ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

ACID- A hydrogen ion, (proton) donor.

BASE- A hydrogen ion, (proton) acceptor.
All acids produce hydrogen ions (H+) when is aqueous solution. The H+ ions are then donated
to the base if it is one of the reactants.
Eg.
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
H+(aq) + OH- (aq) H2O (l)

STRONG ACIDS
These are acids that completely ionise in water to form many hydrogen ions (H+).
Examples:
-Sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
-Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
-Phosphoric acid (H3PO4)
-Nitric acid (HNO3)

WEAK ACIDS
These are acids which partially ionise in water to form few H+ ions.
Examples:
-Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH)

CH3COOH (aq) CH3COO- (aq) + H+(aq)

(ethanoic acid) (ethanoate ions) (hydrogen ions)

-Carbonic acid (H2CO3)

-Methanoic acid (HCOOH)
-Citric acid
-Lactic acid

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ALKALIS
These are soluble bases i.e. bases which dissolve in water to form hydroxide ions (OH-). All
alkalis are bases but not all bases are alkalis.
Examples:
SOLUBLE BASES (ALKALIS) INSOLUBLE BASES
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) Iron (iii) oxide (Fe2O3)
Potassium hydroxide (KOH) Copper (ii) oxide (CuO)
Calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2] Lead (ii) Oxide (PbO)
Ammonia solution (NH4OH) Magnesium oxide (MgO)
Copper (ii) hydroxide [Cu(OH)2]

STRONG ALKALI
An alkali which completely ionises in water to form many hydroxide ions (OH-)
Examples:
-Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)
-Potassium hydroxide (KOH)
WEAK ALKALI
An alkali which partially ionises in water to give few hydroxide ions (OH-).
Eg.
-Ammonia solution/ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH)
STRENGTH AND CONCENTRATION
The strength of an acid tells you how easily it ionises (dissociates) to produce hydrogen ions.
The concentration of an acid indicates the proportions of water and acid present in aqueous
solution. Therefore a strong acid remains strong even when very dilute and a weak acid
remains weak even when very concentrated.
INDICATORS
A substance which shows different colours when exposed to alkaline or acidic conditions.
Examples:
INDICATOR COLOUR IN NEUTRAL COLOUR IN
ACID COLOR ALKALI
Litmus Red Purple blue
Phenolphthalein Colourless Colourless Pink
Methyl orange Red Orange yellow

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UNIVERSAL INDICATOR
This is another commonly used indicator. It shows different colours depending on the
strength of the solution added. It is usually used together with the pH scale. pH refers to a
measure of the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a solution.

-pH for strong acids is mainly 1-2 and for weak acids, it is 3-6. For weak alkalis, its 8-10 and
11-14 for strong alkalis.
SALTS
A salt is a compound formed when the hydrogen ion in an acid is replaced by a metal ion or
ammonium ion.
The following methods are used to prepare soluble salts.
1. Acid + alkali salt + water

2. Metal + acid salt + hydrogen gas

3. Metal carbonate + acid salt + carbon dioxide + water

4. Acid + insoluble base salt + water

SOLUBILITY RULES
All nitrates are soluble
All sulphates are soluble except LeBaCa i.e. Lead (ii) sulphate, Barium sulphate, calcium
sulphate.
All chlorides/Bromides/Iodides are soluble except LeSiMe i.e. Bromides, chlorides and
iodides of Lead, Silver and Mercury.
All carbonates are insoluble except those of group 1 and ammonium carbonates.
All hydroxides are insoluble except group 1, calcium hydroxide and ammonium hydroxides.
All oxides are insoluble except group 1 and calcium oxide (sparingly soluble)

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ACID + METAL SALT + HYDROGEN GAS

This method is used for preparation of salts of moderately reactive metals such as the
MAZIT metals (Mg, Al, Zn, Fe, Sn).
Examples:
(a) sulphuric acid + magnesium magnesium sulphate + hydrogen
H2SO4 (aq) + Mg(s) MgSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)

(b) zinc + hydrochloric acid zinc chloride + hydrogen gas

Zn (aq) + 2HCl (aq) ZnCl2 (aq) + H2(g)

ACID + ALKALI (SOLUBLE BASE) SALT + WATER

It is used for preparation of salts of very reactive metals such as sodium and potassium since
it is very dangerous to directly add these metals to acids. Therefore this problem is solved by
using the alkali which contains the very reactive metal.
Examples:
(a) hydrochloric acid + potassium hydroxide potassium chloride + water
HCl (aq) + KOH (aq) KCl (aq) + H2O (l)
(b) sodium hydroxide + sulphuric acid sodium sulphate + water
2NaOH (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) Na2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l)

ACID + CARBONATE SALT + WATER + CARBON DIOXIDE

The method can be used for preparation of any salt as long as the salt prepared is soluble.
Examples:
(a) calcium carbonate + hydrochloric acid calcium chloride + water + carbon dioxide
CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)

(b) sodium carbonate + sulphuric acid sodium sulphate + water + carbon dioxide
Na2CO3 (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) Na2SO4 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)

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ACID + INSOLUBLE BASE SALT + WATER

The method is used to prepare salts of unreactive metals such as Lead and Copper. Since it is
not possible to use a direct reaction of a metal with an acid, the acid is neutralised using a
particular metal oxide.
Examples:
copper (ii) oxide + sulphuric acid copper (ii) sulphate + water
CuO (s) + H2SO4 (aq) CuSO4 (aq) + H2O (l)
Soluble salts can then be purified by filtration and crystallisation. To obtain Copper (ii)
sulphate crystals, the following steps should be carried out:
Step 1
Add excess copper (ii) oxide to the warm acid solution and allow to react.
Step 2
Filter out the excess solid [unreacted copper (ii) oxide].
Step 3
The filtrate, copper (ii) sulphate, is gently heated in a water bath to evaporate excess water.
Step 4
The concentrated solution is allowed to cool for to form.
Step 5
Filter off the crystals, wash with a little distilled water and dry the crystals by pressing them
between the filter paper.

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 PREPARATION OF INSOLUBLE SALTS
Insoluble salts are prepared by a method called precipitation (sudden formation of a solid
when two solutions are mixed or when a gas is bubbled through a solution).
Eg: Preparation of lead (ii) iodide
lead (ii) nitrate + sodium iodide lead (ii) iodide + sodium nitrate
Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2NaI (aq) PbI2 (s) + 2NaNO3(aq)

REACTIONS OF BASES
1. Neutralisation reaction
2. Reactions with ammonium salts
Examples:
(a) NH4Cl (aq) + KOH (aq) KCl (aq) + NH3 (g) + H2O (l)
ammonium chloride + potassium hydroxide potassium chloride + ammonia gas + water

(b) ammonium sulphate + sodium hydroxide sodium sulphate + ammonia gas + water

(NH4)2SO4 (aq) + NaOH (aq) Na2SO4 (aq) + NH3 (g) + H2O(l)

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 TEST FOR GASES
GAS TEST RESULTS
Carbon dioxide gas (CO2) Bubble the gas through limewater -white precipitate of calcium carbonate
(solution turns milky)
Hydrogen gas (H2) Introduce a burning/lighted splint -goes off with a pop sound
to the gas
Ammonia (NH3) Introduce a damp red litmus paper -red litmus paper turns blue
Oxygen (O2) Introduce a glowing splint to the The splint relights
gas

APPLICATIONS OF ACID/BASE REACTIONS IN DAILY LIFE

A. Acidic soil
Farmers can spread powdered limestone (calcium carbonate), quick lime (CaO) or slaked
lime (calcium hydroxide) to the soil to neutralise it.

B. Toothpaste
It is alkaline and therefore helps to neutralise the acid (lactic acid) that causes tooth decay.

C. Indigestion
Excess hydrochloric acid in the stomach can be neutralised by anti-acids such as milk of
magnesia which contains insoluble magnesium hydroxide and indigestion remedies.

D. Treatment of stings
Bee stings are acidic, therefore ammonia solution or sodium hydrogencarbonate can be used
to ease the pain. Wasp stings are alkaline and can be neutralised with vinegar (ethanoic acid).

E. Baking powder
It contains sodium hydrogencarbonate and a weak acid. When water is added to the two (acid
+ carbonate), carbon dioxide gas produced makes the dough ‘rise’.

F. Acid rain
Burning of fossil fuels in industries gives out acidic sulphur dioxide gas which causes acid
rain. Limestone can be used to neutralise the gas before it leaves the chimneys.

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 OXIDES
Oxide-a compound made of oxygen and one other element.
EXAMPLES:
NON METAL OXIDES METAL OXIDES
Acidic oxides Neutral oxides Basic oxides Amphoteric oxides
Carbon dioxide Water Calcium oxide Zinc oxide
Sulphur dioxide Carbon monoxide Magnesium oxide Aluminium oxide
Sulphur trioxide Nitrogen monoxide Copper (ii) oxide Lead (ii) oxide
Nitrogen dioxide Potassium oxide
Phosphorus
pentoxide
Silicon (iv) oxide

There four types of oxides.

1. Acidic oxides
Non-metallic oxides which react with water for an acid.
Examples:
(a) carbon dioxide + water carbonic acid
CO2 (g) + H2 (g) H2CO3 (aq)

(b) sulphur dioxide + water sulphurous acid

SO2 (g) + H2O (l) H2SO3 (aq)

2. Neutral oxides
They are non-metallic oxides which have neither basic nor acidic properties.
Examples: H2O, CO, NO, N2O.
3. Basic oxides
These are metallic oxides which react with acids to form salt and water.
Eg: magnesium oxide + nitric acid magnesium nitrate + water
MgO (s) + 2HNO3 (aq) Mg(NO3)2 (aq) + H2O (l)
4. Amphoteric oxides
These are metallic oxides which react with both acids and bases to form salt and water. They
show both acidic and basic properties.
Examples: aluminium oxide, zinc oxide and lead (ii) oxide.

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 WATER OF CRYSTALLISATION
Crystals of some salts contain water of crystallisation, such salts are called hydrates.
Examples:
• Copper (ii) sulphate CuSO4.5H2O ---- blue
• Iron (ii) sulphate FeSO4.7H2O ---- green
• Sodium carbonate Na2CO3.10H2O ---- white
• Calcium sulphate CaSO4.2H2O ---- white
• Magnesium sulphate MgSO4.7H2O ---- white
• Cobalt (ii) chloride CoCl2.6H2O ---- pink
When crystals of the salts are heated gently, the water of crystallisation is given off (lost) and
the crystals become anhydrous.
TEST FOR IONS
Test for negative ions (anions)
NEGATIVE ION TEST TEST RESULT
Carbonate (CO32-) Add dilute hydrochloric acid to the Effervescence/fizzing because carbon
solid. dioxide gas is produced (test with
limewater)
Chloride, Cl- (in solution) Acidify solution with dilute nitric White precipitate of silver chloride
acid, then add aqueous silver nitrate. formed. Precipitate soluble in
ammonia solution.
Bromide, Br- (in solution) Acidify solution with dilute nitric Cream precipitate of silver bromide
acid, then add aqueous silver nitrate. formed. Slightly soluble in ammonia
solution.
Iodide, I- (in solution) Acidify solution with dilute nitric Yellow precipitate of silver iodide
acid, then add aqueous silver nitrate formed, insoluble in ammonia
OR acidify solution with dilute solution.
nitric acid then add lead nitrate
solution.
Sulphate, SO42- (in solution) Acidify solution with dilute White precipitate of barium sulphate
hydrochloric acid then barium formed.
chloride solution
OR Acidify solution with dilute
nitric acid, then add aqueous barium
nitrate solution.
Nitrate, NO3- (in solution) Make alkaline with sodium Ammonia gas given off (test with
hydroxide solution, then add damp red litmus paper)
aluminium foil (or Devarda’s alloy)
and warm carefully.

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 Test for positive ions (cations)
POSITIVE ION (in EFFECT OF ADDING SODIUM EFFECT OF ADDING
solution) HYDROXIDE SOLUTION AMMONIA SOLUTION
Ammonium (NH4+) Add sodium hydroxide solution and warm
carefully. -
Ammonia gas will be produced (test with
damp red litmus paper)
Copper (ii) (Cu2+) Light blue precipitate of copper (ii) Light blue precipitate, soluble in
hydroxide, insoluble in excess sodium excess ammonia giving a deep
hydroxide. blue solution.
Iron (ii) (Fe2+) Green precipitate of iron (ii) hydroxide, Green precipitate, insoluble in
insoluble in excess. excess.
Iron (iii) (Fe3+) Red-brown precipitate of iron (iii) Red-brown precipitate of iron (iii)
hydroxide, insoluble in excess. hydroxide, insoluble in excess.
Zinc (Zn2+) White precipitate of Zinc hydroxide, soluble White precipitate of Zinc
in excess giving a colourless solution. hydroxide, soluble in excess
giving a colourless solution.
Calcium (Ca2+) White precipitate of calcium hydroxide, No precipitate or slight precipitate
insoluble in excess.
Aluminium (Al3+) White precipitate of aluminium hydroxide, White precipitate insoluble in
soluble in excess giving a colourless excess.
solution.

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