UNIT: 4

MAKING OF PURE WATER

Occurrence and nature of water
Water is a substance composed of the chemical elements hydrogen and oxygen
and existing in gaseous, liquid and solid states.
It is one of the most plentiful and essential of compounds. A tasteless and odorless
liquid at room temperature, it has the important ability to dissolve many other
substances.
Water is very important commodity. It is essential for the sustenance of all living
things. It is also a home for some animals and plants. Living things also contain
water within their bodies.
The water on the Earth occurs in three main states:
❖ Solid, e.g., ice, snow, hail.
❖ Liquid, e.g., dew, rain.
❖ Vapour, e.g., mist, steam, clouds.
About 97% of all the water on the Earth is salty water, while only 3% is fresh
water. However, most of this fresh water that is fit for most of our daily uses is
not easily accessible.
The water cycles
The water cycle, also known as the hydrological cycle, is a continuous process
through which water moves between the Earth's surface, the atmosphere, and
back again.
Water is continually moving above and below the Earth, as water vapour, liquid
water and ice. The water is never lost but is continually being recycled all around
the globe in a system called the water cycle (hydrological cycle).
The water cycle is made up of four main parts:
1) Evaporation (including transpiration)
2) Condensation
3) Precipitation
4) Collection
Evaporation

This is the process whereby water vapour or steam leaves the streams, rivers,
Lakes or oceans and goes into the air. The sun provides the energy to heat up the
water bodies and turn the water into vapour or steam.
Plants lose water through their leaves by a process known as transpiration. This
is another way in which water gets back into the air. Human beings and animals
also lose water to the air through perspiration or sweating.
Condensation
This is the process in which water vapour in the air gets cold and changes back
into liquid water, forming clouds. It’s the opposite of evaporation.
Condensation is crucial to the water cycle because it is responsible for the
formation of clouds.
Precipitation
This is the process of water droplets or ice crystals falling from the atmosphere
to the earth’s surface. It occurs when so much water has condensed that the air
cannot hold any more. The clouds get heavy and water falls back to the Earth in
different forms, such as rain, hail or snow.
Precipitation is an important part of the water cycle, and it is responsible for
replenishing the earth’s water supply.
Collection
This is the process occurs when water that falls from the clouds as rain, snow,
hail or sleet collects in the oceans, rivers, lakes and streams. It takes place when
water falls back to Earth as precipitation.
The water may end up in the oceans, lakes or rivers, or on land. When it falls on
land, it will normally soak into the soil and become part of the ground water,
which plants and animals use. However, it may run over the soil and collect in
the oceans, lakes or rivers, where the cycle starts all over again.
Purification of water
Purification of water is the process of removing undesirable chemicals,
biological contaminants, suspended solids, and gases from contaminated water.
The goal of this process is to produce water fit for a specific purpose.
Pure water/purified water
Purified water is water that has been filtered or processed to remove impurities
like chemicals and other contaminants. It is usually produced using groundwater
or tap water.
Through purification, many types of impurities are removed, including:
▪ Bacteria
▪ Algae
▪ Fungi
▪ Parasites
▪ Metals, like copper and lead
▪ Chemical pollutants
Methods for treatment of water
In countries that purify public drinking water, various treatment methods are used
to make water safe, including:
Coagulation and flocculation:
Positively charged chemicals are added to water to bind with negatively charged
particles so they can be filtered out. These forms larger particles called floc.
Sedimentation:
Due to its larger size, floc settles to the bottom of the water supply, separated
from the clean water.
Filtration:
The clean water on top of the supply then flows through numerous filtration
systems made of sand, charcoal and gravel. This removes contaminants like dust,
bacteria, chemicals and viruses.
Disinfection:
During this step, chemical disinfectants like chlorine are added to
the water to kill any remaining bacteria or viruses that may have survived
the first few steps.
❖ It’s important to note that water may be treated differently depending on
the area and quality of the local water.
Methods of Purifying water
Several methods are used to purify water commercially and in the home. There
are many methods used in the purification of water from potable tap water to a
standard suitable for use as a laboratory reagent, those methods include Boiling,
Filtration, Distillation, and Chlorination.
Water purification removes contaminants that may remain in drinking water and
improves water quality and taste.
Here we will concentrate on five of the most commonly used technologies:
i. Distillation
ii. Deionization
iii. Reverse osmosis
iv. Filtration
v. Photo-oxidation
Distillation
Distillation is a water purification method that involves heating water to its
boiling point to create vapor and then cooling the vapor to condense it back into
liquid form.
This process effectively separates water from impurities, as most contaminants
have higher boiling points than water.
Distillation produces clean, pure water. It is an effective water treatment method
for removing contaminants like bacteria, heavy metals, and chemicals.
While distillation has its advantages, it also comes with certain disadvantages.
Here are some of the key advantages and disadvantages of distillation as applied
in water purification:
Advantages:
1. Effective Removal of Contaminants: Distillation is highly effective in
removing a wide range of contaminants from water, including heavy
metals, salts, minerals, bacteria, viruses, and organic compounds. The
boiling and condensation process separates these impurities from the
purified water.
2. Produces High-Purity Water: Distillation typically produces very pure
water with low levels of contaminants. It's commonly used for producing
 high-quality drinking water and in industries where ultra-pure water is
required.
3. Simple Process: The basic distillation process is relatively simple and
conceptually easy to understand. It doesn't require complex equipment or
chemicals.
4. Reliable Method: Distillation is a well-established and reliable water
purification method that has been used for centuries. It's a proven
technology for producing clean water.
5. Can Remove Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs): Distillation can
effectively remove volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which are
substances that can evaporate at relatively low temperatures.
Disadvantages:
1. Energy-Intensive: Distillation requires a significant amount of energy to
heat the water to its boiling point and then cool and condense the vapor.
This can make the process expensive and environmentally less sustainable
in areas where energy is scarce or expensive.
2. Slow Process: Distillation is generally a slow process, as it takes time to
heat the water to its boiling point and then cool the vapor back into liquid
form. This might not be suitable for situations that require rapid water
purification.
3. Doesn't Remove Some Volatile Compounds: While distillation is
effective at removing many contaminants, it might not remove certain
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that have boiling points similar to or
lower than water.
4. Large Equipment Required: Distillation equipment can be large and
bulky, making it less suitable for portable or decentralized water
purification solutions.
5. Risk of Scale Build-Up: Minerals and other impurities that have higher
boiling points than water can accumulate on the surfaces of distillation
equipment over time, potentially leading to scaling and reduced efficiency.
6. Loss of Some Beneficial Minerals: Distillation removes minerals along
with contaminants, which might result in water that lacks beneficial
minerals found in natural water sources.
In summary, distillation is an effective method for producing high-purity water,
but it has some limitations related to energy consumption, process speed, and
equipment size.

Deionization
Deionization, also known as ion exchange, is a water purification method that
involves removing ions (charged particles) from water by using ion exchange
resins. This process is particularly effective at removing dissolved salts and
minerals from water. Here are the advantages and disadvantages of deionization
as applied in water purification:
Advantages:
1. High Purity Water: Deionization can produce very high-purity water by
effectively removing a wide range of ions, including dissolved salts,
minerals, and other contaminants. It is often used in laboratories and
industries where ultra-pure water is required for various applications.
2. Selective Removal: Deionization allows for selective removal of specific
ions based on the type of ion exchange resin used. This enables
customization of the purification process to target particular contaminants.
3. Continuous Process: Deionization systems can be designed for
continuous operation, ensuring a consistent supply of purified water.
4. Simple Operation: The basic operation of deionization is relatively
simple, involving the passage of water through ion exchange resin beds.
There are no complex chemicals or additives required.
5. Regenerable Resins: In some cases, ion exchange resins used in
deionization can be regenerated by passing solutions through them that
restore their ion exchange capacity. This can extend the lifespan of the resin
and reduce the need for frequent replacements.
Disadvantages:
1. Doesn't Remove All Contaminants: Deionization is effective for
removing ions and salts, but it might not effectively remove certain non-
ionic contaminants, such as organic compounds, bacteria, and viruses. A
combination with other purification methods might be necessary to achieve
comprehensive water treatment.
 2. Limited Capacity: The capacity of ion exchange resins to remove ions is
finite. Over time, the resins become saturated with ions and need to be
regenerated or replaced, which can result in ongoing maintenance costs.
3. Waste Generation: The regeneration process generates waste solutions
containing the ions removed from the water, which need to be properly
managed and disposed of.
4. Initial Investment and Operating Costs: Deionization systems can
require a significant initial investment in terms of equipment and resin
costs. Additionally, ongoing costs include energy for water flow and
potential resin regeneration.
5. Complexity for Multiple Ions: If the water source contains a diverse array
of ions, designing an ion exchange system to effectively remove all of them
can be complex and might require multiple stages of deionization or
combinations with other treatment methods.
6. Selective Removal of Minerals: While deionization removes undesirable
ions, it also removes beneficial minerals from water, which can result in
water lacking essential nutrients.
7. Vulnerability to Fouling: The ion exchange resin beds can become fouled
or clogged by particulate matter or certain types of contaminants, leading
to reduced efficiency and the need for maintenance.
In conclusion, deionization is a powerful method for achieving high-purity water
by selectively removing ions and dissolved salts. It is often used in combination
with other techniques to achieve comprehensive water treatment.
Reverse osmosis
Reverse osmosis is a water purification process that uses a semi-permeable
membrane to filter out unwanted molecules and large particles such as
contaminants and sediments like chlorine, salt, and dirt from drinking water.
✓ In addition to remove contaminants and sediments, reverse osmosis can
also remove microorganism.
✓ So, reverse osmosis is a water purification process in which a large pressure
is applied to the solution side so as to overcome the osmotic pressure.
✓ Reverse osmosis (RO) is a widely used water purification method that
employs a semipermeable membrane to separate ions, molecules, and
 larger particles from water. Here are the advantages and disadvantages of
reverse osmosis as applied in water purification:

Advantages:
1. Effective Contaminant Removal: RO is highly effective in removing a
wide range of contaminants from water, including dissolved salts,
minerals, heavy metals, bacteria, viruses, and many organic compounds. It
can produce very pure water.
2. Compact Design: RO systems can be designed in various sizes, making
them suitable for both small-scale applications (such as residential use) and
larger industrial settings.
3. No Chemicals Required: The RO process doesn't typically require the use
of chemicals, making it an environmentally friendly water treatment
method.
4. Energy Efficiency: RO can be energy-efficient compared to some other
water purification methods, especially when used for desalination of
seawater or brackish water.
5. Versatility: RO can be used for various water sources, including tap water,
well water, surface water, and even seawater. It's adaptable to different
water quality challenges.
6. Selective Removal: RO allows for selective removal of specific ions and
contaminants based on the membrane's characteristics, providing
flexibility in water treatment.
Disadvantages:
1. Waste Water Generation: The RO process generates a significant amount
of waste water (reject water) alongside the purified water. The ratio of
purified water to waste water can vary, but it generally requires efficient
management and disposal.
2. Energy Consumption: While RO can be energy-efficient compared to
certain other processes, it still requires energy to force water through the
semipermeable membrane. This can result in operational costs and
environmental considerations.
 3. Membrane Fouling: Over time, the membrane can become fouled with
contaminants, particulates, and biological matter, reducing the efficiency
of the process and requiring periodic maintenance and cleaning.
4. Limited to Certain Contaminants: While RO is effective for removing a
wide range of contaminants, some small molecules like certain volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) and gases might not be effectively removed.
5. Mineral Removal: RO removes not only contaminants but also minerals
beneficial to health. This might lead to "dead" or demineralized water that
lacks essential nutrients.
6. Initial Investment: The installation and setup of an RO system can
involve a significant initial investment in terms of equipment, membranes,
and plumbing modifications.
7. Slow Process: RO can be slower compared to other water treatment
methods, as water needs to pass through the semipermeable membrane
under pressure.
Filtration
Filtration is a common water purification method that involves passing water
through a physical barrier to remove particles and contaminants. Here are the
advantages and disadvantages of filtration as applied in water purification:
Advantages:
1. Versatility: Filtration can be tailored to various water sources and quality
levels, making it suitable for treating different types of water, from raw
water sources to municipal supplies.
2. Simple Operation: Filtration is relatively simple to understand and
operate. It doesn't require complex chemicals or specialized skills for
maintenance.
3. Cost-Effectiveness: Depending on the type of filter used, filtration can be
a cost-effective water treatment option, especially for removing larger
particles and sediment.
4. Removal of Particles: Filtration effectively removes suspended solids,
sediments, algae, bacteria, and larger microorganisms from water.
 5. Scalability: Filtration systems can be designed to handle small or large
volumes of water, making them suitable for various applications, from
residential use to industrial processes.
6. Pre-Treatment for Other Methods: Filtration can serve as an effective
pre-treatment step for other water treatment methods, such as disinfection
and advanced treatment processes.
Disadvantages:
1. Limited to Particle Size: Filtration is effective for removing larger
particles and microorganisms, but it might not effectively remove
dissolved ions, small molecules, and certain contaminants like dissolved
gases and some organic compounds.
2. Clogging and Fouling: Filters can become clogged or fouled over time,
reducing their efficiency and requiring regular maintenance and cleaning.
3. Replacement Costs: Depending on the type of filter used, replacement of
filter media or cartridges can incur ongoing costs.
4. Vulnerability to Bypass: If not properly designed and maintained,
filtration systems can be vulnerable to bypass, where water flows around
the filter rather than through it.
5. Microbial Growth: If filters are not properly maintained and replaced,
they can become breeding grounds for bacteria and other microorganisms,
potentially leading to degraded water quality.
6. Pressure Drop: As filters accumulate particles, the pressure drop across
them can increase, which might require adjustments in the system or more
frequent replacements.
7. Complex Contaminants: Filtration might not effectively remove certain
complex contaminants, such as heavy metals, some organic compounds,
and certain types of pathogens that can pass through smaller pores.
8. Variability in Performance: The performance of filtration systems can
vary based on factors like flow rate, temperature, and the characteristics of
the water being treated.
In summary, filtration is a versatile and widely used water purification method,
particularly effective for removing suspended solids and larger microorganisms.
Photo-oxidation
Photo-oxidation, as applied in water filtration, refers to a process where
contaminants and impurities present in water are broken down and eliminated
using a combination of light and oxidation reactions.
✓ This technique is often used in advanced water treatment processes to
improve water quality by targeting organic and inorganic pollutants that
are not effectively removed by conventional filtration methods.
✓ This process is a combination of photo-oxidation based on the effect of UV
radiation and catalytic oxidation.
✓ It is mainly used in environments that are burdened with a high quantity of
odorous and organic substances that are hard to decompose (oxidize).
❖ This approach is exposing polluted water to UV light/sunlight in the
presence of an oxidant/catalyst, which produces reactive oxidizing species
capable of totally decomposing organic contaminants into harmless
molecules such as H2O, CO2, and inorganic salts.
Photo-oxidation, also known as advanced oxidation, is a water purification
method that involves using light and reactive species to break down and remove
contaminants from water.
Here are the advantages and disadvantages of photo-oxidation as applied in water
purification:
Advantages:
1. Effective Contaminant Removal: Photo-oxidation can effectively
degrade a wide range of organic and inorganic contaminants, including
pesticides, pharmaceuticals, industrial pollutants, and some pathogens.
2. No Chemical Addition: Photo-oxidation does not always require the
addition of chemicals, making it a potentially environmentally friendly
water treatment method.
3. Broad Applicability: Photo-oxidation can be applied to various types of
water sources and contaminants, making it versatile in addressing different
water quality challenges.
4. Pathogen Inactivation: Photo-oxidation can lead to the inactivation of
harmful microorganisms, including bacteria and viruses, contributing to
water disinfection.
 5. Removal of Color and Odor: Photo-oxidation can effectively remove
color and odor from water by breaking down the molecules responsible for
these characteristics.
6. Decomposition of Complex Compounds: Photo-oxidation can target
complex and hard-to-treat compounds that might be resistant to other
treatment methods.
Disadvantages:
1. Energy Consumption: Photo-oxidation requires a light source, often
ultraviolet (UV) light, which can be energy-intensive and add to
operational costs.
2. Equipment Complexity: Implementing photo-oxidation systems can
involve complex equipment, including UV lamps, reactors, and potential
catalysts, which might require specialized maintenance.
3. Chemical Requirements: In some cases, photo-oxidation might require
the addition of chemicals (like hydrogen peroxide) to enhance the
formation of reactive species, adding to operational complexity and costs.
4. Variable Performance: The effectiveness of photo-oxidation can depend
on factors such as the type of contaminants, water chemistry, light
intensity, and reactor design, leading to variability in performance.
5. By-products Formation: While photo-oxidation aims to break down
contaminants into simpler compounds, some byproducts might be formed
in the process. The nature and toxicity of these byproducts need to be
carefully monitored.
6. UV Transmittance: The effectiveness of UV-based photo-oxidation can
be limited if the water being treated has low UV transmittance due to high
turbidity or the presence of certain compounds.
Distilling water
Distilling water is a process used to purify water by separating it from impurities
and contaminants through vaporization and condensation.
principle
The basic principle behind water distillation is to:
✓ Heat the water to its boiling point, which causes it to evaporate and form
steam.
✓ The steam is then cooled down and condensed back into liquid water,
leaving behind most of the impurities and contaminants in the original
water.
Steps for water distillation process.
Here's a general overview of the water distillation process:
1. Boiling: Water is heated in a container (often called a boiling chamber or
distillation flask) until it reaches its boiling point, which is 100 degrees
Celsius (212 degrees Fahrenheit) at sea level.
2. Vaporization: As the water reaches its boiling point, it turns into steam or
vapor. The steam rises from the boiling chamber, carrying with it the water
molecules while leaving behind many impurities and contaminants such as
minerals, dissolved solids, bacteria, and some volatile organic compounds.
3. Condensation: The steam is directed into a cooling system, where it is
cooled down rapidly. This cooling causes the steam to condense back into
liquid water.
4. Collection: The condensed water, now purified, is collected in a separate
container called the collection chamber. This water should be relatively
free from the impurities and contaminants that were present in the original
water.
❖ It's important to note that while distillation is effective in removing many
types of impurities, it might not be completely effective in removing
certain volatile organic compounds with lower boiling points than water,
and it may require additional treatment methods for comprehensive
purification.
De-ionizing water
Deionizing water involves removing or reducing the concentration of ions from
water, specifically charged particles like cations (positively charged ions) and
anions (negatively charged ions).
▪ This process is commonly used to produce high-purity water for various
applications, such as laboratory work, manufacturing, and some industrial
processes.
▪ Deionized water is also referred to as demineralized water, DI water, or
distilled water.
Methods for de-ionizing water
There are several methods for deionizing water:
1. Ion Exchange Resins: This method involves passing water through a
column filled with ion exchange resin beads. These resins have charged
functional groups that attract and exchange ions present in the water.
Cations are replaced with hydrogen ions (H+) while anions are replaced
with hydroxide ions (OH-), resulting in the production of pure water.
2. Distillation: In distillation, water is boiled to create steam, which is then
condensed back into liquid form. Since most impurities and ions have
higher boiling points than water, they are left behind in the boiling
chamber, producing deionized water.
3. Reverse Osmosis: This is a process where water is forced through a
semipermeable membrane that allows only water molecules to pass
through while blocking larger ions and impurities. Reverse osmosis is
effective in removing a wide range of contaminants, including ions.
4. Electrodialysis: Electrodialysis uses an electric field to move ions through
selective ion exchange membranes. The membranes allow only specific
ions to pass through while blocking others, resulting in the separation of
ions and the production of deionized water.
5. Electro deionization (EDI): EDI is a combination of ion exchange and
electrodialysis. It uses ion exchange resins and selective membranes along
with an electric field to continuously remove ions from water, producing
highly purified water.
 ❖ Deionized water is very pure, but it's important to note that it can become
slightly acidic due to the removal of ions that help maintain a neutral PH.
❖ Additionally, because deionized water has no ions, it can be aggressive and
may leach ions from surrounding materials, such as pipes and containers.
Therefore, it's often used in closed systems or for short-term applications.
Dissociating water
Dissociating water refers to the process by which water molecules break apart
into their constituent ions, namely hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxide ions (OH-).
▪ This process is also commonly known as "ionization" or "self-ionization"
of water.
▪ Water molecules are naturally capable of this due to their amphoteric
nature, meaning they can act as both an acid and a base.
▪ The dissociation of water is described by the following chemical equation:
2H2O ⇌ H3O+ + OH-
▪ In this equation, H3O+ represents a hydronium ion, which is a water
molecule that has gained a hydrogen ion (H+) and OH- represents a
hydroxide ion, which is a water molecule that has lost a hydrogen ion.
Distilled water and deionized water.
Distilled water and deionized water are both types of purified water that have
undergone specific processes to remove impurities and ions. While they are
similar in many ways, there are subtle differences in how they are produced and
used.
1. Distilled Water: Distilled water is created through the process of
distillation, which involves boiling water and then condensing the steam
back into liquid form.
This process effectively separates the water molecules from
contaminants, minerals, and other impurities.
Distilled water is essentially free from most dissolved solids,
minerals, and ions, making it very pure.
Uses of distilled water:
• Laboratory Applications: Distilled water is commonly used in
laboratories for various experiments and procedures that require precise
control over the water's chemical composition.
 • Medical Applications: It is used in medical settings for sterilization and
in medical equipment that requires high levels of purity.
• Steam Irons and Humidifiers: Distilled water is recommended for use in
steam irons and humidifiers to prevent mineral buildup that can clog these
devices.
• Lead-Acid Batteries: Distilled water is often used to top up lead-acid
batteries in vehicles to avoid introducing impurities that can affect battery
performance.
2. Deionized (DI) Water: Deionized water, also known as demineralized
water, goes through an ion exchange process where ionized minerals and
salts are removed from the water.
This process uses resin beds that attract and bind ions, leaving
behind water that is nearly free of ions.
Uses of deionized water:
• Laboratory and Industrial Applications: DI water is widely used in
laboratories and industrial settings where water with specific conductivity
or purity levels is required for experiments, manufacturing processes, and
equipment maintenance.
• Electronics Manufacturing: DI water is used in electronics
manufacturing to clean sensitive components and prevent any ionic
contamination that could affect the functionality of electronic devices.
• Cosmetics and Pharmaceuticals: It is used in the production of
cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and other products where high-purity water is
needed to ensure the quality and consistency of the final product.
• Cooling Systems: DI water is used in cooling systems to prevent mineral
deposits and scale build up that can reduce the efficiency of heat exchange
equipment.
Differences between distilled water and deionized water
Distilled water and deionized water are both types of purified water, but they are
produced through different methods and have slightly different characteristics.
Here are the key differences between distilled water and deionized water:
1. Method of Purification:
 • Distilled Water: Distillation involves boiling water to create steam,
which is then condensed back into liquid form. This process removes
most impurities, including minerals, salts, and some other
contaminants, as they are left behind during the boiling process.
• Deionized Water: Deionization (also known as ion exchange) is a
process that involves passing water through ion exchange resins.
These resins attract and remove ions (charged particles) from the
water, including minerals, salts, and other dissolved impurities.
2. Removal of Impurities:
• Distilled Water: Distillation effectively removes not only ions but
also other volatile contaminants, organic compounds, and
microorganisms that have a higher boiling point than water. It
provides a high level of purity and is often used in laboratory
applications and for certain industrial processes.
• Deionized Water: Deionization primarily targets ionized
substances. It removes ions like calcium, magnesium, sodium,
chloride, and other charged particles, but it might not remove non-
ionic impurities as effectively as distillation.
3. Mineral Content:
• Distilled Water: Due to the distillation process, most minerals and
salts are removed, leading to a low mineral content in distilled water.
This can make it less conductive and suitable for specific
applications where low conductivity is desired.
• Deionized Water: Deionization primarily removes ions, resulting in
a water type that is relatively low in ionic content. However, it might
still contain some non-ionic impurities.
4. Conductivity:
• Distilled Water: Distilled water has very low conductivity due to
the removal of ions and dissolved substances.
• Deionized Water: Deionized water has low conductivity as well,
but it might be slightly more conductive than distilled water due to
the potential presence of non-ionic impurities.
5. Applications:
 • Distilled Water: Distilled water is commonly used in laboratories,
medical applications, and industries where the absence of minerals
and impurities is crucial, such as in steam irons and car batteries.
• Deionized Water: Deionized water is used in laboratory settings, as
a coolant in some industrial processes, and in industries where water
with controlled ion concentrations is required, such as electronics
manufacturing.
The use of pH meter.
A pH meter is a scientific instrument used to measure the acidity or alkalinity of
a solution.
▪ pH is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions (H⁺) in a solution,
and it determines whether a solution is acidic (pH < 7), neutral (pH = 7),
or alkaline/basic (pH > 7).
▪ pH meters are widely used in various fields such as chemistry, biology,
environmental science, food and beverage production, agriculture, and
more.
Steps/procedures to use pH meter.
Here's how a pH meter is typically used:
1. Calibration: Before using a pH meter, it needs to be calibrated using
standard buffer solutions with known pH values. Typically, pH 4.01, pH
7.00, and pH 10.01 buffers are used for calibration. The meter is adjusted
to ensure accurate readings based on these known points.
2. Sample Preparation: The sample solution whose pH you want to measure
needs to be prepared properly. It's important to ensure that the solution is
well-mixed and at a consistent temperature.
3. Measurement: Once the pH meter is calibrated and the sample is prepared,
you can dip the electrode (usually a glass electrode) of the pH meter into
the solution. The electrode contains a special glass membrane that interacts
with the hydrogen ions in the solution.
4. Reading: The pH meter will display a numerical value on its screen, which
represents the pH of the solution. This value will fall within the pH scale
range of 0 to 14, where 0 is highly acidic, 7 is neutral, and 14 is highly
alkaline.
5. Rinse and Storage: After use, it's important to rinse the electrode with
distilled water to remove any residual contaminants that could affect future
measurements. pH electrodes should be stored in a storage solution
(usually a potassium chloride solution) to keep them hydrated and maintain
their sensitivity.
6. Maintenance: Regular maintenance is essential for accurate and reliable
measurements. This includes cleaning the electrode, checking its
condition, and recalibrating if necessary.
7. Special Considerations: Some solutions might be too viscous, too hot, or
too contaminated to directly measure pH using a regular pH electrode. In
such cases, specialized electrodes or sample preparation methods might be
needed.
❖ Remember that pH measurements can be affected by factors like
temperature, electrode condition, and electrode calibration. Regular
maintenance, proper handling, and calibration are key to obtaining accurate
pH readings.
Packaging distilled water and de-ionized water
Packaging distilled water and deionized water involves ensuring that the water
remains pure and free from contaminants throughout the packaging and
storage process.
Here are some key considerations for packaging distilled water and
deionized water:
1. Containers: Choose containers that are made from materials that won't
leach impurities into the water. Common options include glass and high-
quality food-grade plastic containers. Make sure the containers are clean
and sterile before filling them with water.
2. Sterilization: Ensure that the containers, caps, and any equipment used in
the packaging process are thoroughly cleaned and sterilized. This helps
prevent the introduction of any microorganisms or contaminants.
3. Filling Process: Use a controlled and sanitary filling process to minimize
the chances of contamination. This might involve using automated filling
equipment that reduces human contact with the water.
 4. Sealing: Seal the containers tightly to prevent any outside contaminants
from entering. Tamper-evident seals can help assure consumers that the
product is safe.
5. Labelling: Clearly label the containers with information about the type of
water (distilled or deionized), any additional treatments or processing
steps, expiration date, and any relevant safety information.
6. Storage: Store the packaged water in a clean and controlled environment.
Avoid exposure to direct sunlight, extreme temperatures, and potential
sources of contamination.
Importance of water purification
The significance of water purification can be understood through the following
points:
1. Public Health: Contaminated water can carry a wide range of pathogens,
bacteria, viruses, and parasites that can cause various waterborne diseases
such as cholera, typhoid, dysentery, and hepatitis. Water purification helps
eliminate these harmful microorganisms, reducing the risk of such diseases
and promoting better public health.
2. Disease Prevention: Access to clean and purified water is a crucial
component in preventing the spread of infectious diseases, especially in
densely populated areas where diseases can easily spread through
contaminated water sources.
3. Safe Drinking Water: Clean water is essential for human consumption.
Without proper purification, water can contain harmful substances like
heavy metals (lead, mercury), chemicals (pesticides, industrial pollutants),
and other contaminants that pose long-term health risks when consumed
over time.
4. Environmental Protection: Proper water purification reduces the
discharge of pollutants and contaminants into natural water bodies. This,
in turn, protects aquatic ecosystems, preserves biodiversity, and helps
maintain the balance of ecosystems.
5. Agricultural and Industrial Use: Water purification is not only important
for drinking water but also for various industrial and agricultural processes.
Industries require clean water for manufacturing, cooling systems, and
 other operations. Agricultural activities depend on purified water for
irrigation, livestock care, and food production.
6. Wastewater Treatment: Water purification plays a critical role in treating
and purifying wastewater before it is released back into the environment.
Effective treatment ensures that pollutants and contaminants are removed
from wastewater, preventing their harmful effects on ecosystems and
human health.
7. Quality of Life: Access to clean water improves overall quality of life by
reducing the incidence of waterborne diseases, improving sanitation, and
promoting good hygiene practices.
Water in economic activities
Water plays a crucial role in various economic activities across different sectors.
Here are some of the key uses of water in economic activities:
1. Agriculture:
• Irrigation: Water is essential for crop growth, and irrigation systems
deliver water to fields to enhance agricultural productivity.
• Livestock farming: Animals need water for drinking, cleaning, and
maintaining their health.
2. Industry:
• Manufacturing processes: Many industries, such as textiles,
chemicals, and food processing, require water as a raw material or
for cooling, cleaning, and other processes.
• Energy production: Water is used for cooling in thermal power
plants and in hydropower generation.
3. Energy:
• Hydropower generation: Water is used to turn turbines and generate
electricity in hydropower plants.
• Cooling in power plants: Water is used to cool equipment in thermal
power plants.
4. Mining:
 • Extraction processes: Water is used for washing, separating, and
transporting minerals during mining operations.
• Dust control: Water is used to suppress dust and reduce air pollution
in mining areas.
5. Construction:
• Mixing concrete and mortar: Water is a key ingredient in
construction materials like concrete and mortar.
• Dust control: Water is used to control dust at construction sites.
6. Tourism and Recreation:
• Water-based activities: Tourism and recreational activities such as
swimming, boating, fishing, and water sports rely on clean water
bodies.
• Hospitality industry: Hotels, resorts, and restaurants often rely on
water for various services and amenities.
7. Transportation:
• Shipping and navigation: Inland waterways, ports, and harbors
enable the movement of goods and people via ships and boats.
• Transportation infrastructure: Water is used for construction,
maintenance, and operation of transportation infrastructure like
bridges and tunnels.
8. Food and Beverage Production:
• Food processing: Water is used for cleaning, cooking, and
processing food and beverages.
• Beverage production: Water is a key ingredient in many beverages,
including soft drinks, beer, and juices.
9. Waste Management:
• Industrial waste treatment: Water is used in industrial processes to
treat and manage waste before disposal.
• Sewage treatment: Water is used in sewage treatment plants to purify
wastewater before it is released into the environment.
10.Healthcare:
• Hospitals and clinics: Water is essential for sanitation, hygiene, and
medical procedures in healthcare facilities.
11.Ecosystem Services:
• Ecosystem support: Healthy aquatic ecosystems provide services
like water filtration, flood control, and habitat for biodiversity,
which indirectly benefit economic activities.