WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

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 INTRODUCTION TO WIRELESS
COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
❑ Evolution of Mobile Radio Communications :
➢ 1921 : Detroit Police Dept. used a 2 MHz frequency in the departments as 1 st vehicle Mobile
Radio. This system was one way.
➢ 1934 : 194 municipal police radio systems and 58 state police stations had adopted amplitude
modulation (AM) mobile communication systems for public safety in the U.S. and vehicle
ignition noise was a major problem for these early mobile users.
➢ 1935, Edwin Armstrong demonstrated frequency modulation (FM) for the first time, and since
the late 1930s, F'M has been the primary modulation technique used for mobile communication
systems throughout the world.
➢ 1940: FCC recognized communication services and it named Domestic Public Land Mobile
(DPLM) radio service.
➢ 1969 : The IMTS operating at 450 MHz band with direct dialing automatic channel selection
capability became the standard for Mobile Telephone Service in US.
➢ 1991: Research in 1991 estimated between 25 and 40 million cordless telephones were in use in
the U.S
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❑ PAGING SYSTEM
➢ Paging systems are communication systems that send brief messages to a subscriber.
Depending on the type of service, the message may be either a numeric message, an
alphanumeric message, or a voice message.
➢ A message is sent to a paging subscriber via the paging system access number (usuallya toll-
free telephone number) with a telephone keypad or modem. The issued message is called a
page.
➢ The paging system then transmits the page throughout the service area using base stations
which broadcast the page on a radio carrier.
➢ Paging systems vary widely in their complexity and coverage area.
➢ Simple paging systems may cover a limited range of 2 km to 5 km, or may even be confined to
within individual buildings.
➢ Wide area paging systems can provide worldwide coverage.
➢ Wide area paging systems consist of a network of telephone lines, many base station
transmitters, and large radio towers that simultaneously broadcast a page from each base station
(this is called simulcasting).
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WIDE AREA PAGING SYSTEM 4
 CORDLESS HANDSET

Diagram: Cordless Telephone System

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❑ COMPARASION OF WIRELESS SYSTEMS :
MOBILE STATION

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BASE STATION

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 CELLULAR NETWORKS

❑ 1G: First generation wireless cellular: Early 1980s

➢ Analog transmission, primarily speech: AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone Systems) and others
❑ 2G: Second generation wireless cellular: Late 1980s
➢ Digital transmission
➢ Primarily speech and low bit-rate data (9.6 Kbps)
➢ High-tier: GSM, IS-95 (CDMA), etc
➢ Low-tier (PCS): Low-cost, low-power, low-mobility e.g. PACS
❑ 2.5G: 2G evolved to medium rate (< 100kbps) data
❑ 3G: future Broadband multimedia
➢ 144 kbps - 384 kbps for high-mobility, high coverage
➢ 2 Mbps for low-mobility and low coverage

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 ❑ 2G technologies

CdmaOne, IS-95 GSM, DCS-1900 IS-54/IS-136, PDC

824-849 MHz (US Cellular) 890-915 MHz (Europe) 800 MHz, 1500 MHz (Japan)
Uplink Frequencies
1850-1910 MHz (US PCS) 1850-1910 MHz (US PCS) 1850-1910 MHz (US PCS)

824-849 MHz (US Cellular)

Downlink 869-894 MHz (US Cellular) 935-960 MHz (Europe)
1930-1990 MHz (US PCS)
Frequencies 1930-1990 MHz (US PCS) 1930-1990 MHz (US PCS)
800 MHz, 1500 MHz (Japan)

Duplexing FDD FDD FDD

Multiple Access Tech. CDMA TDMA TDMA

Modulation BPSK with Quadrature Spreading GMSK with BT=0.3 /4 DQPSK

30 KHz (IS-136)
Carrier Separation 1.25 MHz 200 KHz
(25 KHz for PDC)

48.6 Kbps (IS-136)

Channel Data Rate 1.2288 Mchips/sec 260.833 Kbps
(25 KHz for PDC)

Voice Channels per

64 8 3
carrier

CELP @ 13 Kbps,
Speech Coding RPE-LTP @ 13 Kbps VSELP @ 7.95 Kbps
EVRC @ 8 Kbps

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❑2.5G TDMA Standard

➢ High Speed Circuit Switched Data (HSCSD)

➢ General Packet Radio Services (GPRS)

➢ Enhanced Data Rate for GSM Evolution (EDGE)

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➢Upgrade paths for 2G Technologies

2G IS-95 GSM- IS-136 & PDC

GPRS
IS-95B
2.5G HSCSD EDGE

Cdma2000-1xRTT W-CDMA
3G Cdma2000-1xEV,DV,DO EDGE
Cdma2000-3xRTT TD-SCDMA
3GPP2 3GPP 11
❑ 3G (3rd Generation )
➢ UMTS:
❖ UMTS is the European vision of 3G.
❖ UMTS is an upgrade from GSM via GPRS or EDGE.
❖ The standardization work for UMTS is carried out by Third
Generation Partnership Project (3GPP).
❖ Data rates of UMTS are:
✓ 144 kbps for rural
✓ 384 kbps for urban outdoor
✓ 2048 kbps for indoor and low range outdoor Virtual Home
Environment (VHE)

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 ❑ Wireless in Local Loop (WLL)

➢ WLL is a system that connects subscriber to the

local telephone station wirelessly

General Setup of WLL

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➢ TYPES OF WLAN
There are two types of WLAN:-
❖ IEEE 802.11
✓ 802.11b-
✓802.11a-
✓802.11g
❖ Bluetooth

✓ WLAN : 802.11 b
▪ Supports 1, 2, 5.5 and 11 Mbps data rates in the2.4-GHz band.
▪ 802.11b systems will interoperate with 1 Mbpsand 2 Mbps 802.11 DSSS
system but not with FHSS systems.
▪ Uses Complementary Code Keying(CCK )

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ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF WLAN
Advantages
i) Convenience
ii) Productivity
iii) Deployment
iv) Expandability
v) Cost

Disadvantages
i) Security
ii) Range
iii) Reliability
Iv) Speed

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 INTRODUCTION TO CELLULAR
MOBILE SYSTEM
❑ SPECTRUM ALLOCATION:
❖ Radio frequency spectrum is a limited natural resource. The word ‘Spectrum’ basically refers to
a collection of various types of electromagnetic radiations of different wavelengths.
❖ In India, the radio frequencies are arbitrarily confined between 9kHz and 3000 GHz and are
being used for 40 different types of services like fixed communication, mobile communication,
broadcasting, radio navigation, radiolocation, fixed and mobile satellite service, aeronautical
satellite service, radio navigational satellite service etc.
❖ Important characteristics of the radio frequency spectrum
➢ Radio frequency spectrum does not respect international geographical boundaries as it is spread
over a large terrestrial area.
➢ Use of radio frequency spectrum is susceptible to overlapping interference and requires the
application of complex engineering tools to ensure interference free operation of various wireless
networks

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❖Typical frequency bands allocated for certain types of radio services in India
Sr. Radio Service Frequency Band

1 Radio Navigation 9 – 14 kHz

2 Mobile (Distress & Calling) 495 – 505 kHz

3 Broadcasting 535 – 1605.5 kHz

4 Maritime Mobile 2065 – 2107 kHz

2170 – 2178.5 kHz
2190.5 – 2194 kHz
5 Fixed, Mobile, Broadcasting Radio Astronomy 610 – 806 MHz
6 Mobile, Fixed, Broadcasting 890 960 MHz

7 Mobile satellite 942 – 960 MHz

8 Radio Location 1350 – 1400 MHz

9 Mobile, Fixed, Space operation, space research 1710 – 1930 MHz

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❑ BASIC CELLULAR SYSTEM
❖ Circuit-Switched Systems
➢ Analog System
▪ Mobile units. A mobile telephone unit contains a control unit, a transceiver, and anantenna
system.
▪ Cell site. The cell site provides interface between the MTSO and the mobile units. Ithas a
control unit, radio cabinets, antennas, a power plant, and data terminals.
▪ MTSO. The switching office, the central coordinating element for all cell sites, contains the
cellular processor and cellular switch.
▪ Connections. The radio and high-speed data links connect the three subsystems.

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❑ ANALOG CELLULAR SYSTEM
❖ Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS)
➢ Analog mobile phone system standard developed by Bell Labs
➢ AMPS is a first-generation cellular technology that uses separate frequencies, or "channels",
for each conversation .It therefore required considerable bandwidth for a large number of
users.
➢ AMPS very similar to the older Improved Mobile Telephone Service but used considerably
more computing power in order to select frequencies, hand off conversations to PSTN lines,
and handle billing and call setup
➢ In AMPS, the cell centers could flexibly assign channels to handsets based on signal strength,
allowing the same frequency to be re-used in various locations without interference. This
allowed a larger number of phones to be supported over a geographical area. AMPS pioneers
fathered the term "cellular" because of its use of small hexagonal "cells" within a system.
➢ AMPS cellular service operated in the 800 MHz Cellular FM band.
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❑ DIGITAL CELLULAR SYSTEM
❖ GSM
➢ GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communication and is an open, digital
cellular technology used for transmitting mobile voice and data services.
➢ The GSM emerged from the idea of cell-based mobile radio systems at Bell
Laboratories in the early 1970s.
➢ The GSM is the name of a standardization group established in 1982 to create a
common European mobile telephone standard.
➢ The GSM standard is the most widely accepted standard and is implemented globally.
➢ The GSM is a circuit-switched system that divides each 200kHz channel into eight
25kHz time-slots. GSM operates in the 900MHz and 1.8GHz bands in Europe and the
1.9GHz and 850MHz bands in the US.

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 CELLULAR SYSTEM DESIGN
FUNDAMENTALS

❑ Design Considerations:
➢ To solve problems of spectral congestion and user capacity.
➢ Replacing a single, high power transmitter with many low power transmitters.
➢ Neighboring base stations are assigned different groups of channels so that the interference
between base stations is minimized.
➢ Available Channels are distributed throughput the geographic region and may be reused as
many times as necessary.
➢ With fixed number of channels to support an arbitrarily large number of subscribers.

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❑ Frequency Reuse
➢ One important characteristic of cellular networks is the reuse of frequencies in different cells.
➢ By reuse frequencies, a high capacity can be achieved.
➢ However, the reuse distance has to be high enough,so that the interference caused by subscribers
using the same frequency (or an adjacent frequency) in another cells is sufficiently low.
➢ To guarantee an appropriate speech quality, the carrier-to-interference-power-ratio (CIR) has to
exceed a certain threshold CIRmin which is 9 dB for the GSM System

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Illustration of the cellular frequency reuse concept. Cells with the same letter
use the same set of frequencies. A cell cluster is outlined in bold and replicated
over the coverage area. In this example. the cluster size. N. is equal to seven.
and the frequency reuse factor is 1/7since each cell contains one-seventh of the
total number of available channels. 23
 ❑Channel Assignment Strategies
➢Fixed Channel Allocation
➢Dynamic Channel Allocation
➢Hybrid Channel Allocation
➢Borrowed Channel Allocation

Fixed Channel Assignment

❖Each cell is allocated a predetermined set of voice channels.
❖Any call attempt within the cell can only be served by the unused channels in that particular cell.
❖Probability of blocking is high.

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➢ Dynamic Channel Assignment Strategy

❖ Channels are not allocated to different cells permanently.

❖ Each time a call request is made, the serving base station requests a channel from the
MSC.
❖ The MSC allocates a channel to the requested cell following an algorithm that takes into
account the likelihood of future blocking within the cell, the frequency of use of the
candidate channel, the reuse distance of the channel, and other cost functions.
❖ MSC only allocates a given frequency if that frequency is not presently in use in the cell or
any other cell which falls within the minimum restricted distance of frequency reuse to avoid
co-channel interference

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➢ Borrowing Strategy

❖ Modified from fixed channel assignment strategies.

❖ A cell is allowed to borrow channels from a neighboring cell if all of its own channels are
already occupied.
❖ The MSC supervises such borrowing procedures and ensures that the borrowing of a channel
does not disrupt or interfere with any of the calls in progress in the donor cell

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❑ Handoff Strategies

➢ In a cellular network, the process to transfer the ownership of a MS from a BS to another BS.
➢ Handoff not only involves identifying a new BS, but also requires that the notice and control
signals be allocated to channels associated with the new base station.
➢ Usually, priority of handoff requests is higher than call initiation requests when allocating
unused channels.
➢ Handoffs must be performed successfully and as infrequently as possible and be imperceptible
to the uses.

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➢ Need to specify an optimum signal level to initiate a handoff.
➢ Minimum useable signal for acceptable voice quality at the base station receiver is
normally taken as between -90 dBm to -100 dBm.

➢ If Δis too large, unnecessary handoffs may occur.

➢ If Δis too small, there may be insufficient time to

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Illustration of a handoff scenario at cell boundary 29
❑ Co-channel Interference
➢ In a given coverage area, there are several cells that use thesame set of frequencies. These
cells are called co-channel
➢ The interference between signals from co-channel cells is called co-channel interference
➢ To reduce co-channel interference, co-channel cells must be physically separated by a
minimum distance.

❑ Adjacent Channel Interference

➢ Adjacent channel interference results from imperfect receiver filters which allow nearby
frequencies to leak into the pass band.
➢ Adjacent channel interference can be minimized through careful filtering and channel
assignments.
➢ Channels are allocated such that the frequency separation between channels in a given cell
is maximized.

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❑Trunking System

➢ Trunking system: A mechanism to allow many user to share fewer number of channels.
❖ Not every user calls at the same time.
➢ Penalty: Blocking Effect.
❖ If traffic is too heavy, call is blocked!!
❖ Small blocking probability is desired.
➢ There is a trade-off between the number of available circuits and blocking probability.

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 ❑Grade of Service (GOS)

➢ Erlang: The amount of traffic intensity carried by a channel that is completely occupied.
For example, a radio channel that is occupied for 30 minutes during an hour carries 0.5
Erlangs of traffic.
➢ Grade of Service (GOS) is a measure of the ability of a user to access a trunked system during
the busiest hour.
➢ GOS is typically given as the likelihood that a call is blocked, or the likelihood of a call
experiencing a delay greater than a certain queuing time.

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❑ Improving coverage and capacity
➢ Cell Splitting
❖ Cell splitting is the process of subdividing a congested cell into smaller cells, each with
its own base station and a corresponding reduction in antenna height and transmitter
power.
❖ Cell splitting increases the capacity of a cellular system since it increases the number of
times that channels are reused.
❖ Cell splitting⇒ small cells (microcells)

Same service area

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More cells in the service area, more capacity
Multiple Access Techniques For
Wireless Communication

❑ INTRODUCTION TO MULTIPLE ACCESS

➢ Multiple access schemes are used to allow many mobile users to share
simultaneously a finite amount of radio spectrum.
➢ Multiple Access Techniques :
❖ FDMA ( Frequency Division Multiple Access)
❖ TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access )
❖ CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access )
❖ PR (Packet Radio )
❖ SDMA (Space Division Multiple Access )

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➢Multiple Access (MA) Technologies used in Different Wireless Systems

Cellular Systems MA Technique

AMPS ( Advanced Mobile Phone system ) FDMA / FDD
GSM ( Global System for Mobile ) TDMA / FDD
US DC ( U. S Digital Cellular ) TDMA / FDD
JDC ( Japanese Digital Cellular ) TDMA / FDD
CT2 ( Cordless Telephone ) FDMA / FDD
DECT ( Digital European Cordless Telephone ) FDMA / FDD
IS – 95 ( U.S Narrowband Spread Spectrum ) CDMA / FDD

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❑ Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

FDMA where different channels are assigned different frequency band 36

➢ PROPERTIES OF FDMA:
❖ The bandwidth of FDMA channels is narrow (30 KHz) since it supports only one call/ carrier.
❖ ISI is low since the symbol time is large compared to average delay spread è No equalization
is required.
❖ FDMA systems are simple than TDMA systems, but modern DSP is changing this factor.
❖ FDMA systems have higher cost
❖ Cell site system due to single call/carrier
❖ Costly band pass filters to eliminate spurious radiation
❖ Duplexers in both T/R increase subscriber costs

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❑ Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

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TDMA- Each channel occupies a cyclically repeating time slots
➢ PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION:
❖ TDMA systems divide the radio spectrum into time slots and each user is allowed to either
transmit or receive in each time slots.
❖ TDMA shares the single carrier frequency with several users, where each user makes use of
non-overlapping timeslots.
❖ Data Transmission for user of TDMA system is discrete bursts
❖ Equalization is required, since transmission rates are generally very high as compared to
FDMA channels.
❖ Each user occupies a cyclically repeating time slots.
❖ TDMA can allow different number of time slots for separate user.

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TDMA : Frame structure
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❑Spread Spectrum Multiple Access Technologies (SSMA)
❖ SSMA technologies uses techniques which has a transmission bandwidth that is
maximum required RF bandwidth.
❖ This is achieved by pseudo noise (PN) sequence that contents a narrowband signal to a
wideband noise-like signal before transmission.
❖ SSMA provides immunity to multiple interference and robust multiple access capability.

➢ TYPES OF SPREAD SPECTRUM TECHNIQUES

▪ Frequency Hopped Multiple Access ( FHMA ):
▪ Direct Sequence Multiple Access ( CDMA ) :

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➢ Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA):
❖ Space division multiple access (SDMA) controls the radiated energy for each user in space.
❖ SDMA serves different users by using spot beam antennas. These different areas covered by the
antenna beam may be served by the same frequency (in a TDMA or CDMA system) or
different frequencies (in an FDMA system).
❖ Sectorized antennas may be thought of as a primitive application of SDMA.

A spatially filtered base station antenna serving dIfferent users by using spot beams 42
❑ Capacity of Cellular System:
➢ Channel capacity for a radio system can be defined as the maximum number of channels
or users that can be provided in a fixed frequency band.
➢ Radio capacity is a parameter which measures spectrum efficiency of a wireless system.
➢ This parameter is determined by the required carrier -to-interference ratio (C /1) and the
channel bandwidth Bc'

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Concept of in-building communication

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❑Application of Intelligent Micro Cell System

❖ Delivering to extended cells. Converters can be used to deliver the 800-MHz signal from the
base to an extended cell by upconverting the signal to a new frequency for transmission through
the air, then downconverting to 800 MHz when the signal reaches a cell where only a converter
is installed.
❖ Increasing capacity. Because the power can be delivered and received intelligently at the
mobile unit, the capacity increases.
❖ Coverage. In some areas, the government will not allow regular cell sites to be installed.
Under those circumstances, these invisible zone sites can be used to provide the coverage
especially in urban areas.
❖ Reducing interference. At some high cell sites, the generated interference to the other low
sites becomes a problem. An intelligent microcell can reduce its unnecessary radiated
power and the interference it generates.
❖ In-building communication. The intelligent cell can increase radio capacity many times.
A description of this application will appear later.
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Advantage of Implementing Intelligent Cells

❖ Any number of zones can be included in a microcell. More zones in a microcell canfurther reduce
power and lower the interference.
❖ The antennas face inward from the edges of the cell, rather than outward, furtherreducing the
interference.
❖ All the zone-site receivers actively receive mobile or portable calls on all frequencies.Because a
portable unit’s transmit power is usually low, a single cell site receiver hasdifficulty accepting and
maintaining a call, but with three zone sites receiving the samesignal from the portable, the
reception is much improved. Thus an intelligent microcellis well-suited for PCS terminals.
❖ Within a three-zone microcell, no handoff is needed. This arrangement eases the loadof switches
(MSO) because of fewer handoffs, and the switches can have more capacity

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❑ CDMA CELLULAR RADIO NETWORK
❖ Designing a uniform CDMA system is comparatively simple.
❖ Uniform CDMA means all the cells will be assigned the same number of channels
❖ In a CDMA system, the capacity increase is based on how much interference the
desired signal can tolerate
❖ The signal level of a desired signal is always below the interference level
❖ All the users have to share the same radio channel
❖ If one user takes more power than it needs, then the others will suffer and system
capacity will be reduced
❖ There are two different kinds of C/I . One is the measured C/I , which is used to
indicate the voice quality in the system. The higher the measured value, the better. T
he other is the specified C/I [(C/I )s], which is a specified value for a specified cellular
system.

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