Physics IP

INTRODUCTION
There is a great need of batteries in our daily use

electronic appliances and the use is increasing every
day. Thus, the batteries need to be made more powerful
so that their potential can be increased greatly.
Thus, this project report is based on practical analysis

for the factors affecting the internal resistance of a
cell.
When the internal resistance of the cell is decreased,

we can increase the potential difference across it, and
hence make it more reliable.
INTERNAL
Resistance
International resistance is defined as the resistance
offered by the electrolyte of the cell to the flow of
ions.
Its SI unit is ohm(Ω)
For a cell of e.m.f. (E) and internal resistance (r),

connected to an external resistance (R) such that (I) is
the current flowing through the circuit.
Internal Resistance (r)= [E-V]/I

Potentiometer
Potentiometer is a device used to measure the internal
resistance of a cell, to compare the e.m.f. of two cells
and potential difference across a resistor. It consists of
a long wire of uniform cross-sectional area and of 10
m in length. The material of wire should have a high
resistivity and low temperature coefficient. The wires
are stretched parallel to each other on a wooden board.
The wires are joined in series by using thick copper
strips. A metre scale is also attached on the wooden
board.
It works on the principle that when a constant current

flows through a wire of uniform cross-sectional area,
potential difference between its two points is directly
proportional to the length of the wire between the two
points.
Relation Between emf internal resistance and
potential difference of cell
If a cell of emf E and internal resistance r, connected

to an external resistance R, then the circuit has the
total resistance (R+r). The current I in the circuit is
given by
𝐸
I=
𝑅+𝑟
Or E = I(R+r)
Hence,
V= IR= E-IR
This means, V is less than E by an amount equal to the

fall of potential inside the cell due to its internal
resistance.
From the above equation,

𝑟 𝐸−𝑉
=
𝑅 𝑉
The internal resistance of the cell,
𝑅(𝐸−𝑉)
r=
𝑉
Using a potentiometer, we can adjust the rheostat to
obtain the balancing lengths l1 and l2 of the
potentiometer for open and closed circuits respectively.
Then,
E = kl1
and
E = kl2;
where k is the potential gradient along the wire.
Now we can modify the equation for getting the
internal resistance of the given cell, by using the above
relations as;
𝑅(𝑙1−𝑙2)
R=
𝑙2
Battery eliminator
Battery eliminators are used instead of normal dry batteries
in radio receivers, tape recorders, calculators, and other low-
power devices. If you're a writer, professor, teacher,
instructor, faculty member, researcher, scientist, doctor, or
student looking for information on a battery eliminator,
you've come to the right place. A battery eliminator can act
as an alternative when you don't have batteries. So, if your
battery is damaged or dead, you will be able to turn on your
device with any other device that will be able to supply the
voltage needed with the help of a battery eliminator.

Rheostat
A rheostat is defined as
A variable resistor which is used for controlling the

flow of electric current either by increasing or
decreasing the resistance.
The term rheostat was coined by the English scientist

Sir Charles Wheatstone and is derived from the Greek
word “rheos” and “statis” which means current
controlling device.
There are two rheostat symbols that are available, and

they are the American standard and the international
standard. The American standard symbol is
represented with three terminals and zigzag lines
while the international standard symbol is represented
with a rectangular box with three terminals.
Galvanometer
A galvanometer is an electromechanical measuring
instrument for electric current. Early galvanometers were
uncalibrated, but improved versions, called ammeters, were
calibrated and could measure the flow of current more
precisely. Galvanometers work by deflecting a pointer in
response to an electric current flowing through a coil in a
constant magnetic field. The mechanism is also used as an
actuator in applications such as hard disks.
Galvanometer, instrument for measuring a small electrical
current or a function of the current by deflection of a
moving coil. The deflection is a mechanical rotation derived
from forces resulting from the current.

Resistance box
The box which contains the resistors of different values for
estimating and comparing the resistance is known as the
resistance box. The accuracy of the resistance box is very
high. The main application of the resistance box is to control
the specific value of current to flow through the circuit.
The main advantage of the resistance box is that the variable
resistances are available at one point. If any circuit requires
variable resistances, then there is no need of replacing the
resistor. The circuit is directly connected to the resistance
box, and by changing the rotary switches, the variable
resistances are obtained.
The resistance box is of three types. They are
1. High resistance Box
2. Low Resistance box

3. Fractional Resistance Box
The value of the high resistance box lies from 1Ω to 5000Ω
or above while the value of the low resistance box is between
1 to 500Ω. In fractional resistance box, the value of
resistance is in the form of a fraction. The range of
fractional box lies between 0.1Ω to 50Ω.
The construction of the box is simple and cheap. The
resistance box is available in different designs. It is also used
for testing and designing the circuit in the laboratory.

Ammeter
Ammeter, instrument for measuring either direct (DC) or
alternating (AC) electric current, in amperes. An ammeter
can measure a wide range of current values because at high
values only a small portion of the current is directed through
the meter mechanism; a shunt in parallel with the meter
carries the major portion. In circuit diagrams, the symbol for
an ammeter is a circle with a capital A inside.
Ammeters vary in their operating principles and accuracies.
The D’Arsonval-movement ammeter measures direct current
flowing through a coil suspended between the poles of a
magnet with accuracies of from 0.1 to 2.0 percent. The
electrodynamic ammeter uses a moving coil rotating in the
field produced by a fixed coil. It measures direct and
alternating current (by using a rectifier to convert the AC to

DC) with accuracies of 0.1 to 0.25 percent. In the thermal (or
hot-wire) ammeter, used primarily to measure AC with
accuracies of 0.5 to 3 percent, the measured current heats a
piece of wire, and the current is indicated by how much the
wire expands. Digital ammeters, with no moving parts, use a
circuit such as the dual slope integrator to convert a
measured analogue (continuous) current to its digital
equivalent. Many digital ammeters have accuracies better
than 0.1 percent.

Leclanché cell
The Leclanché cell is a type of battery that was invented in
the 19th century. It was created by Georges Leclanché, a
French engineer, in 1866. The cell consists of a zinc
electrode (negative terminal), a carbon electrode (positive
terminal), and a mixture of manganese dioxide and carbon
powder as the cathode.
The Leclanché cell had a limited capacity and was prone to

corrosion, which reduced its lifespan. However, it was
inexpensive to produce and provided a steady flow of
electricity for a decent amount of time. It became popular
due to its convenience and practicality.
Over time, the Leclanché cell was largely replaced by more

advanced battery technologies, such as alkaline batteries and
lithium-ion batteries. However, its legacy as one of the
earliest practical batteries paved the way for the development
of modern portable power sources.
Construction of Leclanché Cell
Leclanché cell consists of a few following parts:
It consists of crushed manganese dioxide which is packed in

a porous pot. A carbon rod is inserted in this porous pot
which acts as a cathode.
There is a zinc rod, which acts as an anode which is

immersed in the solution of ammonium chloride.
Ammonium chloride acts as an electrolytic solution which

permeates through the porous pot to make contact with the
cathode.
The carbon rod is fitted on a metal cap and the cell is sealed
so that the moist paste does not dry due to evaporation
PRACTICAL ANALYSIS
AIM:
To study the various

factors on which the
internal resistance of a
cell depends.
APPARATUS
✓ Potentiometer
✓ Battery (or battery

eliminator)
✓ Two one-way keys
✓ Rheostat
✓ Galvanometer
✓ Resistance box
✓ Ammeter
✓ Cell (Leclanché cell)

✓ Jockey
✓ Setsquare
✓ Connecting wires and

sand paper
THEORY
The internal resistance of a cell is the resistance offered by
its electrolyte to the flow of ions. The internal resistance of
a cell
➢ Is directly proportional to the distance between the

electrodes.
➢ Is inversely proportional to facing surface area of the
electrodes in electrolyte.
➢ Decreases with increase in temperature of electrolyte.
➢ Is inversely proportional to concentration of electrolyte.
The internal resistance of a cell is given by:
r= [E-V]/R
Circuit diagram
PROCEDURE
• Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sand paper
and make tight connections according to the circuit
diagram.
• Tighten the plugs of the resistance box.
• Check the e.m.f. of the battery and of the cell and make
sure that e.m.f. of the battery is more than that of the
cell, otherwise null or balance point will not be obtained.
To study variation of internal resistance with

distance of separation
• Keep both the electrodes at a distance of 16 cm.

• Take maximum current from the battery, making
rheostat resistance small.
• Without inserting a plug-in key, adjust the rheostat so
that a null point is obtained on the last wire of the
potentiometer.
• Determine the position of the null point accurately
using a set square and measure the balancing length (1)
between the null point and the end P.
• Next introduce plugs in both keys and at the same time,
take out a small resistance (1-5 W) from the shunt
resistance box connected in parallel with the cell.
• Slide the jockey along a potentiometer wire and obtain
the null point.
• Measure the balancing length (L) from end P. Record
these
• Now keep the electrodes 12 cm apart.
• Then remove the plugs of keys K, and K2. Wait for
some time and repeat steps 7 to 10.
• Next, keep the electrodes 9 cm apart to obtain another
set of observations.
To study variation of internal resistance with area

of electrodes
• Keeping all other factors constant, increase the area of
electrodes in the electrolyte by dipping them into the
electrolyte at different depths for each observation.
• Obtain three such observations by repeating steps 7 to
10. Record your readings.
OBSERVATION
RESULTS AND
REFERENCES
• The Electromotive Force of the cell is constant and is
equal to
E = 0.98 Volt.
• The internal resistance of a cell is directly proportional

to the separation between the electrodes.
• The internal resistance of a cell is inversely
proportional to the area of the electrodes dipped in
electrolyte.
proportional to the temperature of electrolytes.
proportional to the concentration of the electrolyte
PRECAUTIONS
• The connections should be neat, clean and tight.
• The plugs should be introduced in the keys only when

the observations are to be taken.
• The positive polls of the battery E and cells E, and E2

should, all be connected to the terminal at the zero of
the wires.
• The jockey key should not be rubbed along the wire. It

should touch the wire gently.
• The ammeter reading should remain constant for a

particular set of observation. If necessary, adjust the
rheostat for this purpose.
Sources of error
1. The instrument screws may be loose.
2. Thick connecting wires may not be available.
3. Rheostat may have high resistance.
4. The auxiliary battery may not be fully charged.
5. The potentiometer wire may not be of uniform cross-
section section
and material density throughout its length.
6. End resistances may not be zero.

Conclusions
BIBLIOGRAPHY
wikipedia.com
Google search engine
Physics NCERT book for class XII

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INTRODUCTION

There is a great need of batteries in our daily use

Thus, this project report is based on practical analysis

When the internal resistance of the cell is decreased,

Its SI unit is ohm(Ω)

For a cell of e.m.f. (E) and internal resistance (r),

Internal Resistance (r)= [E-V]/I

It works on the principle that when a constant current

If a cell of emf E and internal resistance r, connected

This means, V is less than E by an amount equal to the

From the above equation,

in radio receivers, tape recorders, calculators, and other low-

power devices. If you're a writer, professor, teacher,

instructor, faculty member, researcher, scientist, doctor, or

student looking for information on a battery eliminator,

you've come to the right place. A battery eliminator can act

as an alternative when you don't have batteries. So, if your

battery is damaged or dead, you will be able to turn on your

voltage needed with the help of a battery eliminator.

A variable resistor which is used for controlling the

The term rheostat was coined by the English scientist

There are two rheostat symbols that are available, and

instrument for electric current. Early galvanometers were

uncalibrated, but improved versions, called ammeters, were

calibrated and could measure the flow of current more

precisely. Galvanometers work by deflecting a pointer in

response to an electric current flowing through a coil in a

constant magnetic field. The mechanism is also used as an

actuator in applications such as hard disks.

Galvanometer, instrument for measuring a small electrical

current or a function of the current by deflection of a

moving coil. The deflection is a mechanical rotation derived

from forces resulting from the current.

estimating and comparing the resistance is known as the

resistance box. The accuracy of the resistance box is very

high. The main application of the resistance box is to control

the specific value of current to flow through the circuit.

The main advantage of the resistance box is that the variable

resistances are available at one point. If any circuit requires

variable resistances, then there is no need of replacing the

resistor. The circuit is directly connected to the resistance

box, and by changing the rotary switches, the variable

resistances are obtained.

The resistance box is of three types. They are

1. High resistance Box

2. Low Resistance box

The value of the high resistance box lies from 1Ω to 5000Ω

or above while the value of the low resistance box is between

1 to 500Ω. In fractional resistance box, the value of

resistance is in the form of a fraction. The range of

fractional box lies between 0.1Ω to 50Ω.

The construction of the box is simple and cheap. The

resistance box is available in different designs. It is also used

for testing and designing the circuit in the laboratory.

Ammeter, instrument for measuring either direct (DC) or

alternating (AC) electric current, in amperes. An ammeter

can measure a wide range of current values because at high

values only a small portion of the current is directed through

the meter mechanism; a shunt in parallel with the meter