Atching Headings

IELTS NHÀN LÊ( 8.0 OVERALL, 8.
0 WRITING)
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24 Dương Khuê- Ngũ Hành Sơn- Đà Nẵng
100 CÂU MATCHING HEADINGS
HƯỚNG DẪN PHƯƠNG PHÁP LÀM DẠNG MATCHING HEADINGS
Bước 1: Đọc tiêu đề 1 đến tiêu đề cuối( Lúc đọc thì nắm nội dung chính +
Keywords của từng tiêu đề)
Bước 2: Đọc đoạn đầu tiên=> Đọc cả đoạn để nắm ý chính từng câu và sau đó tóm
tắt lại nội dung của đoạn đang muốn nói điều gì
Bước 3: Từ nội dung chính của đoạn đối chiếu với từng tiêu đề từ trên xuống dưới
- Nếu tiêu đề có nội dung liên quan với nội dung đoạn + có từ đồng nghĩa=>
Chọn
- Nếu tiêu đề có nội dung không liên quan với nội dung đoạn=> Loại
****LƯU Ý: ĐỂ ĐỌC HIỂU NỘI DUNG CỦA ĐOẠN => TỨC PHẢI CÓ
VỐN TỪ VỰNG ĐỦ SÂU=> Cần kết hợp học Vocab + Tập dịch trong quá
trình làm bài
Câu 1:
The pyramids are the most famous monuments of ancient Egypt and still hold
enormous interest for people in the present day. These grand, impressive tributes to
the memory of the Egyptian kings have become linked with the country even though
other cultures, such as the Chinese and Mayan, also built pyramids. The evolution of
the pyramid form has been written and argued about for centuries. However, there is
no question that, as far as Egypt is concerned, it began with one monument to one
king designed by one brilliant architect: the Step Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara.
i The areas and artifacts within the pyramid itself
ii A difficult task for those involved
iii A king who saved his people
iv A single certainty among other less definite facts
v An overview of the external buildings and areas
vi A pyramid design that others copied
vii An idea for changing the design of burial structures
viii An incredible experience despite the few remains
ix The answers to some unexpected questions

IELTS NHÀN LÊ( 8.0 OVERALL, 8.0 WRITING)
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Câu 2:
Djoser was the first king of the Third Dynasty of Egypt and the first to build in stone.
Prior to Djoser’s reign, tombs were rectangular monuments made of dried clay brick,
which covered underground passages where the deceased person was buried. For
reasons which remain unclear, Djoser’s main official, whose name was Imhotep,
conceived of building a taller, more impressive tomb for his king by stacking stone
slabs on top of one another, progressively making them smaller, to form the shape
now known as the Step Pyramid. Djoser is thought to have reigned for 19 years, but
some historians and scholars attribute a much longer time for his rule, owing to the
number and size of the monuments he built.
i The areas and artifacts within the pyramid itself
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Câu 3:
The Step Pyramid has been thoroughly examined and investigated over the last
century, and it is now known that the building process went through many different
stages. Historian Marc Van de Mieroop comments on this, writing ‘Much
experimentation was involved, which is especially clear in the construction of the
pyramid in the center of the complex. It had several plans … before it became the first
Step Pyramid in history, piling six levels on top of one another … The weight of the
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enormous mass was a challenge for the builders, who placed the stones at an inward
incline in order to prevent the monument breaking up.’
i The areas and artefacts within the pyramid itself
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Câu 4:
When finally completed, the Step Pyramid rose 62 meters high and was the tallest
structure of its time. The complex in which it was built was the size of a city in
ancient Egypt and included a temple, courtyards, shrines, and living quarters for the
priests. It covered a region of 16 hectares and was surrounded by a wall 10.5 meters
high. The wall had 13 false doors cut into it with only one true entrance cut into the
south-east corner; the entire wall was then ringed by a trench 750 meters long and 40
meters wide. The false doors and the trench were incorporated into the complex to
discourage unwanted visitors. If someone wished to enter, he or she would have
needed to know in advance how to find the location of the true opening in the wall.
Djoser was so proud of his accomplishment that he broke the tradition of having only
his own name on the monument and had Imhotep’s name carved on it as well.

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Câu 5:
The burial chamber of the tomb, where the king’s body was laid to rest, was dug
beneath the base of the pyramid, surrounded by a vast maze of long tunnels that had
rooms off them to discourage robbers. One of the most mysterious discoveries found
inside the pyramid was a large number of stone vessels. Over 40,000 of these vessels,
of various forms and shapes, were discovered in storerooms off the pyramid’s
underground passages. They are inscribed with the names of rulers from the First and
Second Dynasties of Egypt and made from different kinds of stone. There is no
agreement among scholars and archaeologists on why the vessels were placed in the
tomb of Djoser or what they were supposed to represent. The archaeologist Jean-
Philippe Lauer, who excavated most of the pyramid and complex, believes they were
originally stored and then give a ‘proper burial’ by Djoser in his pyramid to honor his
predecessors. There are other historians, however, who claim the vessels were dumped
into the shafts as yet another attempt to prevent grave robbers from getting to the
king’s burial chamber.

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Câu 6:
Unfortunately, all of the precautions and intricate design of the underground network
did not prevent ancient robbers from finding a way in. Djoser’s grave goods, and even
his body, were stolen at some point in the past and all archaeologists found were a
small number of his valuables overlooked by the thieves. There was enough left
throughout the pyramid and its complex, however, to astonish and amaze the
archaeologists who excavated it.
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Câu 7:
Egyptologist Miroslav Verner writes, ‘Few monuments hold a place in human history
as significant as that of the Step Pyramid in Saqqara … It can be said without
exaggeration that this pyramid complex constitutes a milestone in the evolution of
monumental stone architecture in Egypt and in the world as a whole.’ The Step
Pyramid was a revolutionary advance in architecture and became the archetype which
all the other great pyramid builders of Egypt would follow.
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Câu 8:
Attitudes towards Artificial Intelligence
Artificial intelligence (AI) can already predict the future. Police forces are using it to
map when and where crime is likely to occur. Doctors can use it to predict when a
patient is most likely to have a heart attack or stroke. Researchers are even trying to
give AI imagination so it can plan for unexpected consequences.
Many decisions in our lives require a good forecast, and AI is almost always better at
forecasting than we are. Yet for all these technological advances, we still seem to
deeply lack confidence in AI predictions. Recent cases show that people don’t like
relying on AI and prefer to trust human experts, even if these experts are wrong.
If we want AI to really benefit people, we need to find a way to get people to trust it.
To do that, we need to understand why people are so reluctant to trust AI in the first
place.
i An increasing divergence of attitudes towards AI
ii Reasons why we have more faith in human judgement than in AI
iii The superiority of AI projections over those made by humans
iv The process by which AI can help us make good decisions

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v The advantages of involving users in AI processes
vi Widespread distrust of an AI innovation
vii Encouraging openness about how AI functions
viii A surprisingly successful AI application
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Câu 9:
Take the case of Watson for Oncology, one of technology giant IBM’s supercomputer
programs. Their attempt to promote this program to cancer doctors was a PR disaster.
The AI promised to deliver top-quality recommendations on the treatment of 12
cancers that accounted for 80% of the world’s cases. But when doctors first interacted
with Watson, they found themselves in a rather difficult situation. On the one hand, if
Watson provided guidance about a treatment that coincided with their own opinions,
physicians did not see much point in Watson’s recommendations. The supercomputer
was simply telling them what they already knew, and these recommendations did not
change the actual treatment.
On the other hand, if Watson generated a recommendation that contradicted the

experts’ opinion, doctors would typically conclude that Watson wasn’t competent.
And the machine wouldn’t be able to explain why its treatment was plausible because
its machine-learning algorithms were simply too complex to be fully understood by
humans. Consequently, this has caused even more suspicion and disbelief, leading
many doctors to ignore the seemingly outlandish AI recommendations and stick to
their own expertise.

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Câu 10:
This is just one example of people’s lack of confidence in AI and their reluctance to
accept what AI has to offer. Trust in other people is often based on our understanding
of how others think and having experience of their reliability. This helps create a
psychological feeling of safety. AI, on the other hand, is still fairly new and unfamiliar
to most people. Even if it can be technically explained (and that’s not always the
case), AI’s decision-making process is usually too difficult for most people to
comprehend. And interacting with something we don’t understand can cause anxiety
and give us a sense that we’re losing control.
Many people are also simply not familiar with many instances of AI actually working,
because it often happens in the background. Instead, they are acutely aware of
instances where AI goes wrong. Embarrassing AI failures receive a disproportionate
amount of media attention, emphasising the message that we cannot rely on
technology. Machine learning is not foolproof, in part because the humans who design
it aren’t.

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Câu 11:
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Feelings about AI run deep. In a recent experiment, people from a range of
backgrounds were given various sci-fi films about AI to watch and then asked
questions about automation in everyday life. It was found that, regardless of whether
the film they watched depicted AI in a positive or negative light, simply watching a
cinematic vision of our technological future polarised the participants’ attitudes.
Optimists became more extreme in their enthusiasm for AI and sceptics became even
more guarded.
This suggests people use relevant evidence about AI in a biased manner to support
their existing attitudes, a deep-rooted human tendency known as “confirmation bias”.
As AI is represented more and more in media and entertainment, it could lead to a
society split between those who benefit from AI and those who reject it. More
pertinently, refusing to accept the advantages offered by AI could place a large group
of people at a serious disadvantage.

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Câu 12:
Fortunately, we already have some ideas about how to improve trust in AI. Simply
having previous experience with AI can significantly improve people’s opinions about
the technology, as was found in the study mentioned above. Evidence also suggests
the more you use other technologies such as the internet, the more you trust them.
Another solution may be to reveal more about the algorithms which AI uses and the
purposes they serve. Several high-profile social media companies and online
marketplaces already release transparency reports about government requests and
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surveillance disclosures. A similar practice for AI could help people have a better
understanding of the way algorithmic decisions are made.

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Câu 13:
Research suggests that allowing people some control over AI decision-making could
also improve trust and enable AI to learn from human experience. For example, one
study showed that when people were allowed the freedom to slightly modify an
algorithm, they felt more satisfied with its decisions, more likely to believe it was
superior and more likely to use it in the future.
We don’t need to understand the intricate inner workings of AI systems, but if people
are given a degree of responsibility for how they are implemented, they will be more
willing to accept AI into their lives.

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Câu 14:
The Desolenator: producing clean water
Travelling around Thailand in the 1990s, William Janssen was impressed with the
basic rooftop solar heating systems that were on many homes, where energy from the
sun was absorbed by a plate and then used to heat water for domestic use. Two
decades later Janssen developed that basic idea he saw in Southeast Asia into a
portable device that uses the power from the sun to purify water.
i Getting the finance for production
ii An unexpected benefit
iii From initial inspiration to new product
iv The range of potential customers for the device
v What makes the device different from alternatives
vi Cleaning water from a range of sources
vii Overcoming production difficulties
viii Profit not the primary goal
ix A warm welcome for the device
x The number of people affected by water shortages

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Câu 15:
The Desolenator operates as a mobile desalination unit that can take water from
different places, such as the sea, rivers, boreholes and rain, and purify it for human
consumption. It is particularly valuable in regions where natural groundwater reserves
have been polluted, or where seawater is the only water source available.
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Janssen saw that there was a need for a sustainable way to clean water is both the
developing and the developed countries when he moved to the United Arab Emirates
and saw large-scale water processing. ‘I was confronted with the enormous carbon
footprint that the Gulf nations have because of all of the desalination that they do,’ he
says.

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Câu 16:
The Desolenator can produce 15 litres of drinking water per day, enough to sustain a
family for cooking and drinking. Its main selling point is that unlike standard
desalination techniques, it doesn’t require a generated power supply: just sunlight. It
measures 120 cm by 90 cm, and it easy to transport, thanks to its two wheels. Water
enters through a pipe, and flows as a thin film between a sheet of double glazing and
the surface of a solar panel, where it is heated by the sun. the warm water flows into a
small boiler (heated by a solar-powered battery) where it is converted to steam. When
the steam cools, it becomes distilled water. The device has a very simple filter to trap
particles, and this can easily be shaken to remove them. There are two tubes for liquid
coming out: one for the waste – salt from seawater, fluoride, etc. – and another for the
distilled water. The performance of the unit is shown on an LCD screen and
transmitted to the company which provides servicing when necessary.
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Câu 17:
A recent analysis found that at least two-thirds of the world’s population lives with
severe water scarcity for at least a month every year. Janssen says that be 2030 half of
the world’s population will be living with water stress – where the demand exceeds
the supply over a certain period of time. ‘It is really important that a sustainable
solution is brought to the market that is able to help these people,’ he says. Many
countries ‘don’t have the money for desalination plants, which are very expensive to
build. They don’t have the money to operate them, they are very maintenance
intensive, and they don’t have the money to buy the diesel to run the desalination
plants, so it is a really bad situation.’

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Câu 18:
The device is aimed at a wide variety of users – from homeowners in the developing
world who do not have a constant supply of water to people living off the grid in rural
parts of the US. The first commercial versions of the Desolenator are expected to be in
operation in India early next year, after field tests are carried out. The market for the
self-sufficient devices in developing countries is twofold – those who cannot afford
the money for the device outright and pay through microfinance, and middle-income
homes that can lease their own equipment. ‘People in India don’t pay for a fridge
outright; they pay for it over six months. They would put the Desolenator on their roof
and hook it up to their municipal supply and they would get very reliable drinking
water on a daily basis,’ Janssen says. In the developed world, it is aimed at niche
markets where tap water is unavailable – for camping, on boats, or for the military, for
instance.

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Câu 19:
Prices will vary according to where it is bought. In the developing world, the price
will depend on what deal aid organisations can negotiate. In developed countries, it is
likely to come in at $1,000 (£685) a unit, said Janssen. ‘We are a venture with a social
mission. We are aware that the product we have envisioned is mainly finding
application in the developing world and humanitarian sector and that this is the way
we will proceed. We do realise, though, that to be a viable company there is a bottom
line to keep in mind,’ he says.

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Câu 20:
The company itself is based at Imperial College London, although Janssen, its chief
executive, still lives in the UAE. It has raised £340,000 in funding so far. Within two
years, he says, the company aims to be selling 1,000 units a month, mainly in the
humanitarian field. They are expected to be sold in areas such as Australia, northern
Chile, Peru, Texas and California.

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Câu 21:
Why companies should welcome disorder
Organisation is big business. Whether it is of our lives – all those inboxes and
calendars – or how companies are structured, a multi-billion dollar industry helps to
meet this need.
We have more strategies for time management, project management and self-
organisation than at any other time in human history. We are told that we ought to
organize our company, our home life, our week, our day and seven our sleep, all as a
means to becoming more productive. Every week, countless seminars and workshops
take place around the world to tell a paying public that they ought to structure their
lives in order to achieve this.
This rhetoric has also crept into the thinking of business leaders and entrepreneurs,
much to the delight of self-proclaimed perfectionists with the need to get everything
right. The number of business schools and graduates has massively increased over the
past 50 years, essentially teaching people how to organise well.
i Complaints about the impact of a certain approach
ii Fundamental beliefs that are in fact incorrect
iii Early recommendations concerning business activities
iv Organisations that put a new approach into practice
v Companies that have suffered from changing their approach

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vi What people are increasingly expected to do
vii How to achieve outcomes that are currently impossible
viii Neither approach guarantees continuous improvement
ix Evidence that a certain approach can have more disadvantages that advantages
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Câu 22:
Ironically, however, the number of business that fail has also steadily increased.
Work-related stress has increased. A large proportion of workers from all
demographics claim to be dissatisfied with the way their work is structured and the
way they are managed.
This begs the question: what has gone wrong? Why is it that on paper the drive for
organisation seems a sure shot for increasing productivity, but in reality falls well
short of what is expected?
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Câu 23:
This has been a problem for a while now. Frederick Taylor was one of the forefathers
of scientific management. Writing in the first half of the 20th century, he designed a
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number of principles to improve the efficiency of the work process, which have since
become widespread in modern companies. So the approach has been around for a
while.
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Câu 24:
New research suggests that this obsession with efficiency is misguided. The problem
is not necessarily the management theories or strategies we use to organise our work;
it’s the basic assumptions we hold in approaching how we work. Here it’s the
assumption that order is a necessary condition for productivity. This assumption has
also fostered the idea that disorder must be detrimental to organizational productivity.
The result is that businesses and people spend time and money organising themselves
for the sake of organising, rather than actually looking at the end goal and usefulness
of such an effort.

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Câu 25:
What’s more, recent studies show that order actually has diminishing returns. Order
does increase productivity to a certain extent, but eventually the usefulness of the
process of organisation, and the benefit it yields, reduce until the point where any
further increase in order reduces productivity. Some argue that in a business, if the
cost of formally structuring something outweighs the benefit of doing it, then that
thing ought not to be formally structured. Instead, the resources involved can be better
used elsewhere.
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Câu 26:
In fact, research shows that, when innovating, the best approach is to create an
environment devoid of structure and hierarchy and enable everyone involved to
engage as one organic group. These environments can lead to new solutions that,
under conventionally structured environments (filled with bottlenecks in term of
information flow, power structures, rules, and routines) would never be reached.
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Câu 27:
In recent times companies have slowly started to embrace this disorganisation. Many
of them embrace it in terms of perception (embracing the idea of disorder, as opposed
to fearing it) and in terms of process (putting mechanisms in place to reduce
structure).
For example, Oticon, a large Danish manufacturer of hearing aids, used what it called
a ‘spaghetti’ structure in order to reduce the organisation’s rigid hierarchies. This
involved scrapping formal job titles and giving staff huge amounts of ownership over
their own time and projects. This approach proved to be highly successful initially,
with clear improvements in worker productivity in all facets of the business.
In similar fashion, the former chairman of General Electric embraced disorganisation,

putting forward the idea of the ‘boundaryless’ organisation. Again, it involves
breaking down the barriers between different parts of a company and encouraging
virtual collaboration and flexible working. Google and a number of other tech
companies have embraced (at least in part) these kinds of flexible structures,
facilitated by technology and strong company values which glue people together.

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Câu 28:
A word of warning to others thinking of jumping on this bandwagon: the evidence so
far suggests disorder, much like order, also seems to have diminishing utility, and can
also have detrimental effects on performance if overused. Like order, disorder should
be embraced only so far as it is useful. But we should not fear it – nor venerate one
over the other. This research also shows that we should continually question whether
or not our existing assumptions work.
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Câu 29:
Texting the Television
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This phenomenon can be largely attributed to the rapid growth of reality TV shows
such as ‘Big Brother’, where viewers get to decide the result through voting. The
majority of reality shows are now open to text-message voting, and in some shows
like the latest series of Norway’s ‘Big Brother’, most votes are collected in this
manner. But TV-texting isn’t just about voting. News shows encourage viewers to,
comment by texting messages; game shows enable the audience to be part of the
competition; music shows answer requests by taking text messages; and broadcasters
set up on-screen chatrooms. TV audiences tend to sit on the sofa with their mobile
phones right by their sides, and ‘it’s a supernatural way to interact.’ says Adam Daum
of Gartner.
i An application of short codes on the TV screen
ii An overview of a fast-growing business
iii The trend that profitable games are gaining more concerns
iv Why Netherlands takes the leading role
v A new perspective towards sharing the business opportunities
vi Factors relevant to the rapid increase in interactive TV
vii The revenue gains and bonus share
viii The possibility of the complex technology replaced by the simpler ones
ix The mind change of set-top box providers
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Câu 30:
Mobile service providers charge appreciable rates for messages to certain numbers,
which is why TV-texting can bring in a lot of cash. Take the latest British series of
‘Big Brother’ as an example. It brought about 5.4m text-message votes and £1.35m
($2,1m) of profit. In Germany, MTV’s ‘Videoclash’ encourages the audience to vote
for one of two rival videos, and induces up to 40,000 texts per hour, and each one of
those texts costs €0.30 ($0.29), according to a consultancy based in Amsterdam. The
Belgian quiz show ‘1 Against 100’ had an eight-round texting match on the side,
which brought in 110,000 participants in one month, and each of them paid €0.50 for
each question. In Spain, a cryptic-crossword clue invites the audience to send their
answers through text at the expense of €1, so that they can be enrolled in the poll to
win a €300 prize. Normally, 6,000 viewers would participate within one day.
At the moment, TV-related text messaging takes up a considerable proportion of

mobile service providers’ data revenues. In July, Mm02 (a British operator) reported
an unexpectedly satisfactory result, which could be attributed to the massive text
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waves created by ‘Big Brother’. Providers usually own 40%-50% of the profits from
each text, and the rest is divided among the broadcaster, the programme producer and
the company which supplies the message-processing technology. So far, revenues
generated from text messages have been an indispensable part of the business model
for various shows. Obviously, there has been grumbling that the providers take too
much of the share. Endemol, the Netherlands-based production firm that is responsible
for many reality TV, shows including ‘Big Brother’, has begun constructing its own
database for mobile-phone users. It plans to set up a direct billing system with the
users and bypass the providers.
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Câu 31:
How come the joining forces of television and text message turn out to be this
successful? One crucial aspect is the emergence of one-of-a-kind four-, five- or six-
digit numbers known as ‘short codes’. Every provider has control over its own short
codes, but not until recently have they come to realise that it would make much more
sense to work together to offer short codes compatible with all networks. The
emergence of this universal short codes was a game-changer, because short codes are
much easier to remember on the screen, according to Lars Becker of Flytxt, a mobile-
marketing company.
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Câu 32:
Operators’ co-operation on enlarging the market is by a larger trend, observes Katrina
Bond of Analysys, a consultancy. When challenged by the dilemma between holding
on tight to their margins and permitting the emergence of a new medium, no provider
has ever chosen the latter WAP, a technology for mobile-phone users to read cut-
down web pages on their screens, failed because of service providers’ reluctance
towards revenue sharing with content providers. Now that they’ve learnt their lesson,
they are altering the way of operating. Orange, a French operator, has come such a
long way as to launch a rate card for sharing revenue of text messages, a new level of
transparency that used to be unimaginable.
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Câu 33:
The triumph of TV-related texting reminds everyone in the business of how easily a
fancy technology can all of a sudden be replaced by a less complicated, lower-tech
method. That being said, the old-fashioned approach to interactive TV is not
necessarily over; at least it proves that strong demands for interactive services still
exist. It appears that the viewers would sincerely like to do more than simply staring at
the TV screen. After all, couch potatoes would love some thumb exercises.
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Câu 34:
Even though crocodiles have existed for 200 million years, they’re anything but
primitive. As crocodiles’ ancestors, crocodilia came to adapt to an aquatic lifestyle.
When most of the other contemporary reptiles went extinct, crocodiles were able to
make it because their bodies changed and they adapted better to the climate. They
witnessed the rise and fall of the dinosaurs, which once ruled the planet, and even the
65 million years of alleged mammalian dominance didn’t wipe them off. Nowadays,
the crocodiles and alligators are not that different from their prehistoric ancestors,
which proves that they were (and still are) incredibly adaptive.
i The favourable feature in the impact of a drought
ii A unique finding that was recently achieved
iii Slow metabolism which makes crocodile a unique reptile
iv The perfectly designed body for a great land roamer
v Shifting eating habits and food intake
vi A project on a special mechanism
vii Regulating body temperature by the surrounding environment
viii Underwater aid in body structure offered to a successful predator
ix A historical story for the supreme survivors
x What makes the crocodile the fastest running animal on land
xi The competition between the crocodiles and other animals
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Câu 35:
The first crocodile-like ancestors came into existence approximately 230 million years
ago, and they had many of the features which make crocodiles natural and perfect
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stealth hunters: streamlined body, long tail, protective armour and long jaws. They are
bom with four short, webbed legs, but this does not mean that their capacity to move
on the ground shall ever be underestimated. When they move, they are so fast that you
won’t even have any chance to try making the same mistake again by getting too
close, especially when they’re hunting.
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Câu 36:
Like other reptiles, crocodiles are poikilothermal animals (commonly known as
coldblooded, whose body temperature changes with that of the surroundings) and
consequently, require exposure to sunlight regularly to raise body temperature. When
it is too hot, they would rather stay in water or shade. Compared with mammals and
birds, crocodiles have a slower metabolism, which makes them less vulnerable to food
shortage. In the most extreme case, a crocodile can slow its metabolism down even
further, to the point that it would survive without food for a whole year, enabling them
to outlive mammals in relatively volatile environments.
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Câu 37:
Crocodiles have a highly efficient way to prey catching. The prey rarely realises there
might be a crocodile under the water because the crocodile makes a move without any
noise or great vibration when spotting its prey. It only keeps its eyes above the water
level. As soon as it feels close enough to the victim, it jerks out of the water with its
wide open jaws. Crocodiles are successful because they are capable of switching
feeding methods. It chases after fish and snatches birds at the water surface, hides in
the waterside bushes in anticipation of a gazelle, and when the chance to ambush
presents itself, the crocodile dashes forward, knocks the animal out with its powerful
tail and then drags the prey into the water to drown.
Từ đồng nghĩa
Cau 38:
In many crocodilian habitats, the hot season brings drought that dries up their hunting
grounds, leaving it harder for them to regulate body temperatures. This actually
allowed reptiles to rule. For instance, many crocodiles can protect themselves by
digging holes and covering themselves in mud, waiting for months without consuming
any food or water until the rains finally return. They transform into a quiescent state
called aestivation.
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Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 39:
The majority of crocodilian is considered to go. into aestivation during the dry season.
In a six-year study by Kennett and Christian, the King Crocodiles, a species of
Australian freshwater crocodiles, spent nearly four months a year underground
without access to water resources. Doubly labelled water was applied to detect field
metabolic rates and water flux, and during some years, plasma fluid samples were
taken once a month to keep track of the effects of aestivation regarding the
accumulation of nitrogenous wastes and electrolyte concentrations.
Từ đồng nghĩa
Cau 40:
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The study discovered that the crocodiles’ metabolic engines function slowly, creating
waste and exhausting water and fat reserves. Waste is stored in the urine, becoming
more and more concentrated. Nevertheless, the concentration of waste products in
blood doesn’t fluctuate much, allowing the crocodiles to carry on their normal
functions. Besides, even though the crocodiles lost water reserves and body weight
when underground, the losses were proportional; upon emerging, the aestivating
animals had no dehydration and displayed no other harmful effects such as a slowed-
down growth rate. The two researchers reckon that this capacity of crocodiles to get
themselves through the harsh times and the long starvation periods is sure to be the
answer to the crocodilian line’s survival throughout history.
Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 41:
Can Hurricanes be Moderated or Diverted?
Each year, massive swirling storms bringing along winds greater than 74 miles per
hour wipe across tropical oceans and land on shorelines—usually devastating vast
swaths of territory. When these roiling tempests strike densely inhabited territories,
they have the power to kill thousands and cause property damage worth of billions of
dollars. Besides, absolutely nothing stands in their way. But can we ever find a way to
control these formidable forces of nature?
i Hurricanes in history
ii How hurricanes form
iii How a laboratory exercise re-route a hurricane
iv Exciting ways to utilise future technologies
v Are hurricanes unbeatable?
vi Re-visit earlier ideas
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vii How lives might have bee saved
viii A range of low-tech methods
Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 42:
To see why hurricanes and other severe tropical storms may be susceptible to human
intervention, a researcher must first learn about their nature and origins. Hurricanes
grow in the form of thunderstorm clusters above the tropical seas. Oceans in low-
latitude areas never stop giving out heat and moisture to the atmosphere, which brings
about warm, wet air above the sea surface. When this kind of air rises, the water
vapour in it condenses to form clouds and precipitation. Condensation gives out heat
in the process the solar heat is used to evaporate the water at the ocean surface. This
so-called invisible heat of condensation makes the air more buoyant, leading to it
ascending higher while reinforcing itself in the feedback process. At last, the tropical
depression starts to form and grow stronger, creating the familiar eye — the calm
centre hub that a hurricane spins around. When reaching the land, the hurricane no
longer has a continuous supply of warm water, which causes it to swiftly weaken.
Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 43:
Our current studies are inspired by my past intuition when I was learning about chaos
theory 30 years ago. The reason why long-range forecasting is complicated is that the
atmosphere is highly sensitive to small influences and tiny mistakes can compound
fast in the weather-forecasting models. However, this sensitivity also made me realise
a possibility: if we intentionally applied some slight inputs to a hurricane, we might
create a strong influence that could affect the storms, either by steering them away
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from densely populated areas or by slowing them down. Back then, I was not able to
test my ideas, but thanks to the advancement of computer simulation and remote-
sensing technologies over the last 10 years, I can now renew my enthusiasm in large-
scale weather control.
Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 44:
To find out whether the sensitivity of the atmospheric system could be exploited to
adjust such robust atmospheric phenomena as hurricanes, our research team ran
simulation experiments on computers for a hurricane named Iniki that occurred in
1992. The current forecasting technologies were far from perfect, so it took us by
surprise that our first simulation turned out to be an immediate success. With the goal
of altering the path of Iniki in mind, we first picked the spot where we wanted the
storm to stop after six hours. Then we used this target to generate artificial
observations and put these into the computer model.
Từ đồng nghĩa
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Câu 45:
The most significant alteration turned out to be the initial temperatures and winds.
Usually, the temperature changes across the grid were only tenths of a degree, but the
most noteworthy change, which was an increase of almost two degrees Celsius, took
place in the lowest model layer to the west of the storm centre. The calculations
produced wind-speed changes of two or three miles per hour. However, in several
spots, the rates shifted by as much as 20 mph due to minor redirections of the winds
close to the storm’s centre. In terms of structure, the initial and altered versions of
Hurricane Iniki seemed almost the same, but the changes in critical variables were so
substantial that the latter one went off the track to the west during the first six hours of
the simulation and then travelled due north, leaving Kauai untouched.
Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 46:
Future earth-orbiting solar power stations, equipped with large mirrors to focus the
sun’s rays and panels of photovoltaic cells to gather and send energy to the Earth,
might be adapted to beam microwaves which turn to be absorbed by water vapour
molecules inside or around the storm. The microwaves would cause the water
molecules to vibrate and heat up the surrounding air, which then leads to the hurricane
slowing down or moving in a preferred direction.
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Câu 47:
Simulations of hurricanes conducted on a computer have implied that by changing the
precipitation, evaporation and air temperature, we could make a difference to a
storm’s route or abate its winds. Intervention could be in many different forms:
exquisitely targeted clouds bearing silver iodide or other rainfall-inducing elements
might deprive a hurricane of the water it needs to grow and multiply from its
formidable eyewall, which is the essential characteristic of a severe tropical storm.
Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 48:
Are Artists Liars?
Shortly before his death, Marlon Brando was working on a series of instructional
videos about acting, to he called “Lying for a Iiving”. On the surviving footage,
Brando can he seen dispensing gnomic advice on his craft to a group of enthusiastic, if
somewhat bemused, Hollywood stars, including Leonardo Di Caprio and Sean Penn.
Brando also recruited random people from the Los Angeles street and persuaded them
to improvise (the footage is said to include a memorable scene featuring two dwarves
and a giant Samoan). “If you can lie, you can act.” Brando told Jod Kaftan, a writer
for Rolling Stone and one of the few people to have viewed the footage. “Are you
good at lying?” asked Kaftan. “Jesus.” said Brando, “I’m fabulous at it”.
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i Unsuccessful deceit
ii Biological basis between liars and artists
iii How to lie in an artistic way
iv Confabulations and the exemplifiers
v The distinction between artists and common liars
vi The fine line between liars and artists
vii The definition of confabulation
viii Creativity when people lie
Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 49:
Brando was not the first person to note that the line between an artist and a liar is a
line one. If art is a kind of lying, then lying is a form of art, albeit of a lower order-as
Oscar Wilde and Mark Twain have observed. Indeed, lying and artistic storytelling
spring from a common neurological root-one that is exposed in the cases of
psychiatric patients who suffer from a particular kind of impairment. Both liars and
artists refuse to accept the tyranny of reality. Both carefully craft stories that are
worthy of belief – a skill requiring intellectual sophistication, emotional sensitivity
and physical self-control (liars are writers and performers of their own work). Such
parallels are hardly coincidental, as I discovered while researching my book on lying.
Từ đồng nghĩa
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Câu 50:
A case study published in 1985 by Antonio Damasio, a neurologist, tells the story of a
middle-aged woman with brain damage caused by a series of strokes. She retained
cognitive abilities, including coherent speech, but what she actually said was rather
unpredictable. Checking her knowledge of contemporary events, Damasio asked her
about the Falklands War. In the language of psychiatry, this woman was
“confabulating”. Chronic confabulation is a rare type of memory problem that affects
a small proportion of brain damaged people. In the literature it is defined as “the
production of fabricated, distorted or misinterpreted memories about oneself or the
world, without the conscious intention to deceive”. Whereas amnesiacs make errors of
omission, there are gaps in their recollections they find impossible to fill –
confabulators make errors of commission: they make tilings up. Rather than
forgetting, they are inventing. Confabulating patients are nearly always oblivious to
their own condition, and will earnestly give absurdly implausible explanations of why
they’re in hospital, or talking to a doctor. One patient, asked about his surgical sear,
explained that during the Second World War he surprised a teenage girl who shot him
three times in the head, killing him, only for surgery to bring him back to life. The
same patient, when asked about his family, described how at various times they had
died in his arms, or had been killed before his eyes. Others tell yet more fantastical
tales, about trips to the moon, fighting alongside Alexander in India or seeing Jesus on
the Cross. Confabulators aren’t out to deceive. They engage in what Morris
Moseovitch, a neuropsychologist, calls “honest lying”. Uncertain and obscurely
distressed by their uncertainty, they are seized by a “compulsion to narrate”: a deep-
seated need to shape, order and explain what they do not understand. Chronic
confabulators are often highly inventive at the verbal level, jamming together words in
nonsensical but suggestive ways: one patient, when asked what happened to Queen
Marie Antoinette of France, answered that she had been “suicided” by her family. In a
sense, these patients are like novelists, as described by Henry James: people on whom
“nothing is wasted”. Unlike writers, however, they have little or no control over their
own material.
Từ đồng nghĩa
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Câu 51:
It is difficult to conceive of vigorous economic growth without an efficient transport
system. Although modern information technologies can reduce the demand for
physical transport by facilitating teleworking and teleservices, the requirement for
transport continues to increase. There are two key factors behind this trend. For
passenger transport, the determining factor is the spectacular growth in car use. The
number of cars on European Union (EU) roads saw an increase of three million cars
each year from 1990 to 2010, and in the next decade the EU will see a further
substantial increase in its fleet.
i A fresh and important long-term goal
ii Charging for roads and improving other transport methods
iii Changes affecting the distances goods may be transported
iv Taking all the steps necessary to change transport patterns
v The environmental costs of road transport
vi The escalating cost of rail transport
vii The need to achieve transport rebalance
viii The rapid growth of private transport
ix Plans to develop major road networks
x Restricting road use through charging policies alone
xi Transport trends in countries awaiting EU admission
Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 52:
As far as goods transport is concerned, growth is due to a large extent to changes in
the European economy and its system of production. In the last 20 years, as internal
frontiers have been abolished, the EU has moved from a ‘stock’ economy to a ‘flow’
economy. This phenomenon has been emphasised by the relocation of some
industries, particularly those which are labour intensive, to reduce production costs,
even though the production site is hundreds or even thousands of kilometres away
from the final assembly plant or away from users.

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Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 53:
The strong economic growth expected in countries which are candidates for entry to
the EU will also increase transport flows, in particular road haulage traffic. In 1998,
some of these countries already exported more than twice their 1990 volumes and
imported more than five times their 1990 volumes. And although many candidate
countries inherited a transport system which encourages rail, the distribution between
modes has tipped sharply in favour of road transport since the 1990s. Between 1990
and 1998, road haulage increased by 19.4%, while during the same period rail haulage
decreased by 43.5%, although – and this could benefit the enlarged EU – it is still on
average at a much higher level than in existing member states.

Từ đồng nghĩa
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Câu 54:
However, a new imperative-sustainable development – offers an opportunity for
adapting the EU’s common transport policy. This objective, agreed by the Gothenburg
European Council, has to be achieved by integrating environmental considerations
into Community policies, and shifting the balance between modes of transport lies at
the heart of its strategy. The ambitious objective can only be fully achieved by 2020,
but proposed measures are nonetheless a first essential step towards a sustainable
transport system which will ideally be in place in 30 years‟ time, that is by 2040.

Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 55:
In 1998, energy consumption in the transport sector was to
blame for 28% of emissions of CO2, the leading greenhouse gas.
According to the latest estimates, if nothing is done to
reverse the traffic growth trend, CO2 emissions from
transport can be expected to increase by around 50% to 1,113
billion tonnes by 2020，compared with the 739 billion tonnes
recorded in 1990. Once again, road transport is the main
culprit since it alone accounts for 84% of the CO2 emissions
attributable to transport. Using alternative fuels and
improving energy efficiency is thus both an ecological
necessity and a technological challenge.
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Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 56:
At the same time greater efforts must be made to achieve a modal shift. Such a change
cannot be achieved overnight, all the less so after over half a century of constant
deterioration in favour of road. This has reached such a pitch that today rail freight
services are facing marginalisation, with just 8% of market share, and with
international goods trains struggling along at an average speed of 18km/h. Three
possible options have emerged.

Từ đồng nghĩa
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Câu 57:
The first approach would consist of focusing on road transport solely through pricing.
This option would not be accompanied by complementary measures in the other
modes of transport. In the short term it might curb the growth in road transport
through the better loading ratio of goods vehicles and occupancy rates of passenger
vehicles expected as a result of the increase in the price of transport. However, the
lack of measures available to revitalise other modes of transport would make it
impossible for more sustainable modes of transport to take up the baton.

Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 58
The second approach also concentrates on road transport pricing but is accompanied
by measures to increase the efficiency of the other modes (better quality of services,
logistics, technology). However, this approach does not include investment in new
infrastructure, nor does it guarantee better regional cohesion. It could help to achieve
greater uncoupling than the first approach, but road transport would keep the lion’s
share of the market and continue to concentrate on saturated arteries, despite being the
most polluting of the modes. It is therefore not enough to guarantee the necessary shift
of the balance.
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Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 59:
The third approach, which is not new, comprises a series of measures ranging from
pricing to revitalising alternative modes of transport and targeting investment in the
trans-European network. This integrated approach would allow the market shares of
the other modes to return to their 1998 levels and thus make a shift of balance. It is far
more ambitious than it looks, bearing in mind the historical imbalance in favour of
roads for the last fifty years, but would achieve a marked break in the link between
road transport growth and economic growth, without placing restrictions on the
mobility of people and goods.
Từ đồng nghĩa
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Câu 60:
Alan Macfarlane, professor of anthropological science at King’s College, Cambridge
has, like other historians, spent decades wrestling with the enigma of the Industrial
Revolution. Why did this particular Big Bang – the world-changing birth of industry-
happen in Britain? And why did it strike at the end of the 18th century?
i The search for the reasons for an increase in population

ii Industrialisation and the fear of unemployment
iii The development of cities in Japan 4 The time and place of the Industrial
Revolution
iv The time and place of the Industrial Revolution
v The cases of Holland, France and China
vi Changes in drinking habits in Britain
vii Two keys to Britain’s industrial revolution
viii Conditions required for industrialisation
ix Comparisons with Japan lead to the answer
Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 61
Macfarlane compares the puzzle to a combination lock. ‘There are about 20 different
factors and all of them need to be present before the revolution can happen,’ he says.
For industry to take off, there needs to be the technology and power to drive factories,
large urban populations to provide cheap labour, easy transport to move goods around,
an affluent middle-class willing to buy mass-produced objects, a market-driven
economy and a political system that allows this to happen. While this was the case for
England, other nations, such as Japan, the Netherlands and France also met some of
these criteria but were not industrialising. All these factors must have been necessary.
But not sufficient to cause the revolution, says Macfarlane. ‘After all, Holland had
everything except coal while China also had many of these factors. Most historians are
convinced there are one or two missing factors that you need to open the lock.’
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Revolution
Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 62
The missing factors, he proposes, are to be found in almost even kitchen cupboard.
Tea and beer, two of the nation’s favourite drinks, fuelled the revolution. The
antiseptic properties of tannin, the active ingredient in tea, and of hops in beer – plus
the fact that both are made with boiled water – allowed urban communities to flourish
at close quarters without succumbing to water-borne diseases such as dysentery. The
theory sounds eccentric but once he starts to explain the detective work that went into
his deduction, the scepticism gives way to wary admiration. Macfarlanes case has
been strengthened by support from notable quarters – Roy Porter, the distinguished
medical historian, recently wrote a favourable appraisal of his research.

Revolution
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Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 63
Macfarlane had wondered for a long time how the Industrial Revolution came about.
Historians had alighted on one interesting factor around the mid-18th century that
required explanation. Between about 1650 and 1740, the population in Britain was
static. But then there was a burst in population growth. Macfarlane says: ‘The infant
mortality rate halved in the space of 20 years, and this happened in both rural areas
and cities, and across all classes. People suggested four possible causes. Was there a
sudden change in the viruses and bacteria around? Unlikely. Was there a revolution in
medical science? But this was a century before Lister’s revolution*. Was there a
change in environmental conditions? There were improvements in agriculture that
wiped out malaria, but these were small gains. Sanitation did not become widespread
until the 19th century. The only option left is food. But the height and weight statistics
show a decline. So the food must have got worse. Efforts to explain this sudden
reduction in child deaths appeared to draw a blank.’

Revolution
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Câu 64
This population burst seemed to happen at just the right time to provide labour for the
Industrial Revolution. ‘When you start moving towards an industrial revolution, it is
economically efficient to have people living close together,’ says Macfarlane. ‘But
then you get disease, particularly from human waste.’ Some digging around in
historical records revealed that there was a change in the incidence of water-borne
disease at that time, especially dysentery. Macfarlane deduced that whatever the
British were drinking must have been important in regulating disease. He says, ‘We
drank beer. For a long time, the English were protected by the strong antibacterial
agent in hops, which were added to help preserve the beer. But in the late 17th century
a tax was introduced on malt, the basic ingredient of beer. The poor turned to water
and gin and in the 1720s the mortality rate began to rise again. Then it suddenly
dropped again. What caused this?’

Revolution
Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 65
Macfarlane looked to Japan, which was also developing large cities about the same
time, and also had no sanitation. Water-borne diseases had a much looser grip on the
Japanese population than those in Britain. Could it be the prevalence of tea in their
culture? Macfarlane then noted that the history of tea in Britain provided an
extraordinary coincidence of dates. Tea was relatively expensive until Britain started a
direct clipper trade with China in the early 18th century. By the 1740s, about the time
that infant mortality was dipping, the drink was common. Macfarlane guessed that the
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fact that water had to be boiled, together with the stomach-purifying properties of tea
meant that the breast milk provided by mothers was healthier than it had ever been.
No other European nation sipped tea like the British, which, by Macfarlanes logic,
pushed these other countries out of contention for the revolution.

Revolution
Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 66
But, if tea is a factor in the combination lock, why didn’t Japan forge ahead in a tea-
soaked industrial revolution of its own? Macfarlane notes that even though 17th-
century Japan had large cities, high literacy rates, even a futures market, it had turned
its back on the essence of any work-based revolution by giving up labour-saving
devices such as animals, afraid that they would put people out of work. So, the nation
that we now think of as one of the most technologically advanced entered the 19th
century having ‘abandoned the wheel’.

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Revolution
Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 67
Travel has existed since the beginning of time, when primitive man set out, often
traversing great distances in search of game, which provided the food and clothing
necessary for his survival. Throughout the course of history, people have travelled for
purposes of trade, religious conviction, economic gain, war, migration and other
equally compelling motivations. In the Roman era, wealthy aristocrats and high
government officials also travelled for pleasure. Seaside resorts located at Pompeii
and Herculaneum afforded citizens the opportunity to escape to their vacation villas in
order to avoid the summer heat of Rome. Travel, except during the Dark Ages, has
continued to grow and, throughout recorded history, has played a vital role in the
development of civilisations and their economies.
i Economic and social significance of tourism
ii The development of mass tourism
iii Travel for the wealthy
iv Earning foreign exchange through tourism
v Difficulty in recognising the economic effects of tourism
vi The contribution of air travel to tourism
vii The world impact of tourism
viii The history of travel

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Câu 68
Tourism in the mass form as we know it today is a distinctly twentieth-century
phenomenon. Historians suggest that the advent of mass tourism began in England
during the industrial revolution with the rise of the middle class and the availability of
relatively inexpensive transportation. The creation of the commercial airline industry
following the Second World War and the subsequent development of the jet aircraft in
the 1950s signalled the rapid growth and expansion of international travel. This
growth led to the development of a major new industry: tourism. In turn, international
tourism became the concern of a number of world governments since it not only
provided new employment opportunities but also produced a means of earning foreign
exchange.

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Câu 69
Tourism today has grown significantly in both economic and social importance. In
most industrialised countries over the past few years the fastest growth has been seen
in the area of services. One of the largest segments of the service industry, although
largely unrecognised as an entity in some of these countries, is travel and tourism.
According to the World Travel and Tourism Council (1992), Travel and tourism is the
largest industry in the world on virtually any economic measure including value-
added capital investment, employment and tax contributions. In 1992 ‘the industry’s
gross output was estimated to be $3.5 trillion, over 12 per cent of all consumer
spending. The travel and tourism industry is the world’s largest employer the almost
130 million jobs, or almost 7 per cent of all employees. This industry is the world’s
leading industrial contributor, producing over 6 per cent of the world’s national
product and accounting for capital investment in excess of $422 billion m direct
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indirect and personal taxes each year. Thus, tourism has a profound impact both on the
world economy and, because of the educative effect of travel and the effects on
employment, on society itself.

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Câu 70
However, the major problems of the travel and tourism industry that have hidden, or
obscured, its economic impact are the diversity and fragmentation of the industry
itself. The travel industry includes: hotels, motels and other types of accommodation;
restaurants and other food services; transportation services and facilities; amusements,
attractions and other leisure facilities; gift shops and a large number of other
enterprises. Since many of these businesses also serve local residents, the impact of
spending by visitors can easily be overlooked or underestimated. In addition, Meis
(1992) points out that the tourism industry involves concepts that have remained
amorphous to both analysts and decision makers. Moreover, in all nations this
problem has made it difficult for the industry to develop any type of reliable or
credible tourism information base in order to estimate the contribution it makes to
regional, national and global economies. However, the nature of this very diversity
makes travel and tourism ideal vehicles for economic development in a wide variety
of countries, regions or communities.

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Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 71
Once the exclusive province of the wealthy, travel and tourism have become an
institutionalised way of life for most of the population. In fact, McIntosh and
Goeldner (1990) suggest that tourism has become the largest commodity in
international trade for many nations and, for a significant number of other countries, it
ranks second or third. For example, tourism is the major source of income in
Bermuda, Greece, Italy, Spain, Switzerland and most Caribbean countries. In addition,
Hawkins and Ritchie, quoting from data published by the American Express
Company, suggest that the travel and tourism industry is the number one ranked
employer in the Bahamas, Brazil, Canada, France, (the former) West Germany, Hong
Kong, Italy, Jamaica, Japan, Singapore, the United Kingdom and the United States.
However, because of problems of definition, which directly affect statistical
measurement, it is not possible with any degree of certainty to provide precise, valid
or reliable data about the extent of world-wide tourism participation or its economic
impact. In many cases, similar difficulties arise when attempts are made to measure
domestic tourism.

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Câu 72
Easter Island, or Rapu Nui as it is known locally, is home to several hundred ancient
human statues – the moai. After this remote Pacific island was settled by the
Polynesians, it remained isolated for centuries. All the energy and resources that went
into the moai – some of which are ten metres tall and weigh over 7,000 kilos – came
from the island itself. Yet when Dutch explorers landed in 1722, they met a Stone Age
culture. The moai were carved with stone tools, then transported for many kilometres,
without the use of animals or wheels, to massive stone platforms. The identity of the
moai builders was in doubt until well into the twentieth century. Thor Heyerdahl, the
Norwegian ethnographer and adventurer, thought the statues had been created by pre-
Inca peoples from Peru. Bestselling Swiss author Erich von Daniken believed they
were built by stranded extraterrestrials. Modern science – linguistic, archaeological
and genetic evidence – has definitively proved the moai builders were Polynesians,
but not how they moved their creations. Local folklore maintains that the statues
walked, while researchers have tended to assume the ancestors dragged the statues
somehow, using ropes and logs.
i Evidence of innovative environment management practices
ii An undisputed answer to a question about the moai
iii The future of the moai statues
iv A theory which supports a local belief
v The future of Easter Island
vi Two opposing views about the Rapanui people
vii Destruction outside the inhabitants’ control
viii How the statues made a situation worse
ix Diminishing food resources

Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 73
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When the Europeans arrived, Rapa Nui was grassland, with only a few scrawny trees.
In the 1970s and 1980s, though, researchers found pollen preserved in lake sediments,
which proved the island had been covered in lush palm forests for thousands of years.
Only after the Polynesians arrived did those forests disappear. US scientist Jared
Diamond believes that the Rapanui people – descendants of Polynesian settlers –
wrecked their own environment. They had unfortunately settled on an extremely
fragile island – dry, cool, and too remote to be properly fertilised by windblown
volcanic ash. When the islanders cleared the forests for firewood and farming, the
forests didn’t grow back. As trees became scarce and they could no longer construct
wooden canoes for fishing, they ate birds. Soil erosion decreased their crop yields.
Before Europeans arrived, the Rapanui had descended into civil war and cannibalism,
he maintains. The collapse of their isolated civilisation, Diamond writes, is a ’worst-
case scenario for what may lie ahead of us in our own future’.

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Câu 74
The moai, he thinks, accelerated the self-destruction. Diamond interprets them as
power displays by rival chieftains who, trapped on a remote little island, lacked other
ways of asserting their dominance. They competed by building ever bigger figures.
Diamond thinks they laid the moai on wooden sledges, hauled over log rails, but that
required both a lot of wood and a lot of people. To feed the people, even more land
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had to be cleared. When the wood was gone and civil war began, the islanders began
toppling the moai. By the nineteenth century none were standing.

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Câu 75
Archaeologists Terry Hunt of the University of Hawaii and Carl Lipo of California
State University agree that Easter Island lost its lush forests and that it was an
‘ecological catastrophe’ – but they believe the islanders themselves weren’t to blame.
And the moai certainly weren’t. Archaeological excavations indicate that the Rapanui
went to heroic efforts to protect the resources of their wind-lashed, infertile fields.
They built thousands of circular stone windbreaks and gardened inside them, and used
broken volcanic rocks to keep the soil moist. In short, Hunt and Lipo argue, the
prehistoric Rapanui were pioneers of sustainable farming.

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Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 76
Hunt and Lipo contend that moai-building was an activity that helped keep the peace
between islanders. They also believe that moving the moai required few people and no
wood, because they were walked upright. On that issue, Hunt and Lipo say,
archaeological evidence backs up Rapanui folklore. Recent experiments indicate that
as few as 18 people could, with three strong ropes and a bit of practice, easily
manoeuvre a 1,000 kg moai replica a few hundred metres. The figures’ fat bellies
tilted them forward, and a D-shaped base allowed handlers to roll and rock them side
to side.

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Câu 77
Moreover, Hunt and Lipo are convinced that the settlers were not wholly responsible
for the loss of the island’s trees. Archaeological finds of nuts from the extinct Easter
Island palm show tiny grooves, made by the teeth of Polynesian rats. The rats arrived
along with the settlers, and in just a few years, Hunt and Lipo calculate, they would
have overrun the island. They would have prevented the reseeding of the slow-
growing palm trees and thereby doomed Rapa Nui’s forest, even without the settlers’
campaign of deforestation. No doubt the rats ate birds’ eggs too. Hunt and Lipo also
see no evidence that Rapanui civilisation collapsed when the palm forest did. They
think its population grew rapidly and then remained more or less stable until the
arrival of the Europeans, who introduced deadly diseases to which islanders had no
immunity. Then in the nineteenth century slave traders decimated the population,
which shrivelled to 111 people by 1877.

Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 78
Hunt and Lipo’s vision, therefore, is one of an island populated by peaceful and
ingenious moai builders and careful stewards of the land, rather than by reckless
destroyers ruining their own environment and society. ‘Rather than a case of abject
failure, Rapu Nui is an unlikely story of success’, they claim. Whichever is the case,
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there are surely some valuable lessons which the world at large can learn from the
story of Rapa Nui.

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Câu 79
Of all mankind’s manifold creations, language must take pride of place. Other
inventions -the wheel, agriculture, sliced bread – may have transformed our material
existence, but the advent of language is what made us human. Compared to language,
all other inventions pale in significance, since everything we have ever achieved
depends on language and originates from it. Without language, we could never have
embarked on our ascent to unparalleled power over all other animals, and even over
nature itself.
i Differences between languages highlight their impressiveness
ii The way in which a few sounds are organised to convey a huge range of meaning
iii Why the sounds used in different languages are not identical
iv Apparently incompatible characteristics of language
v Even silence can be meaningful
vi Why language is the most important invention of all

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vii The universal ability to use language

Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 80
But language is foremost not just because it came first. In its own right it is a tool of
extraordinary sophistication, yet based on an idea of ingenious simplicity: ‘this
marvellous invention of composing out of twenty-five or thirty sounds that infinite
variety of expressions which, whilst having in themselves no likeness to what is in our
mind, allow us to disclose to others its whole secret, and to make known to those who
cannot penetrate it all that we imagine, and all the various stirrings of our soul’ This
was how, in 1660, the renowned French grammarians of the Port-Royal abbey near
Versailles distilled the essence of language, and no one since has celebrated more
eloquently the magnitude of its achievement. Even so, there is just one flaw in all
these hymns of praise, for the homage to languages unique accomplishment conceals a
simple yet critical incongruity. Language is mankind s greatest invention – except, of
course, that it was never invented. This apparent paradox is at the core of our
fascination with language, and it holds many of its secrets.

Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 81
Language often seems so skillfully drafted that one can hardly imagine it as anything
other than the perfected handiwork of a master craftsman. How else could this
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instrument make so much out of barely three dozen measly morsels of sound? In
themselves, these configurations of mouth p,f,b,v,t,d,k,g,sh,a,e and so on – amount to
nothing more than a few haphazard spits and splutters, random noises with no
meaning, no ability to express, no power to explain. But run them through the cogs
and wheels of the language machine, let it arrange them in some very special orders,
and there is nothing that these meaningless streams of air cannot do: from sighing the
interminable boredom of existence to unravelling the fundamental order of the
universe.

Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 82
The most extraordinary thing about language, however, is that one doesn’t have to be
a genius to set its wheels in motion. The language machine allows just about
everybody from pre-modern foragers in the subtropical savannah, to post-modern
philosophers in the suburban sprawl – to tie these meaningless sounds together into an
infinite variety of subtle senses, and all apparently without the slightest exertion. Yet
it is precisely this deceptive ease which makes language a victim of its own success,
since in everyday life its triumphs are usually taken for granted. The wheels of
language run so smoothly that one rarely bothers to stop and think about all the
resourcefulness and expertise that must have gone into making it tick. Language
conceals art.
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Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 83
Often, it is only the estrangement of foreign tongues, with their many exotic and
outlandish features, that brings home the wonder of languages design. One of the
showiest stunts that some languages can pull off is an ability to build up words of
breath-breaking length, and thus express in one word what English takes a whole
sentence to say. The Turkish word çehirliliçtiremediklerimizdensiniz, to take one
example, means nothing less than ‘you are one of those whom we can’t turn into a
town-dweller’. (In case you were wondering, this monstrosity really is one word, not
merely many different words squashed together – most ol its components cannot even
stand up on their own.)

Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 84
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And if that sounds like some one-off freak, then consider Sumerian, the language
spoken on the banks of the Euphrates some 5,000 years ago by the people who
invented writing and thus enabled the documentation of history. A Sumerian word like
munintuma’a (‘when he had made it suitable for her’) might seem rather trim
compared to the Turkish colossus above. What is so impressive about it, however, is
not its lengthiness but rather the reverse – the thrifty compactness of its construction.
The word is made up of different slots, each corresponding to a particular portion of
meaning. This sleek design allows single sounds to convey useful information, and in
fact even the absence of a sound has been enlisted to express something specific. If
you were to ask which bit in the Sumerian word corresponds to the pronoun ‘it’ in the
English translation ‘when he had made it suitable for her’, then the answer would have
to be nothing. Mind you, a very particular kind of nothing: the nothing that stands in
the empty slot in the middle. The technology is so fine-tuned then that even a non-
sound, when carefully placed in a particular position, has been invested with a specific
function. Who could possibly have come up with such a nifty contraption?

Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 85
‘I would found an institution where any person can find instruction in any subject.’
That was the founder’s motto for Cornell University, and it seems an apt
characterization of the different university, also in the USA, where I currently teach
philosophy. A student can prepare for a career in resort management, engineering,
interior design, accounting, music, law enforcement, you name it. But what would the
founders of these two institutions have thought of a course called ‘Arson for Profit’? I
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kid you not: we have it on the books. Any undergraduates who have met the academic
requirements can sign up for the course in our program in ‘fire science’.
i Courses that require a high level of commitment
ii A course title with two meanings
iii The equal importance of two key issues
iv Applying a theory in an unexpected context
v The financial benefits of studying
vi A surprising course little
vii Different names for different outcomes
viii The possibility of attracting the wrong kind of student

Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 86
Naturally, the course is intended for prospective arson investigators, who can learn all
the tricks of the trade for detecting whether a fire was deliberately set, discovering
who did it, and establishing a chain of evidence for effective prosecution in a court of
law. But wouldn’t this also be the perfect course for prospective arsonists to sign up
for? My point is not to criticize academic programs in fire science: they are highly
welcome as part of the increasing professionalization of this and many other
occupations. However, it’s not unknown for a firefighter to torch a building. This
example suggests how dishonest and illegal behavior, with the help of higher
education, can creep into every aspect of public and business life.

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Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 87
I realized this anew when I was invited to speak before a class in marketing, which is
another of our degree programs. The regular instructor is a colleague who appreciates
the kind of ethical perspective. I can bring as a philosopher. There are endless ways I
could have approached this assignment, but I took my cue from the title of the course:
‘Principles of Marketing’. It made me think to ask the students, ‘Is marketing
principled?’ After all, a subject matter can have principles in the sense of being
codified, having rules, as with football or chess, without being principled in the sense
of being ethical. Many of the students immediately assumed that the answer to my
question about marketing principles was obvious: no. Just look at the ways in which
everything under the sun has been marketed; obviously it need to be done in a
principled (=ethical) fashion.

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Câu 88
Is that obvious? I made the suggestion, which may sound downright crazy in light of
the evidence, that perhaps marketing is by definition principled. My inspiration for
this judgement is the philosopher Immanuel Kant, who argued that any body of
knowledge consists of an end (or purpose) and a means.

Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 89
Let us apply both the terms ‘means’ and ‘end’ to marketing. The students have signed
up for a course in order to learn how to market effectively. But to what end? There
seem to be two main attitudes toward that question. One is that the answer is obvious:
the purpose of marketing is to sell things and to make money. The other attitude is that
the purpose of marketing is irrelevant: Each person comes to the program and course
with his or her own plans, and these need not even concern the acquisition of
marketing expertise as such. My proposal, which I believe would also be Kant’s, is
that neither of these attitudes captures the significance of the end to the means for
marketing. A field of knowledge or a professional endeavor is defined by both the
means and the end; hence both deserve scrutiny. Students need to study both how to
achieve X, and also what X is.

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Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 90
It is at this point that ‘Arson for Profit’ becomes supremely relevant. That course is
presumably all about means: how to detect and prosecute criminal activity. It is
therefore assumed that the end is good in an ethical sense. When I ask fire science
students to articulate the end, or purpose, of their field, they eventually generalize to
something like, ‘The safety and welfare of society,’ which seems right. As we have
seen, someone could use the very same knowledge of means to achieve a much less
noble end such as personal profit via destructive, dangerous, reckless activity. But we
would not call that firefighting. We have a separate word for it: arson. Similarly, if
you employed the ‘principles of marketing’ is an unprincipled way, you would not be
doing marketing. We have another term for it: fraud. Kant gives the example of a
doctor and a poisoner, who use the identical knowledge to achieve their divergent
ends. We would say that one is practicing medicine, the other, murder.

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Câu 91
When the US explorer and academic Hiram Bingham arrived in South America in
1911, he was ready for what was to be the greatest achievement of his life: the
exploration of the remote hinterland to the west of Cusco, the old capital of the Inca
empire in the Andes mountains of Peru. His goal was to locate the remains of a city
called Vitcos, the last capital of the Inca civilisation. Cusco lies on a high plateau at an
elevation of more than 3,000 metres, and Bingham’s plan was to descend from this
plateau along the valley of the Urubamba river, which takes a circuitous route down to
the Amazon and passes through an area of dramatic canyons and mountain ranges.
i Different accounts of the same journey
ii Bingham gains support
iii A common belief
iv The aim of the trip
v A dramatic description
vi A new route
vii Bingham publishes his theory
viii Bingham’s lack of enthusiasm

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Câu 92
When Bingham and his team set off down the Urubamba in late July, they had an
advantage over travelers who had preceded them: a track had recently been blasted
down the valley canyon to enable rubber to be brought up by mules from the jungle.
Almost all previous travelers had left the river at Ollantaytambo and taken a high pass
across the mountains to rejoin the river lower down, thereby cutting a substantial
corner, but also therefore never passing through the area around Machu Picchu.

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iii A common belief
vi A new route

Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 93
On 24 July they were a few days into their descent of the valley. The day began
slowly, with Bingham trying to arrange sufficient mules for the next stage of the trek.
His companions showed no interest in accompanying him up the nearby hill to see
some ruins that a local farmer, Melchor Arteaga, had told them about the night before.
The morning was dull and damp, and Bingham also seems to have been less than keen
on the prospect of climbing the hill. In his book Lost City of the Incas, he relates that
he made the ascent without having the least expectation that he would find anything at
the top.
iii A common belief
vi A new route

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Câu 94
Bingham writes about the approach in vivid style in his book. First, as he climbs up
the hill, he describes the ever-present possibility of deadly snakes, ‘capable of making
considerable springs when in pursuit of their prey’; not that he sees any. Then there’s
a sense of mounting discovery as he comes across great sweeps of terraces, then a
mausoleum, followed by monumental staircases and, finally, the grand ceremonial
buildings of Machu Picchu. ‘It seemed like an unbelievable dream … the sight held
me spellbound …’ he wrote.
iii A common belief
vi A new route

Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 95
We should remember, however, that Lost City of the Incas is a work of hindsight, not
written until 1948, many years after his journey. His journal entries of the time reveal
a much more gradual appreciation of his achievement. He spent the afternoon at the
ruins noting down the dimensions of some of the buildings, then descended and
rejoined his companions, to whom he seems to have said little about his discovery. At
this stage, Bingham didn’t realise the extent or the importance of the site, nor did he
realise what use he could make of the discovery.

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iii A common belief
vi A new route

Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 96
However, soon after returning it occurred to him that he could make a name for
himself from this discovery. When he came to write the National Geographic
magazine article that broke the story to the world in April 1913, he knew he had to
produce a big idea. He wondered whether it could have been the birthplace of the very
first Inca, Manco the Great, and whether it could also have been what chroniclers
described as ‘the last city of the Incas’. This term refers to Vilcabamba, the settlement
where the Incas had fled from Spanish invaders in the 1530s. Bingham made
desperate attempts to prove this belief for nearly 40 years. Sadly, his vision of the site
as both the beginning and end of the Inca civilisation, while a magnificent one, is
inaccurate. We now know that Vilcabamba actually lies 65 kilometres away in the
depths of the jungle.
iii A common belief
vi A new route

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Câu 97
One question that has perplexed visitors, historians and archaeologists alike ever since
Bingham, is why the site seems to have been abandoned before the Spanish Conquest.
There are no references to it by any of the Spanish chroniclers – and if they had
known of its existence so close to Cusco they would certainly have come in search of
gold. An idea which has gained wide acceptance over the past few years is that Machu
Picchu was a moya, a country estate built by an Inca emperor to escape the cold
winters of Cusco, where the elite could enjoy monumental architecture and
spectacular views. Furthermore, the particular architecture of Machu Picchu suggests
that it was constructed at the time of the greatest of all the Incas, the emperor
Pachacuti (c. 1438-71). By custom, Pachacuti’s descendants built other similar estates
for their own use, and so Machu Picchu would have been abandoned after his death,
some 50 years before the Spanish Conquest.
iii A common belief
vi A new route

Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 98
Forests of spiny cacti cover much of the uneven lave plains that separate the interior
of the Galápagos island of Isabela from the Pacific Ocean. With its five distinct
volcanoes, the island resembles a lunar landscape. Only the thick vegetation at the
skirt of the often cloud-covered peak of Sierra Negra offers respite from the barren
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terrain below. This inhospitable environment is home to the giant Galápagos tortoise.
Some time after the Galápagos’s birth, around five million years ago, the islands were
colonised by one or more tortoises from mainland South America. As these ancestral
tortoises settled on the individual islands, the different populations adapted to their
unique environments, giving rise to at least 14 different subspecies. Island life agreed
with them. In the absence of significant predators, they grew to become the largest and
longest-living tortoises on the planet, weighing more than 400 kilograms, occasionally
exceeding 1.8 metres in length and living for more than a century.
List of Headings
i The importance of getting the timing right
ii Young meets old
iii Developments to the disadvantage of tortoise populations
iv Planning a bigger idea
v Tortoises populate the islands
vi Carrying out a carefully prepared operation
vii Looking for a home for the islands’ tortoises
viii The start of the conservation project

Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 99
Before human arrival, the archipelago’s tortoises numbered in the hundreds of
thousands. From the 17th century onwards, pirates took a few on board for food, but
the arrival of whaling ships in the 1790s saw this exploitation grow exponentially.
Relatively immobile and capable of surviving for months without food or water, the
tortoises were taken on board these ships to act as food supplies during long ocean
passages. Sometimes, their bodies were processed into high-grade oil. In total, an
estimated 200,000 animals were taken from the archipelago before the 20th century.
This historical exploitation was then exacerbated when settlers came to the islands.
They hunted the tortoises and destroyed their habitat to clear land for agriculture.
They also introduced alien species – ranging from cattle, pigs, goats, rats and dogs to
plants and ants – that either prey on the eggs and young tortoises or damage or destroy
their habitat.
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ii Young meets old

Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 100
Today, only 11 of the original subspecies survive and of these, several are highly
endangered. In 1989, work began on a tortoise-breeding centre just outside the town
of Puerto Villamil on Isabela, dedicated to protecting the island’s tortoise populations.
The centre’s captive-breeding programme proved to be extremely successful, and it
eventually had to deal with an overpopulation problem.
ii Young meets old

Từ đồng nghĩa
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Câu 101
The problem was also a pressing one. Captive-bred tortoises can’t be reintroduced into
the wild until they’re at least five years old and weigh at least 4.5 kilograms, at which
point their size and weight – and their hardened shells – are sufficient to protect them
from predators. But if people wait too long after that point, the tortoises eventually
become too large to transport.
ii Young meets old

Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 102
For years, repatriation efforts were carried out in small numbers, with the tortoises
carried on the backs of men over weeks of long, treacherous hikes along narrow trails.
But in November 2010, the environmentalist and Galápagos National Park liaison
officer Godfrey Merlin, a visiting private motor yacht captain and a helicopter pilot
gathered around a table in a small café in Puerto Ayora on the island of Santa Cruz to
work out more ambitious reintroduction. The aim was to use a helicopter to move 300
of the breeding centre’s tortoises to various locations close to Sierra Negra.
ii Young meets old

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Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 103
This unprecedented effort was made possible by the owners of the 67-metre yacht
While Cloud, who provided the Galápagos National Park with free use of their
helicopter and its experienced pilot, as well as the logistical support of the yacht, its
captain and crew. Originally an air ambulance, the yacht’s helicopter has a rear double
door and a large internal space that’s well suited for cargo, so a custom crate was
designed to hold up to 33 tortoises with a total weight of about 150 kilograms. This
weight, together with that of the fuel, pilot and four crew, approached the helicopter’s
maximum payload, and there were times when it was clearly right on the edge of the
helicopter’s capabilities. During a period of three days, a group of volunteers from the
breeding centre worked around the clock to prepare the young tortoises for transport.
Meanwhile, park wardens, dropped off ahead of time in remote locations, cleared
landing sites within the thick brush, cacti and lava rocks.
ii Young meets old

Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 104
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Upon their release, the juvenile tortoises quickly spread out over their ancestral
territory, investigating their new surroundings and feeding on the vegetation.
Eventually, one tiny tortoise came across a fully grown giant who had been lumbering
around the island for around a hundred years. The two stood side by side, a powerful
symbol of the regeneration of an ancient species.
ii Young meets old

Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 105
After a number of serious failures of governance (that is, how they are managed at the
highest level), companies in Britain, as well as elsewhere, should consider radical
changes to their directors’ roles. It is clear that the role of a board director today is not
an easy one. Following the 2008 financial meltdown, which resulted in a deeper and
more prolonged period of economic downturn than anyone expected, the search for
explanations in the many post-mortems of the crisis has meant blame has been spread
far and wide. Governments, regulators, central banks and auditors have all been in the
frame. The role of bank directors and management and their widely publicised failures
have been extensively picked over and examined in reports, inquiries and
commentaries.
i Disputes over financial arrangements regarding senior managers
ii The impact on companies of being subjected to close examination
iii The possible need for fundamental change in every area of business
iv Many external bodies being held responsible for problems

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v The falling number of board members with broad enough experience
vi A risk that not all directors take part in solving major problems
vii Broads not looking far enough ahead
viii A proposal to change the way the board operates

Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 106
The knock-on effect of this scrutiny has been to make the governance of companies in
general an issue of intense public debate and has significantly increased the pressures
on, and the responsibilities of, directors. At the simplest and most practical level, the
time involved in fulfilling the demands of a board directorship has increased
significantly, calling into question the effectiveness of the classic model of corporate
governance by part-time, independent non-executive directors. Where once a board
schedule may have consisted of between eight and ten meetings a year, in many
companies the number of events requiring board input and decisions has dramatically
risen. Furthermore, the amount of reading and preparation required for each meeting is
increasing. Agendas can become overloaded and this can mean the time for
constructive debate must necessarily be restricted in favour of getting through the
business.

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Câu 107
Often, board business is devolved to committees in order to cope with the workload,
which may be more efficient but can mean that the board as a whole is less involved
in fully addressing some of the most important issues. It is not uncommon for the
audit committee meeting to last longer than the main board meeting itself. Process
may take the place of discussion and be at the expense of real collaboration, so that
boxes are ticked rather than issues tackled.

Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 108
A radical solution, which may work for some very large companies whose businesses
are extensive and complex, is the professional board, whose members would work up
to three or four days a week, supported by their own dedicated staff and advisers.
There are obvious risks to this and it would be important to establish clear guidelines
for such a board to ensure that it did not step on the toes of management by becoming
too engaged in the day-to-day running of the company. Problems of recruitment,
remuneration and independence could also arise and this structure would not be
appropriate for all companies. However, more professional and better-informed
boards would have been particularly appropriate for banks where the executives had
access to information that part-time non-executive directors lacked, leaving the latter
unable to comprehend or anticipate the 2008 crash.
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Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 109
One of the main criticisms of boards and their directors is that they do not focus
sufficiently on longer-term matters of strategy, sustainability and governance, but
instead concentrate too much on short-term financial metrics. Regulatory requirements
and the structure of the market encourage this behaviour. The tyranny of quarterly
reporting can distort board decision-making, as directors have to ‘make the numbers’
every four months to meet the insatiable appetite of the market for more date. This
serves to encourage the trading methodology of a certain kind of investor who moves
in and out of a stock without engaging in constructive dialogue with the company
about strategy or performance, and is simply seeking a short-term financial gain. This
effect has been made worse by the changing profile of investors due to the
globalisation of capital and the increasing use of automated trading systems.
Corporate culture adapts and management teams are largely incentivised to meet
financial goals.
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Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 110
Compensation for chief executives has become a combat zone where pitched battles
between investors, management and board members are fought, often behind closed
doors but increasingly frequently in the full glare of press attention. Many would
argue that this is in the interest of transparency and good governance as shareholders
use their muscle in the area of pay to pressure boards to remove underperforming
chief executives. Their powers to vote down executive remuneration policies
increased when binding votes came into force. The chair of the remuneration
committee can be an exposed and lonely role, as Alison Carnwath, chair of Barclays
Bank’s remuneration committee, found when she had to resign, having been roundly
criticised for trying to defend the enormous bonus to be paid to the chief executive;
the irony being that she was widely understood to have spoken out against it in the
privacy of the committee.

Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 111
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The financial crisis stimulated a debate about the role and purpose of the company and
a heightened awareness of corporate ethics. Trust in the corporation has been eroded
and academics such as Michael Sandel, in his thoughtful and bestselling book What
Money Can’t Buy, are questioning the morality of capitalism and the market
economy. Boards of companies in all sectors will need to widen their perspective to
encompass these issues and this may involve a realignment of corporate goals. We
live in challenging times.

Từ đồng nghĩa
Câu 112
We all know how it feels – it’s impossible to keep your mind on anything, time
stretches out, and all the things you could do seem equally unlikely to make you feel
better. But defining boredom so that it can be studied in the lab has proved difficult.
For a start, it can include a lot of other mental states, such as frustration, apathy,
depression and indifference. There isn’t even agreement over whether boredom is
always a low-energy, flat kind of emotion or whether feeling agitated and restless
counts as boredom, too. In his book, Boredom: A Lively History, Peter Toohey at the
University of Calgary, Canada, compares it to disgust – an emotion that motivates us
to stay away from certain situations. ‘If disgust protects humans from infection,
boredom may protect them from “infectious” social situations,’ he suggests.
i The productive outcomes that may result from boredom
ii What teachers can do to prevent boredom
iii A new explanation and a new cure for boredom
iv Problems with a scientific approach to boredom
v A potential danger arising from boredom

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vi Creating a system of classification for feelings of boredom
vii Age groups most affected by boredom
viii Identifying those most affected by boredom

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Câu 113
By asking people about their experiences of boredom, Thomas Goetz and his team at
the University of Konstanz in Germany have recently identified five distinct types:
indifferent, calibrating, searching, reactant and apathetic. These can be plotted on two
axes – one running left to right, which measures low to high arousal, and the other
from top to bottom, which measures how positive or negative the feeling is.
Intriguingly, Goetz has found that while people experience all kinds of boredom, they
tend to specialise in one. Of the five types, the most damaging is ‘reactant’ boredom
with its explosive combination of high arousal and negative emotion. The most useful
is what Goetz calls ‘indifferent’ boredom: someone isn’t engaged in anything
satisfying but still feels relaxed and calm. However, it remains to be seen whether
there are any character traits that predict the kind of boredom each of us might be
prone to.

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Câu 114
Psychologist Sandi Mann at the University of Central Lancashire, UK, goes further.
‘All emotions are there for a reason, including boredom,’ she says. Mann has found
that being bored makes us more creative. ‘We’re all afraid of being bored but in actual
fact it can lead to all kinds of amazing things,’ she says. In experiments published last
year, Mann found that people who had been made to feel bored by copying numbers
out of the phone book for 15 minutes came up with more creative ideas about how to
use a polystyrene cup than a control group. Mann concluded that a passive, boring
activity is best for creativity because it allows the mind to wander. In fact, she goes so
far as to suggest that we should seek out more boredom in our lives.

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Câu 115
Psychologist John Eastwood at York University in Toronto, Canada, isn’t convinced.
‘If you are in a state of mind-wandering you are not bored,’ he says. ‘In my view, by
definition boredom is an undesirable state.’ That doesn’t necessarily mean that it isn’t
adaptive, he adds. ‘Pain is adaptive – if we didn’t have physical pain, bad things
would happen to us. Does that mean that we should actively cause pain? No. But even
if boredom has evolved to help us survive, it can still be toxic if allowed to fester.’ For
Eastwood, the central feature of boredom is a failure to put our ‘attention system’ into
gear. This causes an inability to focus on anything, which makes time seem to go
painfully slowly. What’s more, your efforts to improve the situation can end up
making you feel worse. ‘People try to connect with the world and if they are not
successful there’s that frustration and irritability,’ he says. Perhaps most worryingly,
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says Eastwood, repeatedly failing to engage attention can lead to state where we don’t
know what to do any more, and no longer care.

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Câu 116
Eastwood’s team is now trying to explore why the attention system fails. It’s early
days but they think that at least some of it comes down to personality. Boredom
proneness has been linked with a variety of traits. People who are motivated by
pleasure seem to suffer particularly badly. Other personality traits, such as curiosity,
are associated with a high boredom threshold. More evidence that boredom has
detrimental effects comes from studies of people who are more or less prone to
boredom. It seems those who bore easily face poorer prospects in education, their
career and even life in general. But of course, boredom itself cannot kill – it’s the
things we do to deal with it that may put us in danger. What can we do to alleviate it
before it comes to that? Goetz’s group has one suggestion. Working with teenagers,
they found that those who ‘approach’ a boring situation – in other words, see that it’s
boring and get stuck in anyway – report less boredom than those who try to avoid it by
using snacks, TV or social media for distraction.

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Câu 117
Psychologist Francoise Wemelsfelder speculates that our over-connected lifestyles
might even be a new source of boredom. ‘In modern human society there is a lot of
overstimulation but still a lot of problems finding meaning,’ she says. So instead of
seeking yet more mental stimulation, perhaps we should leave our phones alone, and
use boredom to motivate us to engage with the world in a more meaningful way.

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IELTS NHÀN LÊ( 8.0 OVERALL, 8.

HƯỚNG DẪN PHƯƠNG PHÁP LÀM DẠNG MATCHING HEADINGS

i The areas and artifacts within the pyramid itself

ii A difficult task for those involved

iii A king who saved his people

iv A single certainty among other less definite facts

v An overview of the external buildings and areas

vi A pyramid design that others copied

vii An idea for changing the design of burial structures

viii An incredible experience despite the few remains

ix The answers to some unexpected questions

i The areas and artifacts within the pyramid itself

ii A difficult task for those involved

iii A king who saved his people

iv A single certainty among other less definite facts

v An overview of the external buildings and areas

vi A pyramid design that others copied

vii An idea for changing the design of burial structures

viii An incredible experience despite the few remains

ix The answers to some unexpected questions

i The areas and artefacts within the pyramid itself

ii A difficult task for those involved

iii A king who saved his people

iv A single certainty among other less definite facts

v An overview of the external buildings and areas

vi A pyramid design that others copied

vii An idea for changing the design of burial structures

viii An incredible experience despite the few remains

ix The answers to some unexpected questions

ii A difficult task for those involved

iii A king who saved his people

iv A single certainty among other less definite facts

v An overview of the external buildings and areas

vi A pyramid design that others copied

vii An idea for changing the design of burial structures

viii An incredible experience despite the few remains

ix The answers to some unexpected questions

ii A difficult task for those involved

iii A king who saved his people

iv A single certainty among other less definite facts

v An overview of the external buildings and areas

vi A pyramid design that others copied

vii An idea for changing the design of burial structures

viii An incredible experience despite the few remains

ii A difficult task for those involved

iii A king who saved his people

iv A single certainty among other less definite facts

v An overview of the external buildings and areas

vi A pyramid design that others copied

vii An idea for changing the design of burial structures

viii An incredible experience despite the few remains

ix The answers to some unexpected questions

i The areas and artefacts within the pyramid itself

ii A difficult task for those involved

iii A king who saved his people

iv A single certainty among other less definite facts

v An overview of the external buildings and areas

vi A pyramid design that others copied

vii An idea for changing the design of burial structures