz bats signal ranging
• 100 kHz types of whistles
• 3 MHz thickness gauges
• 12 MHz flaw detectors
• 15 MHz medical diagnosis
Dolphins are famous for their
sonar, so that they can make
acoustic mental "images" of
the environment.

This way they can detect in

murky waters fish shoals
located hundreds of meters
away.

The sonar employs sounds

from 250 Hz to 220 kHz.
Generation of ultrasound- Ultrasonic Transducer
 Generation of ultrasound
• Magnetostriction
• Pierce Oscillator
• Piezoelectric oscillator
 Magnetostriction

• When a rod of ferromagnetic material such as iron or

nickel, is kept in a magnetic field parallel to its length, the
rod suffers a change in its length. The change in length is
independent of the direction of the magnetic field and
depends only on the magnitude of the field and nature of
the material.
• This phenomenon is known as magnetostriction. It was
discovered by Joule in 1847.
• As the rod vibrates logitudinally, the frequency of
oscillations is governed by the relation
n Y
f =
2L ρ
 Piezoelectric oscillator
What is Piezoelectricity?
• Piezoelectricity means “pressure electricity”, which is used
to describe the coupling between a material’s mechanical
and electrical behaviors.
– Piezoelectric Effect
• when a piezoelectric material is squeezed or stretched,
electric charge is generated on its surface.
–Inverse Piezoelectric Effect
• Conversely, when subjected to
a electric voltage input,
a piezoelectric material
mechanically deforms.
 Quartz Crystals

• Highly anisotropic
• X-cut: vibration in the direction perpendicular to the cutting
direction
• Y-cut: vibration in the transverse direction
 Piezoelectric Materials

• Piezoelectric Ceramics (man-made materials)

– Barium Titanate (BaTiO3)
– Lead Titanate Zirconate (PbZrTiO3) = PZT, most widely used
– The composition, shape, and dimensions of a piezoelectric ceramic
element can be tailored to meet the requirements of a specific purpose.

Photo courtesy of MSI, MA

 Piezoelectric Materials

• Piezoelectric Polymers
– PVDF (Polyvinylidene flouride) film
• Piezoelectric Composites
– A combination of piezoelectric ceramics and polymers to
attain properties which can be not be achieved in a single
phase

Image courtesy of MSI, MA

 Example-1

• Calculate the natural frequency of 40 mm length of a

pure iron road. Iven the density of pure iron is 7.5 X
103 kg/m3 and its Young’s modulus is 115 X 109 N/m2.
can you use it in magnetostiction oscillator to
produce ultrasonic waves?

• Answer: 49.75 kHZ

 Application of Ultrasonics
1.High power 2.Low power
1. High Power:
At high intensities , ultrasound is generally used for
changing the properties of materials through which it is
passed. This is done at low frequencies (few KHz) and at
higher wattage (watt to kW).
2. Low Power:
• At low intensities , ultrasound is used either as a means
of investigating the properties of sample material.
• It is important that the materials does not suffer any
permanent change in the structural and chemical
properties.
• Many low intensity applications are made at very high
frequency (in MHz range) and of low power (in milliwatt
to watt).
High Power Utrasonics: SONCHEMISTRY
Cleaning of materials using ultrasound
Metal pots Filters
Hospital glassware Surgical instruments
photographic lenses Fibers
Circuit boards Semiconductors
Ball Bearings Carburetors Engine
parts
Plastic & Ceramic Materials
Hospital equipments
Automobile parts

Circuit boards
Mechanism of cleaning by ultrasound
Sonochemistry arises
from acoustic
cavitation: the
formation, growth,
and implosive
collapse of bubbles in
a liquid.
 ULTRASONICS IN MATERIALS SCI.
Ultrasound as an NDT tool
• The ultrasonic wave is
carried from the
transducer to the unit
under test (UUT) by a
couplant - typically
water, oil, or gel – and is
reflected back to the
transducer by both
external surfaces and
internal defects.
Portable Ultrasonic Flaw Detector
Portable
Ultrasonic
Flaw Detector
ULTRASONICS APPLICASTIONS IN BIOLOGY-
MEDICINE
Ultrasonic imaging is similar to radar in that pulses are
propagated through the body, causing reflected waves
to occur at various discontinuities throughout the path
of the beam. Ultrasonic pulses have a relatively slow
velocity of propagation (1500 m/s) in the body
compared to x rays (3 x 10^8 m/s)
Ultrasound imaging instruments are cheaper than x-ray
CT or MRI scanners and are able to image soft tissues
which cannot be seen on plain x-ray.
Ultrasonic imaging uses frequencies in the range from
1 to 20Mhz at powers from 0.01 to 200 mW/cm2.
Tissue Mean Velocity (m/s)

air 330
fat 1450
brain 1541
liver 1549
kidney 1561
spleen 1566
blood 1570
muscle 1585
lens of eye 1620
skull bone 4080
water 1500
Sonogram of fetus – 12 weeks
Sonogram of a normal Heart
Liver with a cyst
Sonogram of Normal Kidney
Doppler scans use the frequency shift caused by
movement to measure blood flow.
3 D –sonogram of fetus- face