MKEMCB3 - MKE3B21 Week 1 Balancing Lecture Slides 2023-07-21

Theory of Machines
MKEMCB3 / MKE3B21
Second semester 2023
Lecturer: Dr CR Bester
Office: B3 Lab 207
Tel (W): 011-559-4184
EMail: [email protected]
[email protected]
Assistant: Mr JG Swanepoel TBC

Learning activities
Lectures – in class on campus, attendance is compulsory
Tutorials – posted on Blackboard, do at home, discuss
solutions in tut classes on campus
Homework – self-study, loaded onto Blackboard
Practicals: Balancing experiment (group work), in lab, TBC
Semester assignment (individual), details will follow later
Tests - written on campus, dates TBD
3 semester tests, 2 best results will contribute to your
semester mark
Continuous assessment course. SEMESTER MARK IS FINAL

MARK. For mark allocation see Study Guide on Blackboard.
NO SEMESTER EXAM WILL BE WRITTEN IN THIS COURSE.
Lecture-, tutorial- and practical times
Lectures: Fridays 4th & 5th lecture periods, CLes310
Tutorials: Tuesdays 7th lecture period, CLes204
Practicals: Thursdays 7th to 10th periods, B3 Lab, TBC

Syllabus
1. Balancing of reciprocating mechanisms
2. Valve- and cam systems
3. Epicyclic gear systems
4. Crank effort and flywheel design
5. Vibration
6. Equivalent mass and moment of inertia
7. Gyroscopes
8. Servomechanisms
9. Mechatronics
10. Kinematics: Degrees of freedom (“DOFs”)*
11. Gear trains and chains
* Will probably not be presented in 2023 due to insufficient lecture periods

Lecture schedule
(provisional, depending on progress and UJ calendar)
2023-07-21 1. Balancing of Reciprocating Mechanisms, Lectures I & II

2023-07-28 2. Valve- and Cam Systems, Lectures I & II
2023-08-04 3. Epicyclic Gear Systems, Lectures I & II
2023-08-11 4. Crank Effort and Flywheel Design, Lectures I & II
2023-08-18 5. Vibration, Lectures I & II
2023-08-25 6. Vibration, Lectures III & IV
2023-09-01 7. Vibration, Lectures V & VI
2023-09-08 UJ closed – Spring recess
2023-09-15 8. Equivalent Mass and Moment of Inertia, Lectures I & II
2023-09-22 9. Gyroscopes, Lectures I & II
2023-09-29 10. Servomechanisms, Lectures I & II
2023-10-06 11. Mechatronics, Lectures I & II
2023-10-13 12. Kinematics
2023-10-20 13. Gear Trains & Chain Drives, Lectures I & II
Textbooks
Prescribed
• Hannah, J., & Stephens, R.C., “Mechanics of Machines – Advanced
Theory and Examples, SI Units,” 2nd Edition, Edward Arnold, London, 1972
(yours should be the same edition, but may be a later print)
Relatively cheap in comparison to other textbooks
Additional
• Budynas, R.G., & Nisbett, J.K., “Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering
Design,” 10th Edition in SI Units, McGraw-Hill Education, New York, 2015
• Hannah, J., & Stephens, R.C., “Mechanics of Machines – Elementary
Theory and Examples, SI Units,” 3rd Edition, Edward Arnold, London, 1974
• Norton, R.L., “Kinematics and Dynamics of Machinery,” 2nd Edition in SI
Units, McGraw-Hill Higher Education, Singapore, 2013
Balancing of reciprocating mechanisms
[Hannah & Stephens, “H&S”, 1972, Chapter 7]
Background on balancing
Principle of balancing
An unbalanced force (or moment) is cancelled by a force (or moment) of the

same magnitude and opposite direction. The forces may act in a plane
(i.e. 2-dimensional), or in space (i.e. 3-dimensional).
Figure 1.1 shows a vector of an “unbalance force” F, as well as the force vector
R required to balance it (the so-called equilibrant), acting in a plane.
Figure 1.2 shows unbalance force vectors with a common line of action, while
Figure 1.3 shows general unbalance force vectors without a common line of
action, acting in a plane.
(continued)
Figure 1.1: Unbalance- and balancing force vectors in a plane:

Resultant and equilibrant
(continued)
Figure 1.2: Unbalance force vectors with a common line of

action and balancing force vector, in a plane
(continued)
Figure 1.3: General unbalance force vectors without a common

line of action, and balancing force vector, in a plane
(continued)
Balancing of systems of rotating masses
Next, consider a mass m at a radial position r, rotating at a constant

angular velocity W in a plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation.
Tangential velocity of the mass is vq.
Due to centrifugal action, a radial unbalance force Fr acts on the mass.

The unbalance force is given by:
vq 2
Fr = m = m
(rW )
2
= mrW 2 (1.1)
r r
A rotating mass and its unbalance force are shown schematically in

Figure 1.4.
(continued)
Figure 1.4: Unbalance force of a mass rotating in a plane

(continued)
A system of masses rotating at a constant angular velocity W in a plane
perpendicular to the axis of rotation is shown in Figure 1.5, together with
the resulting unbalance force acting on each mass.
(continued)
Figure 1.5: System of masses rotating in a plane

(continued)
The xy-system of axes rotates at the same angular velocity W as the
system of masses. The angular displacement between the x-axis and
each mass is qi. The Cartesian (x- and y-) components of each
centrifugal force may be written as:
Fix = mi ri W 2 cosq i (1.2a)
(1.2b)
Each force vector is given in terms of its components as:
(1.3)
where and are unit vectors in the x- and y directions respectively.

(continued)
The equivalent unbalance force (resultant) acting on the system is the
vector sum of the unbalance forces acting on each mass.
The balance force required to cancel the equivalent unbalance force

(equilibrant) is given by:
(1.4)
which may be written in terms of its Cartesian components as:
(1.5)
The vector diagramme of the unbalance- and balance forces of the rotating
system in Figure 1.5 is shown in Figure 2.6. The force vectors are
connected nose-to-tail.
(continued)
This vector diagramme is known as a force polygon. The balance
force closes the polygon, indicating that the net force acting on the
balanced system is zero (a zero vector).
(continued)
Figure 1.6: Force polygon of a system of masses rotating in a

plane, with balance force
(continued)
The force polygon represents the forces acting on a system of masses

in a plane, rotating about an axis perpendicular to the plane
Force balancing is known as static balancing
Forces acting on rotating masses in different planes are discussed next.

The notes are taken from Hannah & Stephens [1972] and Hannah &
Stephens [1974]*
* Hannah, J., & Stephens, R.C., “Mechanics of Machines - Advanced theory and examples,”
2nd Edition, SI Units, Edward Arnold, London, 1972
* Hannah, J., & Stephens, R.C., “Mechanics of Machines - Elementary theory and examples,”
3rd Edition, SI Units, Juta / Arnold, London, 1974
(continued)
Balancing of out-of-plane forces and moments
• When forces in more than one plane act on a system, both force- and
moment balancing are required
• For moment balancing, the axial distances of the out-of-plane forces

(moment arms) have to be taken into account as well
• The following parameters determine the out-of-balance forces and

moments
▪ unbalance mass mi
▪ radial position ri of unbalance mass relative to axis of rotation
▪ axial position li of unbalance mass relative to a reference plane
(continued)
Notes
• The whole system rotates at W
• Balancing is done by the placing of additional masses in the system

to cancel the force- and moment unbalances
• As these masses rotate at the same angular velocity as the

unbalance masses, W may be ignored in the balancing of the system
• Hannah & Stephens’ textbooks use the symbol B for balancing mass
• Moment balancing is known as dynamic balancing

(continued)
The balancing of a system of 3 out-of-plane forces and moments, of
masses m1, m2 and m3, at radii r1, r2 and r3, and axial positions# l1, l2
and l3, respectively, is shown in Figure 1.7 [Hannah & Stephens,1974]*
Two masses are added to balance the system, i.e. B1 at an axial

position x from the reference plane of the rotating system, and at a
radius b1 from the axis of rotation, and B2 in the reference plane, i.e. at
x = 0, and at a radius b2 from the axis of rotation
An explanation of the balancing method follows after Figure 1.7
# relative to the reference plane at x = 0

(continued)
Figure 1.7: Moment- and force balancing of 3 out-of-plane masses

[Hannah & Stephens, 1974]*
(continued)
Explanation of the balancing method
Moments are calculated relative to the reference plane, x = 0 in this

case. Moment balancing is achieved by the placement of a balance
mass B1, at a radius b1 and an axial position x relative to the reference
plane, i.e. with a moment of B1b1x.
Force balancing is achieved by the addition of a balance mass B2, at a

radius b2 in the reference plane, i.e. with a force B2b2 (which has no
moment about the origin, as it is in the reference plane)
The closed (balanced-) force- and moment polygons of this system are
shown in Figures 1.8a and 1.8b respectively
B1b1x closes the moment polygon, while B2b2 closes the force polygon
(continued)
Figure 1.8 (a) Force- and (b) moment polygons of this example
[Hannah & Stephens, 1974]*
(continued)
Primary and secondary balance
Balancing of rotating mass systems was the aim of the previous sections of
this chapter.
In reciprocating mechanisms two types of unbalance forces are considered,

i.e. so-called primary- and secondary forces due to motion of the rotating-,
reciprocating- and connecting parts.
In this part of the course the aim is to study balancing of piston-crank

mechanisms connected by rods (connecting rods), typically found in
reciprocating internal combustion engines (“RICEs”).
Imbalance is caused by motion of the piston, crank and connecting rod.
Primary forces associated with reciprocating masses may be partially

balanced by masses rotating at N RPM (crankshaft rotational speed).
(continued)
Secondary forces associated with reciprocating masses must be
balanced by masses rotating at 2N RPM. This may require additional
balancing shafts.
Figure 1.9 [Pulkrabek, 2014]* shows a section through the cylinder of a

RICE, with a reciprocating piston and a rotating crank. (In the interest of
clarity some captions have been added by the lecturer).
The piston and crank are connected by a connecting rod, which

converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into rotation of the crank.
The reciprocating motion causes unbalance forces.
* Pulkrabek, W.W., “Engineering Fundamentals of the Internal Combustion Engine,” Pearson New
International Edition, Pearson Education, Edinburgh Gate, Harlow, Essex, England, 2014
(continued)
Figure 1.9: Section through the cylinder of a RICE, showing a

piston, crank and connecting rod [Pulkrabek, 2014]
(continued)
List of symbols used in Figure 1.9 and subsequent equations
TDC top dead centre

BDC bottom dead centre
S piston total travel, “stroke” [m or mm] *
r connecting rod length [m or mm]
a crank offset (= ½ S) [m or mm]
s piston position, relative to crank centre [m or mm] *
q crank angle, measured from TDC [ ]
n ratio of connecting rod length to crank offset [ ]
Vc clearance volume (V at TDC) [m3]
Vd displacement volume (V at BDC minus V at TDC) [m3]
* Note the difference between capital S and small s

(continued)
Approximate acceleration d2x/dt2 of the piston is given in terms of q by
(1.6)
where
(1.7a)
Ω = θሶ ≈ constant for the purpose of this courses balancing studies ∗ (1.7b)
x = distance of the piston from TDC
* Fluctuations in angular speed may be attenuated by a flywheel – to be discussed later in course

(continued)
Note that Hannah & Stephens textbooks use l for connecting rod length,
r for crank offset, w for (constant) angular velocity and f for acceleration:
d2 x cos 2 θ
f = 2 ≈ ω r cos θ +
2 (1.8)
dt l r
(continued)
For a reciprocating mass R, the approximate inertia force P, from
Newtons 2nd law, is given by
(1.9)
The primary inertia force reaches its extremes (maxima and minima)
twice per revolution, at
(1.10)
The secondary inertia force reaches its extremes four times per
revolution, at
(1.11)
Primary- and secondary force variations for one revolution are shown in
Figure 1.10
(continued)
Figure 1.10: Primary- & secondary force vs crank angle for a revolution
(continued)
Balancing dilemma
Both the primary- and secondary inertia forces are constant in direction
but vary in magnitude and cannot be completely balanced by a rotating
mass, on which the inertia force varies in direction but is constant in
magnitude
The primary force can be balanced by a balance mass B, as shown in

Figure 1.11 [Hannah & Stephens, 1972]*
B rotates at a radius b such that
(1.12)
Disadvantage
A force Bw2bsinq perpendicular to the balancing force is introduced
(continued)
Figure 1.11: Balancing of primary inertia force

(continued)
Main engine types
For the purpose of this course two main engine types are considered, i.e.
two-stroke engines and four-stroke engines. Both engine types may run
on petrol or diesel fuel, and both types may be charged (e.g.
turbocharged) or normally aspirated (“atmospheric”, “unblown”).
A stroke is considered to be the distance covered by the piston, from top

dead centre (“TDC”) to bottom dead centre (“BDC”), or vice versa. The
crankshaft rotates through an angle of 180° (p rad) during one stroke.
Although this is not a course on engine types, the important differences

between two- and four-stroke engines have to be pointed out here, as
they affect engine balancing. Figures 1.12a and 1.12b [Pulkrabek, 2014]
show the strokes in a 4-stroke cycle engine, while Figures 1.13a and
1.13b [Pulkrabek, 2014] show the strokes in a 2-stroke cycle engine.
(continued)
Figure 1.12a: Four-stroke cycle: Intake, compression, ignition

(continued)
Figure 1.12b: Four-stroke cycle: Expansion (power stroke), exhaust

(continued)
Figure 1.13a: Two-stroke cycle: Intake, compression, ignition

(continued)
Figure 1.13b: Two-stroke cycle: Power, exhaust, scavenge

(continued)
Two-stroke- and four-stroke engines differ in the number of strokes required
to complete a cycle. This affects the balancing, as follows:
In a four-stroke engine, four strokes are required to complete a cycle, i.e.

inlet, compression, combustion and exhaust. The crankshaft rotation
required for a four-stroke engine to complete a cycle is therefore 4 x 180°,
i.e. 720° (2 crankshaft revolutions).
In a two-stroke engine the abovementioned strokes are all completed within

only two strokes, instead of four. The crankshaft rotation required for a two-
stroke engine to complete a cycle is 2 x 180°, i.e. 360° (only one crankshaft
revolution). This is 50% of the rotation covered by a four-stroke engine
crankshaft to complete a cycle.
The angular position q between primary cranks of cylinders firing in

succession, in a two-stroke engine, is 50% of that of a four-stroke engine of
the same configuration. The same applies to secondary cranks.
(continued)
Example 1.1
Consider a 3-cylinder engine with sequential firing (1-2-3). Calculate the
angle q between the primary cranks of cylinder 1 and 2, and between
cylinders 2 and 3, of a four-stroke engine. Repeat the calculation for a
two-stroke engine.
Solution
Four-stroke engine
Two-stroke engine
(continued)
Example 1.1 (continued)
Figure 1.14: Angle q between primary cranks of a 3-cylinder engine

(continued)
Balancing Examples
1.2 Primary balancing example
Refreshment and preparation for practical experiments
1.3 Primary- and secondary balancing example: Inline engine

5-cylinder four-stroke inline engine with sequential firing order
(1-2-3-4-5)
1.4 Primary- and secondary balancing example: Inline engine

6-cylinder two-stroke inline engine with 1-5-3-6-2-4 firing order
Self-study (notes from Hannah & Stephens included)
(continued)
1.2 Primary balancing example
Hannah & Stephens [1974]* Chapter 7 Example 1
A rotating shaft carries four masses A, B, C and D, rigidly attached to it;

the mass centres are at 30 mm, 36 mm, 39 mm and 33 mm respectively
from the axis of rotation; A, C and D are 7,5 kg, 5 kg and 4 kg; the
axial distance between A and B is 400 mm and that between B and C is
500 mm; the eccentricities of A and C are at 90° to one another.
Find, for complete balance,

(a) the angles between A and D and between B and D
(b) the axial distance between the planes of revolution of C and D
(c) the mass B
(continued)
1.2 Primary balancing example (continued)
Figure 1.15: Axial distances between neighbouring masses

(continued)
Solution
The plane of B, Figure 1.15, is chosen as the reference plane since it

contains one of the unknown masses. Distances to the right of it are
taken as positive. Using the given data, Table 1.1 is compiled.
Table 1.1
NB: In Table 1.1 the unit of measurement of the radii is mm

In the rest of the example that follows it will be in m (the SI unit)
(continued)
Table 1.2: Moments about the plane of B (unknowns in red)
As the moment of mass B about the plane of B is zero, the only moment
that can close the moment polygon is that of mass D – to be determined
next
(continued)
Figure 1.16: Moment vector diagramme

(continued)
Moment balance
Using the theorem of Pythagoras gives
(continued)
The magnitude of the balancing moment 0,132(0,5 + x) is
The angle of D relative to C is
 0,0975 
q D = 90 + tan 
−1
 = 137,3
 0,09 
The moment polygon is shown in figure 1.17
From the polygon and the equation for qD, the angle of D relative to A is
47,3°
(continued)
Figure 1.17: Moment polygon: MD closes the polygon

(continued)
Table 1.3: Unbalance forces
Balancing: Vector sum of unbalance forces plus balance force is zero
F + R = 0
i
i
Equations of the sums of the vector components follow on the next slide
(continued)
The solutions of the above equations, i.e. mass B and qB are

*
The magnitude of force BrB is
The force polygon is shown in Figure 1.18
* Note that both the sine- and cosine terms are negative (3rd quadrant)
(continued)
Figure 1.18: Force polygon: BrB closes the polygon

(continued)
From the force polygon, the angle between D and B is the difference
between the angles from C to B and C to D, i.e.
Figure 1.19 shows the balanced masses and their axial- and radial
positions
Figure 1.20, from Hannah & Stephens [1974]*, shows the rotating
masses and the angles between them, in a flat plane (angles rounded)
(continued)
Figure 1.19: Axial- and radial positions of balanced rotating masses

(continued)
Figure 1.20: Rounded angles between masses, in a flat plane

(continued)
1.3 Primary- and secondary balancing example, inline engine
Hannah & Stephens [1972]* Chapter 7 Example 1 (slightly altered)
A four-stroke engine having five cylinders in line has successive cranks

144° apart, the distance between cylinder centre lines being 450 mm.
The reciprocating mass for each cylinder is 16 kg, the crank radius is
135 mm and the connecting rod length is 540 mm. The engine runs at
600 RPM.
Examine the engine for balance of primary and secondary forces and
couples.
NB: 1. Cylinders are numbered in sequence from the front of the engine
2. Transverse engines also have a “front”
2nd Edition, SI Units, Edward Arnold, London, 1972, pp. 163 – 164
(continued)
The textbook takes the crank of cylinder 1 as coinciding with the “line of
stroke” (i.e. axis of cylinder). The other cranks have then been placed in
the order 1-2-3-4-5* at 144° intervals (which corresponds to a 4-stroke
cycle of operation)#. The positions of the secondary cranks are obtained
by doubling the angle which each crank makes with the line of stroke†.
* This firing order, in sequence from front to back, is unusual except for
2- and 3-cylinder engines. Normally 5-cylinder engine firing order is
1-3-5-4-2 or 1-2-4-5-3 (the latter is the reverse of the former).
# For 2-stroke operation the cranks would be spaced at 72°.
† Physical interpretation is that the crank of cylinder 1 is at top-dead-

centre (“TDC”) while the other cylinders follow at 288° spacings in
sequence of numerical order (2-3-4-5).
(continued)
Figure 1.21: 5-cylinder 4-stroke example, primary- & secondary cranks

(continued)
Spacing x between cylinder centre lines is shown in Figure 1.22. This
spacing equals the distance between neighbouring connecting rods.
Figure 1.22: Cylinder centerline spacing (connecting rod spacing)

(continued)
Table1.4: Unbalance forces and moments

(continued)
Table 1.5: Primary forces (Riri from Table 1.4, blue column)
From Table 1.5 it can be seen that the sums of the components of the
primary forces are zero. The primary forces are therefore balanced.
(continued)
Table 1.6: Primary moments about the plane of mass 3
(Ririxi from Table 1.4, purple column)
From Table 1.6 it can be seen that the sums of the components of the
primary moments are nonzero. The primary moments are therefore
unbalanced.
(continued)
The primary moment vector diagramme is shown in Figure 1.23
Figure 1.23: Primary moment vector diagramme

(continued)
Using the theorem of Pythagoras gives the magnitude of the total
primary moment as
This is multiplied by w2 to get the primary unbalance moment in Nm

(continued)
The angle of the primary unbalance moment is
The moment polygon is shown in Figure 1.24 (not on the same scale as
Figure 1.23). The primary moment vectors are connected nose-to-tail.
(continued)
Figure 1.24: Primary moment polygon

(continued)
Table 1.7: Secondary forces (Riri from Table 1.4, blue column)
From Table 1.7 it can be seen that the secondary forces are balanced
The primary- and secondary forces are therefore balanced

(continued)
Table 1.8: Secondary moments about the plane of mass 3
(Ririxi from Table 1.4, purple column)
From Table 1.8 it can be seen that the secondary moments are
unbalanced
(continued)
The secondary moment vector diagramme is shown in Figure 1.25
Figure 1.25: Secondary moment vector diagramme

(continued)
Using the theorem of Pythagoras the magnitude of the total secondary
moment is obtained as
This is multiplied by w2/n to get the secondary unbalance moment in Nm

– see Equations (1.6) to (1.9)
(continued)
The angle of the secondary unbalance moment is
The secondary moment polygon is shown in Figure 1.26
The secondary moment vectors are connected nose-to-tail

(continued)
Figure 1.26: Secondary moment polygon

(continued)
Example 1.4
Self-study, from Hannah & Stephens [1972]*, Chapter 7 Example 2
Six-cylinder inline 2-stroke engine
1-5-3-6-2-4 firing order only
2nd Edition, SI Units, Edward Arnold, London, 1972, pp. 165 – 167
(continued)
Example 1.4, from Hannah & Stephens [1972] (continued)
(continued)
As it is a two-stroke engine, the primary cranks are spaced at

360°/6 =60° angular intervals
The secondary cranks are spaced at 720°/6 = 120° intervals
Hannah & Stephens* Figure 7.10, on the next slide, shows the primary-
and secondary cranks
2nd Edition, SI Units, Edward Arnold, London, 1972
(continued)
(continued)
(continued)
(continued)
Tutorial 1
Problem for Tuesday 25 July 2023
Balancing problem to be loaded onto Blackboard today 2023-07-21

(continued)
Homework assignment 1
For Friday 28 July 2023
Self-study H & S pp. 59 to 60 “Crank and connecting rod:

Analytical determination of velocity and acceleration”
Self-study H & S p. 162 Section 7.5 “Direct and reverse cranks”
Self-study H & S pp. 174 – 175 Example 6
END OF LECTURE

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Theory of Machines

Assistant: Mr JG Swanepoel TBC

Continuous assessment course. SEMESTER MARK IS FINAL

Lectures: Fridays 4th & 5th lecture periods, CLes310

Tutorials: Tuesdays 7th lecture period, CLes204

Practicals: Thursdays 7th to 10th periods, B3 Lab, TBC

* Will probably not be presented in 2023 due to insufficient lecture periods

2023-07-21 1. Balancing of Reciprocating Mechanisms, Lectures I & II

An unbalanced force (or moment) is cancelled by a force (or moment) of the

Figure 1.1: Unbalance- and balancing force vectors in a plane:

Figure 1.2: Unbalance force vectors with a common line of

Figure 1.3: General unbalance force vectors without a common

Next, consider a mass m at a radial position r, rotating at a constant

Due to centrifugal action, a radial unbalance force Fr acts on the mass.

A rotating mass and its unbalance force are shown schematically in

Figure 1.4: Unbalance force of a mass rotating in a plane

Figure 1.5: System of masses rotating in a plane

Fix = mi ri W 2 cosq i (1.2a)

Each force vector is given in terms of its components as:

where and are unit vectors in the x- and y directions respectively.

The balance force required to cancel the equivalent unbalance force

which may be written in terms of its Cartesian components as:

Figure 1.6: Force polygon of a system of masses rotating in a

The force polygon represents the forces acting on a system of masses

Force balancing is known as static balancing

Forces acting on rotating masses in different planes are discussed next.

• For moment balancing, the axial distances of the out-of-plane forces

• The following parameters determine the out-of-balance forces and

• The whole system rotates at W

• Balancing is done by the placing of additional masses in the system

• As these masses rotate at the same angular velocity as the

• Moment balancing is known as dynamic balancing

Two masses are added to balance the system, i.e. B1 at an axial

An explanation of the balancing method follows after Figure 1.7

# relative to the reference plane at x = 0

Figure 1.7: Moment- and force balancing of 3 out-of-plane masses

Moments are calculated relative to the reference plane, x = 0 in this

Force balancing is achieved by the addition of a balance mass B2, at a

In reciprocating mechanisms two types of unbalance forces are considered,

In this part of the course the aim is to study balancing of piston-crank

Imbalance is caused by motion of the piston, crank and connecting rod.

Primary forces associated with reciprocating masses may be partially

Figure 1.9 [Pulkrabek, 2014]* shows a section through the cylinder of a

The piston and crank are connected by a connecting rod, which

Figure 1.9: Section through the cylinder of a RICE, showing a

TDC top dead centre

* Note the difference between capital S and small s

Ω = θሶ ≈ constant for the purpose of this courses balancing studies ∗ (1.7b)

x = distance of the piston from TDC

* Fluctuations in angular speed may be attenuated by a flywheel – to be discussed later in course

The primary force can be balanced by a balance mass B, as shown in

B rotates at a radius b such that

Figure 1.11: Balancing of primary inertia force

A stroke is considered to be the distance covered by the piston, from top

Although this is not a course on engine types, the important differences

Figure 1.12a: Four-stroke cycle: Intake, compression, ignition

Figure 1.12b: Four-stroke cycle: Expansion (power stroke), exhaust

Figure 1.13a: Two-stroke cycle: Intake, compression, ignition

Figure 1.13b: Two-stroke cycle: Power, exhaust, scavenge

In a four-stroke engine, four strokes are required to complete a cycle, i.e.